Page 1 of 253 TWI Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course (DIS 2)
Training and Examination Services Granta Park, Great Abington Cambridge, CB1 6AL UK Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 2 of 253 Table of Contents TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.2U COURSE (DIS 2)........................................................................... 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................... 2 PREFACE................................................................................................................................................... 8 THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL ORGANISATION AND EXAMINATION.......................................................................................................................................... 8 1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)......................................... 8 2 TWI...................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Company Profile.................................................................................................................................. 8 2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................................................ 8 2.1.2 Non-profit Company ................................................................................................................. 8 2.1.3 Global Benefits.......................................................................................................................... 8 2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy .......................................................................................................... 9 3 TWI Certification Ltd................................................................................................................ 9 3.1 Certification Management Board......................................................................................................... 9 3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board..................................................................................................... 9 3.1.2 The Management Committees:................................................................................................ 10 4 CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors .................................................................... 12 4.1 Inspector Categories........................................................................................................................... 12 4.2 The CSWIP 3.2U Examination.......................................................................................................... 12 4.2.1 The Theory Examination......................................................................................................... 12 4.2.2 Practical Examination.............................................................................................................. 12 CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................................................. 15 INSPECTION METHODS AVAILABLE TO ASSESS UNDERWATER STRUCTURES......................................... 15 1 Visual Inspection..................................................................................................................... 15 2 Video....................................................................................................................................... 16 3 Photography............................................................................................................................ 16 4 Cathodic Potential Readings .................................................................................................. 16 5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 16 6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ....................................................................................... 16 7 Radiography............................................................................................................................ 17 8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD).......................................................................... 17 9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)........................................................ 17 10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) .................................................................. 17 11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ........................................................................................ 17 12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use ..................................................................... 18 13 Taking Measurements ............................................................................................................. 18 14 Linear Measurement ............................................................................................................... 19 14.1 Ruler ............................................................................................................................................. 19 14.2 Magnetic Tape.............................................................................................................................. 19 14.3 Flexible Tape Measures................................................................................................................ 19 14.4 Electronic Methods....................................................................................................................... 19 15 Circular Measurements........................................................................................................... 19 15.1 Callipers........................................................................................................................................ 19 15.2 Vernier Gauges............................................................................................................................. 20 15.3 Specialist Jigs ............................................................................................................................... 20 16 Angular Measurements ........................................................................................................... 20 16.1 Protractor ...................................................................................................................................... 20 16.2 Pendulum Gauges ......................................................................................................................... 20 17 Dents and Deformations ......................................................................................................... 20 17.1 Profile Gauges .............................................................................................................................. 20 17.2 Pit Gauge ...................................................................................................................................... 21 17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge ............................................................................... 21 17.4 Casts ............................................................................................................................................. 22 17.5 Straight Edge ................................................................................................................................ 22 CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................................. 25 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 3 of 253 CORROSION............................................................................................................................................ 25 1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion ...................................................................................... 25 2 The Corrosion Process ........................................................................................................... 26 2.1 The Anodic Reaction ......................................................................................................................... 27 2.2 The Cathodic Reaction....................................................................................................................... 28 2.3 Seawater Corrosion............................................................................................................................ 30 2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion............................................................................................... 30 3 Electrical Theory .................................................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................. 35 TYPES OF CORROSION............................................................................................................................ 35 1 Corrosion Cells....................................................................................................................... 35 2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ............................................................................................ 35 2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series...................................................................................................... 35 3 Concentration Cell Corrosion ................................................................................................ 38 4 Pitting...................................................................................................................................... 39 5 Inter-granular Corrosion........................................................................................................ 42 6 Grain Boundary Corrosion..................................................................................................... 43 7 Stress Corrosion Cracking...................................................................................................... 44 8 Fretting Corrosion.................................................................................................................. 45 9 Erosion Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 47 10 Corrosion Fatigue................................................................................................................... 48 11 Biological Corrosion .............................................................................................................. 49 CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................................. 52 FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES.............................................................................................. 52 1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate............................................................................................ 52 2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates................................................................. 53 2.1 Temperature....................................................................................................................................... 53 2.2 Water Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................ 54 2.3 The pH Value of the Water ................................................................................................................ 55 CHAPTER 5............................................................................................................................................. 59 CORROSION PROTECTION....................................................................................................................... 59 1 Corrosion Protection .............................................................................................................. 59 2 Cathodic Protection................................................................................................................ 60 2.1 Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method ......................................................................... 61 2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems ................................................ 62 2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method............................................................................... 62 2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems............................................................. 64 2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes.............................................................................................. 67 3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure ................................................................................. 68 3.1 Paints ................................................................................................................................................. 68 4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) .................................................................................. 70 4.1 Anodic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................................... 71 4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors............................................................................................................................. 71 4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors ......................................................................................................................... 72 5 Corrosion Protection by Design ............................................................................................. 72 6 Anodic Protection ................................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER 6............................................................................................................................................. 75 CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING................................................................................................. 75 1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection ........................................................................................... 75 1.1 Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................... 75 2 Cathode Potential Measurement............................................................................................. 76 2.1 High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE).................................................................................................... 76 2.2 CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes.................................................. 77 3 Current Density Measurements .............................................................................................. 78 4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters................................................................. 79 4.1 Necessary Equipment......................................................................................................................... 79 4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 80 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 4 of 253 4.2.1 Calibration of the Meter .......................................................................................................... 81 4.2.2 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer ............................................................................................ 81 4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter ................................................................................................. 81 4.4 Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes ......................................................................................... 82 5 Operating Procedures............................................................................................................. 82 5.1 Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl ..................................................................... 83 CHAPTER 7............................................................................................................................................. 86 WELDING AND WELDING DEFECTS........................................................................................................ 86 1 Joining Metal Components ..................................................................................................... 86 2 Fabricating Offshore Structures ............................................................................................. 86 3 Welding Processes .................................................................................................................. 86 3.1 Flux Shielded Arc Welding................................................................................................................ 87 4 Types of Welded Joint ............................................................................................................. 88 4.1 The Butt Joint..................................................................................................................................... 88 4.2 T Joint ............................................................................................................................................. 88 4.3 Lap Joint ............................................................................................................................................ 88 4.4 Corner Joint ....................................................................................................................................... 89 4.5 Cruciform Joint .................................................................................................................................. 89 5 Types of Weld.......................................................................................................................... 90 6 Welding Metallurgy ................................................................................................................ 91 6.1 Further Considerations for Weld Control........................................................................................... 93 7 Welding Terms ........................................................................................................................ 94 7.1 Plate Preparation Terms..................................................................................................................... 94 7.2 Terms Defining Weld Features .......................................................................................................... 95 7.3 Welding Process Terminology........................................................................................................... 97 7.4 Welded Nodes and Nozzles ............................................................................................................... 98 8 Weld Defect Terminology........................................................................................................ 99 8.1 Cracks .............................................................................................................................................. 100 8.2 Cavities ............................................................................................................................................ 101 8.3 Solid Inclusions................................................................................................................................ 101 8.4 Lack of Fusion and Penetration........................................................................................................ 102 8.5 Imperfect Shape ............................................................................................................................... 103 8.6 Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................................. 104 9 Defect Categories and Reporting.......................................................................................... 106 9.1 Reporting Defects in Welds ............................................................................................................. 106 9.2 Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters......................................................................................... 106 9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge............................................................................... 107 9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge .................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER 8........................................................................................................................................... 110 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION .................................................................................................................... 110 1 Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................ 110 2 Producing Ultrasound .......................................................................................................... 110 2.1 What Is Ultrasonic?.......................................................................................................................... 110 2.2 Frequency of the Wave .................................................................................................................... 112 2.3 Speed of the Wave ........................................................................................................................... 114 2.4 Types of Ultrasonic Wave................................................................................................................ 114 2.4.1 Waves That Propagate Through Solids ................................................................................. 114 2.4.2 Surface Waves....................................................................................................................... 116 3 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves................................................................................................ 117 4 Ultrasonic Wavelength.......................................................................................................... 118 5 Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials.......................................................... 120 5.1 Acoustic Impedance (Z) ................................................................................................................... 120 5.2 Acoustic Attenuation ....................................................................................................................... 120 5.3 The Decibel System......................................................................................................................... 120 5.4 The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave ...................................................................... 123 5.4.1 Law of Reflection.................................................................................................................. 123 5.4.2 Law of Refraction.................................................................................................................. 124 6 Test Frequency...................................................................................................................... 130 7 Ultrasonic Transducers......................................................................................................... 130 7.1 Types of Transducers (Probes)......................................................................................................... 132 7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes ............................................................................................................ 132 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 5 of 253 7.1.2 Twin Crystal Probes .............................................................................................................. 133 7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes..................................................................................... 133 7.1.4 Angle Probes ......................................................................................................................... 133 7.2 Probe Selection ................................................................................................................................ 134 8 Couplant................................................................................................................................ 134 9 The Ultrasonic Beam ............................................................................................................ 135 9.1 The Dead Zone................................................................................................................................. 135 9.2 The Near Zone ................................................................................................................................. 135 9.3 The Far Zone.................................................................................................................................... 136 10 Principles of Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................................................... 137 11 Ultrasonic Test Systems ........................................................................................................ 138 11.1 The Flaw Detector ...................................................................................................................... 139 11.2 A-scan Flaw Detector Controls................................................................................................... 141 11.2.1 A-scan Display ...................................................................................................................... 142 12 A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement.................................................................. 143 12.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks .............................................................................................. 143 12.1.1 Reference Block .................................................................................................................... 143 12.1.2 Calibration Block .................................................................................................................. 143 12.2 Pre-calibration Checks................................................................................................................ 144 12.2.1 CRT Display.......................................................................................................................... 144 12.2.2 Time Base Linearity .............................................................................................................. 145 12.2.3 Linearity of Amplification..................................................................................................... 145 12.3 Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness ............................................................................ 145 12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity ................................................................................................................. 146 12.3.2 Setting Resolution ................................................................................................................. 147 13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations................................................................ 147 13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained.............................................................................................. 147 13.2 Lamination Plotting .................................................................................................................... 148 14 Digital Thickness Meters ...................................................................................................... 149 14.1 Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings ..................................................................... 150 14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM...................................................................... 152 15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings ............................................................................... 154 16 The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes .............................................................................. 155 17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment ................................................................................... 155 CHAPTER 9........................................................................................................................................... 158 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION ....................................................................................................... 158 1 History of Magnetism............................................................................................................ 158 2 Types of Magnetism .............................................................................................................. 158 3 Theory of Magnetism ............................................................................................................ 159 3.1 Polarity............................................................................................................................................. 161 3.2 Magnetic Field................................................................................................................................. 162 3.2.1 Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force ..................................................................... 162 4 Flux Density (B).................................................................................................................... 164 4.1 Remanence or Residual Magnetism................................................................................................. 168 4.2 Retentivity........................................................................................................................................ 169 4.3 Permeability () ............................................................................................................................... 169 4.4 Coercive Force................................................................................................................................. 169 4.5 Reluctance........................................................................................................................................ 169 4.6 Demagnetising ................................................................................................................................. 170 4.6.1 Measuring the Residual Field................................................................................................ 170 4.7 AC Aperture Coil............................................................................................................................. 172 4.8 Reversing DC Aperture Coil............................................................................................................ 173 4.9 AC Electromagnets .......................................................................................................................... 173 4.10 Other Methods to Demagnetise .................................................................................................. 174 5 Producing Magnetic Fields................................................................................................... 174 5.1 Magnetisation................................................................................................................................... 174 5.1.1 Use of Permanent Magnets.................................................................................................... 174 5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets.................................................................... 175 5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets......................................................... 176 5.2 Electromagnet (or Yoke) ............................................................................................................... 177 5.2.1 Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets........................................................................... 177 5.2.2 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 177 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 6 of 253 5.2.3 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 178 5.3 Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece ........................................................ 178 5.3.1 Alternating Current................................................................................................................ 179 5.3.2 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 180 5.3.3 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 180 5.4 Induced Magnetism Using a Coil..................................................................................................... 180 5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil ............................................................................................................... 181 5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil .............................................................................................................. 182 5.4.3 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 186 5.4.4 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 186 5.5 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques....................................................................... 186 5.5.1 Continuous Magnetisation..................................................................................................... 186 5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation ......................................................................................................... 187 6 How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field....................................................... 187 7 Detection of the Magnetic Field............................................................................................ 188 7.1 Burmah Castrol Strips...................................................................................................................... 189 7.2 Berthold Penetrameter ..................................................................................................................... 189 7.3 Gauss Meter ..................................................................................................................................... 190 8 Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage) ........................................... 191 8.1 Visual Detection .............................................................................................................................. 191 8.1.1 Ink Properties ........................................................................................................................ 191 8.1.2 Ink Colours Used Underwater ............................................................................................... 192 8.2 Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 .................................................................................. 192 8.2.1 Settling Test........................................................................................................................... 192 8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks .................................................................................................................... 193 8.2.3 Non-fluorescent Inks ............................................................................................................. 193 8.2.4 Carrier Fluid.......................................................................................................................... 193 9 Lighting and Viewing Conditions.......................................................................................... 193 9.1 Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks) ................................................................... 194 9.2 Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks .................................................. 194 9.2.1 Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light ....................................................................... 194 9.3 Testing the Ultraviolet Light............................................................................................................ 194 9.3.1 Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure ........................................................................................... 195 10 Cleaning Standard ................................................................................................................ 196 11 Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI......................................................... 196 12 MPI Test Procedure.............................................................................................................. 199 13 Interpretation of Indications ................................................................................................. 200 14 Reporting Indications............................................................................................................ 201 15 Recording Indications........................................................................................................... 202 15.1 Ultraviolet Photography.............................................................................................................. 202 15.2 Cast............................................................................................................................................. 203 15.3 Foil Packets (Magfoil) ............................................................................................................. 203 15.4 Video .......................................................................................................................................... 203 15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer........................................................................................................... 203 16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity ......................................................................................... 203 16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast.......................................................................................................... 204 16.1.1 Surface Condition (1) ............................................................................................................ 204 16.1.2 Lighting (2) ........................................................................................................................... 204 16.1.3 Ink Condition (3) ................................................................................................................... 205 16.1.4 Field Strength (4) .................................................................................................................. 205 16.2 Factors Affecting Contrast.......................................................................................................... 205 16.2.1 Ink Condition (5) ................................................................................................................... 205 16.2.2 Geometry of the Work Piece (6)............................................................................................ 205 16.2.3 Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7) ................................................................... 205 17 Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI................................................ 205 17.1 Glossary...................................................................................................................................... 205 17.2 MPI Standards ............................................................................................................................ 207 CHAPTER 10......................................................................................................................................... 210 CLEANING FOR INSPECTION AND PROFILE GRINDING .......................................................................... 210 1 General Comments................................................................................................................ 210 1.1 HP Water Jets................................................................................................................................... 210 1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice .................................................................. 211 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Table of Contents Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 7 of 253 1.3 Management of any Injury............................................................................................................... 212 2 Standard of Surface Finish ................................................................................................... 212 3 Area to Be Cleaned ............................................................................................................... 213 4 Profile Grinding.................................................................................................................... 213 4.1 Profile Grinding............................................................................................................... 214 CHAPTER 11......................................................................................................................................... 218 OTHER NDT METHODS USED OFFSHORE ............................................................................................ 218 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 218 2 Radiography.......................................................................................................................... 218 3 Production of Radiation........................................................................................................ 219 3.1 X-ray Production.............................................................................................................................. 219 4 Production of Rays ............................................................................................................. 219 4.1 Safety............................................................................................................................................... 222 5 How the Method Works......................................................................................................... 222 5.1 Radiograph Quality.......................................................................................................................... 224 6 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)...................................................... 224 6.1 How the Method Works................................................................................................................... 225 7 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)........................................................................ 228 7.1 How the Method Works................................................................................................................... 228 8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ................................................................ 229 8.1 How the Method Works................................................................................................................... 229 8.2 Application of the Technique........................................................................................................... 230 9 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ...................................................................................... 231 9.1 Radiographic FMD....................................................................................................................... 231 10 Ultrasonic FMD.................................................................................................................... 232 11 General Point for all FMD Readings.................................................................................... 233 APPENDIX 1.......................................................................................................................................... 236 EXTRACT OF OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY REPORT OTH 84 206.............................................................. 236 Category A (Defects) ...................................................................................................................... 236 Category B (Areas of Concern) ...................................................................................................... 238 Category C (Blemishes).................................................................................................................. 242 General Concrete Terms ................................................................................................................ 249 Reporting.................................................................................................................................................... 250 Weathering ..................................................................................................................................... 250
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Preface Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 8 of 253 PREFACE The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel Organisation and Examination 1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP) CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Governments Board of Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI). 2 TWI Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation for TWI Certification. 2.1 Company Profile TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at Great Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies (surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through - Information Advice and technology transfer Consultancy and project support Contract R&D Training and qualification Personal membership 2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and composites. 2.1.2 Non-profit Company TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned by its Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is internationally renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to implement established or advanced joining technology or to solve problems arising at any stage - from initial design, materials selection, production and quality assurance, through to service performance and repair. 2.1.3 Global Benefits Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of joining technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and organisations - Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course The CSWIP Scheme Organisation and Examination Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 9 of 253 representing virtually all sectors of manufacturing industry from over 60 countries around the globe - benefit from TWI services. 2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy TWI undertakes contract R & D in confidence for both industry and governments. As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams able to help solve problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will send its specialists anywhere in the world at short notice on troubleshooting missions. 3 TWI Certification Ltd This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993. 3.1 Certification Management Board The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification Ltd is the Certification Management Board Professional Board of TWI Certification Management Board (TWI Certification Ltd) Membership, Registration & Education Committee Membership, Registration & Education Committee CSWIP Welding Specialists & Practitioners Management Committee CSWIP Plastics Welders Certification Management Committee Welding Fabricator Certification Management Committee Certification Scheme for Welder Training Organisations CSWIP In-Service Inspection Management Committee 3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board Thus the Certification Management Board: Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with the requirements of the industries served by the scheme Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Preface Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 10 of 253 In turn, appoints specialist Management Committees to oversee specific parts of the scheme. The Certification Management Board comprises 12 representatives of industry and other parties with a valid interest in the certification schemes, for example, fabricators, client organisations, design authorities and training associations. This ensures that the certification schemes truly reflect the needs of industry. 3.1.2 The Management Committees: Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that the examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of industry Discuss new certification ideas. It can therefore be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation. The scope of CSWIP includes Welding Inspectors, Welding Supervisors, Welding Instructors and Underwater Inspection personnel Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course The CSWIP Scheme Organisation and Examination Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 11 of 253
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Preface Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 12 of 253
4 CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors Requirement documents: all CSWIP examination requirements documents are available free of charge and may be downloaded from the website www.cswip.com. 4.1 Inspector Categories There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector scheme: 3.1U Diver Inspector 3.2U Diver Inspector 3.3U ROV Inspector 3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller (This is an approved course for preparation for the 3.2U examination.) 4.2 The CSWIP 3.2U Examination The examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical examination and a practical assessment. 4.2.1 The Theory Examination This consists of 25 multi-choice questions, which will include questions on concrete and 6 questions requiring longer written answers, one from each of six sections. 4.2.1.1 The Written Sections: Technique preparation Corrosion protection Magnetic particle inspection Ultrasonic testing Visual inspection, photography and CCTV NDT methods (general knowledge) 4.2.2 Practical Examination This will consist of the following parts: - Magnetic particle assessment of three ferritic steel welds using various magnetisation techniques with fluorescent inks and ultraviolet light Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course The CSWIP Scheme Organisation and Examination Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 13 of 253 Practical weld toe grinding of a 150mm length of weld to a specific requirement Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Preface Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 14 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 15 of 253 CHAPTER 1 Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures 1 Visual Inspection There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of advantages over other methods. Table 1.1 refers Advantages of Visual Inspection Over Other Methods Advantages Disadvantages With a diver inspector on the job good vision is possible There is no record of an eyeball inspection The object can be viewed in three dimensions The brain interprets what is seen and this interpretation affects how any object is seen The object is viewed in colour Only those indications that can be seen on the surface of the component being inspected can be assessed This method is always available Poor underwater visibility may adversely affect the results With a diver inspector the sense of touch may assist interpretation Divers are constrained by decompression considerations which may curtail or inhibit the inspection when diver inspectors are used A commentary that contains the inspectors impressions and interpretation of the visual evidence can be given The problem of interpretation may impact on the results of the inspection. An experienced inspector will acquire better information than one who lacks experience No specialised equipment is required. Only the diver inspector need be deployed to the worksite
Table 1.1 A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern that may impact on the quality of these other methods. To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are contained in paragraph 13. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 16 of 253 2 Video This method is used extensively to record the results of a visual inspection when diver inspectors have been deployed. When ROVs are employed to complete inspections this is the prime method of inspection. The advantages and disadvantages of this method are summed up in Table 1.2. Advantages Disadvantages Video shows real time pictures Cannot freeze fast movement Video recording is a permanent record Poor resolution compared to photography Additional information can be included in the picture, CP readings, depth etc. Gives a two dimensional image Instant playback When diver deployed can cause diver fatigue Safety When diver hat-mounted deployed parallax must be considered A commentary can be given Table 1.2 3 Photography This method of recording inspection information is widely used. With digital cameras photographs can be obtained in real time and be viewed immediately. Stereo-photography is also possible as is photogrammetry. 4 Cathodic Potential Readings This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 4. It should be remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other inspection or action needs to be taken. 5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 8. Ultrasonic digital thickness meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate although this application of the method is much less widely used. 6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) This technique is explained in Chapter 9. It is widely used to inspect for fine surface breaking and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic materials. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 17 of 253
7 Radiography This method is explained in Chapter 11. The method is widely used in pipeline survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised applications. 8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD) This method is explained in Chapter 11. It is not widely used but can be deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not used as a detection method. 9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT) These methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. These methods are being more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made at the time of the inspection 10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is a variation of the EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore. 11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is used to assess the integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However, when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 18 of 253
12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use Method Widely Used Frequency Uses Visual Inspection Yes Daily GVI, CVI, Initial assessment before other methods are used Video Yes Daily Video surveys and recording visual inspections Photography Yes Daily Recording Visual and Video inspections CP Readings Yes Very frequently Assessment of CP system coverage Ultrasonic DTM Yes Often Assessment of wall thickness in conjunction with CP Readings Ultrasonic A-scan No Occasionally Specialised tasks associated with welds MPI Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and nominated nodes Radiography No Occasionally Specialised tasks associated with welds ACPD No Seldom Sizing known defects, possibly recorded on the damage register EMD Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and nominated nodes ACFM Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and nominated nodes FMD Yes Very often Annual surveys for structural integrity 13 Taking Measurements All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others, especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be accurately assessed. The major reasons for taking measurements are: - Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 19 of 253 To provide dimensions that are as accurate as possible To locate the defect in relation to a known datum To provide a measured record that may be used later for relocating the defect To provide measurements so that any repair components can be manufactured A measurement may be taken directly or by comparison. Some methods are outlined below. 14 Linear Measurement Straight measurements between two points may be taken with traditional means or electronically. 14.1 Ruler An engineers ruler may be used for measurements up to 1m. The accuracy for this method will be 0.5mm. 14.2 Magnetic Tape Magnetic tapes up to 3m in length are used for measuring welds. The accuracy will be 1.0mm in 1m. 14.3 Flexible Tape Measures Flexible tape measures may be fibre or steel and are available up to 100m in length although 30m tapes are the most common in use offshore. The accuracy will be 2mm over 5m. 14.4 Electronic Methods Both sonar and infrared methods for ranging and measuring are employed for taking measurements up to 1000m (for area mapping). The accuracy will depend on the actual method but infrared methods may achieve 1mm over 5m. Laser and infrared measuring Both laser and infrared measuring techniques are becoming widely employed underwater. This is especially true with ROV based inspections 15 Circular Measurements There are several means of taking circular measurements one of which is a comparison method. 15.1 Callipers This method is an indirect method of measuring and therefore a comparison. The diameter of the item is accurately taken by either the inside or outside callipers and the measurement is taken between the points of the calliper legs. Measurements up to 1m in diameter may be taken. The accuracy depends on the ruler being used but will be 0.5mm usually.
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 20 of 253 15.2 Vernier Gauges Vernier gauges are used to take both inside and outside diameters up to 300mm. The accuracy is 0.1mm. 15.3 Specialist Jigs Ovality gauges are made up for specialist applications and can measure up to 1m in diameter. They are usually a comparison method and accuracy will be 2mm. 16 Angular Measurements Angular measurements may be taken by a number of methods. 16.1 Protractor These are available in sizes up to 1m. They may take vertical or horizontal angular measurements and the accuracy will be 0.5 o . 16.2 Pendulum Gauges These are also called inclinometers and are a form of vertical protractor. Figure 1.3 refers. Figure 1.3 Pendulum Gauge 17 Dents and Deformations Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or electronically. 17.1 Profile Gauges If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They are a comparison method and the accuracy will be 0.5mm. Care must be taken not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See Figure 1.4
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Figure 1.4 Profile Gauge 17.2 Pit Gauge Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that consists of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read off from the calibrated part. 17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take angular and depth measurements. It can effectively measure: Pit depth Misalignment Weld leg length Weld throat thickness Excessive weld metal Undercut All the weld profile angles and measurements The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 1.5 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 22 of 253
Figure 1.5 LAM Gauge 17.4 Casts A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape. Several materials may be used. Plasticine Putty Two part compounds (e.g. Microset) There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting materials: - The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface The cast is a negative image The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two part compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould easily. A hot water box may be required 17.5 Straight Edge This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight edge over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small increments obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be 0.5mm. Taut Wire This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over the deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments obtain the profile. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 23 of 253 The wire should be set up in two planes at 90 o to each other to ensure that any out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of 0.5mm may be achieved with care. Figure 1.6 illustrates the method.
Figure 1.6 Taut Wire
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Bibliography A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors L K Porter HMSO Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 2 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 25 of 253 CHAPTER 2 Corrosion 1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure. The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation and in concrete weathering. Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three consequences: The removal of the metal The formation of an oxide The formation of another chemical compound This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state) of the system is considered. The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they must follow a rule, which is: Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy from the system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS When corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous process. Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was extracted i.e. energy is added to the system. One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is released. There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 26 of 253 various types) is such an important material in building and industry the corrosion of iron has a special term, rust. Figure 2.1 refers. Figure 2.1 Changes in Energy Levels of a Typical Metal Extracted From Ore 2 The Corrosion Process Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the mechanism by which corrosion can take place. Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this discussion. Figure 2.2 Simple Structure of an Atom The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 2 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 27 of 253 However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer zero. This condition of the atom is called ionic. Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which means that the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to as a cation. If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a negative charge. This may be referred to as an anion. The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell. The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion. 2.1 The Anodic Reaction The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its ionic state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction involving the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by a chemical equation thus: M M z+ + ze -
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as those indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as oxidation Figure 2.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically. Figure 2.3 Anodic Reaction The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons. This Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 28 of 253 is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.4, which represents a free rusting iron surface immersed in seawater. Figure 2.4 Anodic Sites on Surface of Iron Exposed To Seawater This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution of ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 2.4 2.2 The Cathodic Reaction These free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be used up if the reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions such as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions. A part reaction is illustrated in Figure 2.5 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 2 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 29 of 253
Figure 2.5 Cathodic Reaction Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because for its electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell yet occurs naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers. Figure 2.6 Cathode Reaction Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 30 of 253 Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative. The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in metallic corrosion are: Hydrogen evolution 2H + + 2e H 2
Oxygen reduction (acid solutions) O 2 + 4H + + 4e 2H 2 O Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic solutions) O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e 4OH -
Metal ion reduction M 3+ + e M 2+
Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic while oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in contact with air is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the reaction encountered in seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is normally found in chemical process streams. The common denominator with all these reactions is that they consume electrons and this is the most important point to note. 2.3 Seawater Corrosion These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to interpret virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in seawater; corrosion occurs. The anodic reaction is: Fe Fe 2+ + 2e -
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: - The cathodic reaction is: O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e - 4OH -
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations thus: 2Fe + 2H 2 O + O 2 2Fe 2+ + 4OH - 2Fe(OH) 2
This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is unstable in oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt: 2Fe(OH) 2 + H 2 O + O 2 2Fe(OH) 3
This final product is the familiar rust. 2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion A fundamental definition for corrosion is: CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply: There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons There must be a cathode. This does not normally corrode Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 2 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 31 of 253 There must be an electrolyte. This is the name given to the solution that conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while seawater is There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the cathode These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.7 and all electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this. Figure 2.7 Corrosion Circuit As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section. 3 Electrical Theory Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current. Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical charge is then carried by ions. The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and is given the symbol I. o In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum, will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10 -7 Newtons per m length The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference between two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V. o In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical potential between two points of a wire carrying a constant current Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 32 of 253 of 1 ampere when the power dissipation between those points is 1 watt The flow of electric charges is impeded by a quantity called resistance and between any two points there is always some resistance to the passage of the current. The unit of resistance is the ohm which has the symbol . o The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being the resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of 1 V applied between these points produces in the conductor a current of 1 A During the majority of this discussion on corrosion all comments and illustrations will be in terms of electron or ion flow and as far as possible positive and negative notations will be avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often occurs when corrosion is studied. This confusion arises because of an historical accident that resulted in producing what is now called conventional current. Electron flow is exactly opposite to conventional current, which is what causes the confusion when studies in corrosion so often involve discussion on electron or ion flow. To avoid such problems for the rest of this chapter only electron flow will be considered. Figure 2.8 illustrates the two types of flow.
Figure 2.8 Conventional and Electron Flow Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 2 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 33 of 253 Bibliography A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors L K Porter HMSO Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain Longman Scientific & Technical Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 34 of 253
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 35 of 253 CHAPTER 3 Types of Corrosion 1 Corrosion Cells Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 2, can be set up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as: Dissimilar metals Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the metal Dissimilar ion concentrations Dissimilar oxygen concentrations 2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte) a potential difference (voltage) exists between them. This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection. The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7 refers. It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and which the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series. 2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid at a temperature of 25 o C, the potential of various metals is measured and given in a table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or Electromotive Series, (see Table 3.1). From the table, it will be seen that any metal will be anodic to any metal lower in the table and cathodic to any metal higher in the series. It must be remembered, however, that the table only applies under the standard conditions stated. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
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Metal Atom Electrode Reaction Atom to Ion Potential in Volts Standard Potassium K K + + e - -2.92 Calcium Ca Ca ++ + 2e - -2.87 Sodium Na Na + + e - -2.71 Magnesium Mg Mg ++ + 2e - -2.34 Beryllium Be Be ++ + 2e - -1.70 Aluminium Al Al +++ + 3e - -1.67 Manganese Mn Mn ++ +2e - -1.05 Zinc Zn Zn ++ + 2e - -0.76 Chromium Cr Cr +++ + 3e - -0.71 Gallium Ga Ga +++ + 3e - -0.52 Iron Fe Fe ++ + 2e - -0.44 Cadmium Cd Cd ++ + 2e - -0.40 Indium In In +++ + 3e - -0.34 Thallium Ti Ti + + e - -0.34 Cobalt Co Co ++ + 2e - -0.28 Nickel Ni Ni ++ + 2e - -0.25 Tin Sn Sn ++ + 2e - -0.14 Lead Pb Pb ++ + 2e - -0.13 Hydrogen H 2 2H + + 2e - 0.00 Copper Cu Cu ++ + 2e - 0.34 Copper Cu Cu + + e - 0.52 Mercury 2Hg Hg 2 ++ + 2e - 0.80 Silver Ag Ag + + e - 0.80 Palladium Pd Pd ++ + 2e - 0.83 Mercury Hg Hg ++ + 2e - 0.85 Platinum Pt Pt ++ + 2e - Ca 1.2 Gold Au Au +++ + 3e - Ca 1.42 Gold Au Au + + e - 1.68 Table 3.1 Electrochemical Force Series Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these are called Galvanic Series. Table 3.2 give the series for seawater. The same rule applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e. metals found higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them. For example, zinc is Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 37 of 253 higher in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to mild steel and immersed in seawater zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel will be the cathode and not corrode. If on the other hand mild steel, in the form of a ships hull is connected to manganese bronze, the ships propeller, the mild steel now becomes the anode and corrodes and the manganese bronze propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode. Magnesium Magnesium Alloys Zinc Galvanised Iron Aluminium 52Sh Alcad Cadmium Mild Steel Wrought Iron Cast Iron 50-50 Lead-Tin Solder 18-8 Stainless (Active) Lead Manganese Bronze Nickel (Active) Yellow Brass Admiralty Brass Aluminium Bronze Red Brass Copper Nickel (Passive) 70% Ni, 30% Cu (Monel) 18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (Passive) Silver Gold Table 3.2 Galvanic Series in Seawater Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 38 of 253 This type of corrosion cell, consisting of two dissimilar metals, is easy to identify, but corrosion can occur in a much more localised way, caused by small-size effects that can lead to corrosion pits and thereby cause considerable damage. This type of corrosion and some others are discussed below. 3 Concentration Cell Corrosion Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 25 to 100 m wide and commonly involves chloride ions in the electrolyte. The stages in the process are: Corrosion will at first occur over the entire surface of the exposed metal at a slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice. During this period of time the electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition and normal anodic and cathodic processes take place. Under these conditions positive metal ions and negative hydroxyl ions are produced so as to maintain equilibrium within the electrolyte This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of more oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in contact with air. In turn then the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is replaced more easily at metal surfaces rather than in any small crevices. This creates a low oxygen situation within the crevice that in turn impedes the cathodic process and the production of hydroxyl ions is therefore reduced This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice which causes negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to maintain minimum potential energy overall. The metal ions, water molecules and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions, which it is thought, react with water in an hydrolysis reaction resulting in corrosion products. This can be described by a simplified equation thus M + + H 2 O MOH + H +
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution process, which, in turn, makes the problem worse. As does the accompanying increase of anion (chloride) concentration within the crevice. An important feature of active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic that is once started they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the electrolyte in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation shown in Figure 3.3. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while that outside is cathodically protected. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 39 of 253
Figure 3.3 Crevice Corrosion 4 Pitting Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface. The point of initiation may be: A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate of precipitate A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or residual tensile stresses. o All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect free. All metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and these are known as defects, these may occur in a number of ways: Vacancies This is where there is an atom missing from the lattice site Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom occupies a lattice site that would have been occupied by a host atom Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site that is not a normal lattice site and it is squeezed in Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 40 of 253 between atoms of the host lattice. The interstitial atom may be either a host atom or a foreign atom. Figure 3.4 refers Figure 3.4 Point Defects in a Crystal Lattice These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where they cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals. They also play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen embrittlement, selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely on the diffusion of species through the metal lattice Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of atoms are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line defects. An example of this type of defect is the dislocation and a specific example of this type of dislocation is: o Edge Dislocations This is where an unfinished plane of atoms is present between two other planes. Figure 3.5a refers o Screw Dislocations This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its immediate neighbour. Figure 3.5b refers Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 41 of 253
Figure 3.5 (a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation is dependant on metallurgical factors alone. Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of clean mild steel o The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the steel under the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage o This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is obvious that the wetted area around the water/air interface has more oxygen diffusion from the air that the centre of the drop o This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region which dissolves o The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the cathode diffuse inwards and react with iron ions diffusing outwards, causing the deposition of insoluble corrosion product around the depression, or pit Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 42 of 253 o This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic process in the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be autocatalytic. Figure 3.6 refers Figure 3.6 The Mechanism of Pitting Because Of Differential-aeration Beneath a Water Drop As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint 5 Inter-granular Corrosion Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in many alloys. These intrusions are of two types: Intermetallic (Intermediate Constituents) These are species formed from metal atoms and having identifiable chemical formulae. They can be either anodic or cathodic to the metal Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 43 of 253 Compounds These are formed between metals and non-metallic elements, such as; hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen o Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important constituents of steel, are both cathodic to ferrite In principle any metal that has intermetallics or compounds at grain boundaries will be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion. For example, it has most frequently been found in austenitic stainless steels but it may occur in ferric and two-phase stainless steels and nickel base corrosion resistant alloys. Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains are cathodic while others are anodic and Intergranular corrosion initiates as indicated in Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7 Corrosion in Two Phase Metal In the Galvanic Series the phase is above the phase and will therefore corrode 6 Grain Boundary Corrosion The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode. This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain boundaries themselves in the form of a line. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
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Figure 3.8 Grain Boundary Corrosion Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay. In this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe of the weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the anode and corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual indications of its presence. Figure 3.9 refers Figure 3.9 Weld Decay or Preferential Corrosion 7 Stress Corrosion Cracking This type of corrosion is a form of Intergranular corrosion that increases in severity when the material is subjected to a tensile load and a specific environment. The effects are to concentrate the corrosion on a limited number of grain boundaries that are at right angles to the direction of loading. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 45 of 253 A common feature of stress corrosion cracking that repeatedly occurs is the unexpectedness of its manifestation. Often a material that has been chosen for its corrosion resistance is found to fail at a stress level well below its normal fracture stress. It is rare that there is any obvious evidence of failure and it presents itself in components that are apparently unstressed. Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the hoop residual stresses that are the result of the fabrication process. Stress-relieving heat treatments are a vital part of the quality control for these components because of this. It is currently agreed that there is no one mechanism for producing stress corrosion cracking, but rather a number of significant factors. For this cracking to occur there must be tensile stress, which may be applied directly during the working life of the structure, or it may be present as a consequence of the installation or fabrication process In general alloys are more susceptible than pure metals although copper is one known exception A particular metal may crack in the presence of a relatively few chemical species that may be present in small concentrations In the absence of stress the alloy is usually inert to the same environment that would otherwise cause cracking Even with particularly ductile materials stress corrosion cracks have the appearance of a brittle fracture It is usually possible to determine a threshold stress below which stress corrosion cracking does not occur. 8 Fretting Corrosion Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under load subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance it shows pits and groves in the metal surrounded by corrosion products. It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion that occurs in the atmosphere rather than under aqueous conditions. Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railroad tracks. The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are: - The interface must be under load Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interface must be sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 46 of 253 The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces The relative motion need only be as little as 10 -10 m but it must be cyclic in nature and does not occur between surfaces in continuous motion. There are two theories proposed for fretting corrosion; wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear both of which are shown schematically in Figures 3.10 and 3.11 Figure 3.10 Schematic Illustration of the Wear-oxidation Theory of Fretting Corrosion The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and, during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and fragments of metal are removed. These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal and accumulation of oxide residue. Figure 3.11 Schematic Illustration of the Oxidation-wear Theory of Fretting Corrosion The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide layer. When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is repeated. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 47 of 253 This type of corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath them. See Figure 3.12. Figure 3.12 Possible Fretting Corrosion between Riser and Riser Clamp 9 Erosion Corrosion This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring. Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly vulnerable. Two main forms of erosion corrosion are: Corrosion associated with laminar flow Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions A laminar flow will cause several effects: The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of dissolution. Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 refers Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured away causing excessive corrosion Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 48 of 253 The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the deposit of silt or dirt to be prevented thus preventing the formation of any differential-aeration cells in the crevices beneath A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area, which minimises the formation of differential-aeration cells that are normally a common cause of attack. Stainless steels in particular benefit from improved corrosion resistance because oxygen replenishment maintains its protective oxide film Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is concentrated within the flow, as in a pipeline for example These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable. Taking the case of turbulent flow, however the situation is much more straightforward. The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing wear. This obviously increases the corrosion rate This effect can easily occur inside a pipe because turbulence can be caused by, sudden changes in bore diameter, sudden changes in direction (i.e. pipe bends), a badly fitted joint or gasket, any deposits that may be either circumferential welds or silt deposits. Figure 3.13 refers. Figure 3.13 Effects of Flow in Pipes 10 Corrosion Fatigue There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely non-specific. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 49 of 253 As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels well below the UTS. In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metals fatigue resistance is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit. Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in Chapter 4 yields: - Firstly the formation of slip bands Next the nucleations of an embryo crack in the order of 10 m long Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at right angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the Pourbaix diagram as shown in Chapter 10, Figure 10.1, it can also occur at stress levels much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is also true that while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity factor during much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected by it. It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue. 11 Biological Corrosion Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways: By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic conditions o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick deposits of corrosion products, or under mud o There are indications that because oxygen is unable to diffuse through the heavy marine growth the effect of this organism is to take the place of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Types of Corrosion
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Bibliography Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain Longman Scientific & Technical Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 3 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 51 of 253 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 4 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 52 of 253 CHAPTER 4 Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates 1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal, both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms occurs on its surface according to the formula: - Me n+ + ne - Me -
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities. The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm 2 , the other of 1 mm 2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is 10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must be taken into account when measuring current. The unit of current density is Am -2 (amps per square meter) The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals in aqueous solution These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction currents thus: - i and i and at equilibrium (E o ) i = i = i o and i o is known as the exchange current density. If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i I this applied net current will be the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value E i and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential is called polarization and is given the Greek letter (eta). = E i - E o
There are two main polarization components to consider. Concentration Polarization Caused by the difference in concentration between the layer of electrolyte nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of the electrolyte. o The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive cations that in turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions with the most densely populated layer nearest to the electrode being the Helmholtz and the second more diffuse being the Guoy- Chapman. In this layer the potential changes exponentially. This Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 53 of 253 distribution is commonly referred to as the double layer See Figure 4.1 Figure 4.1 Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer) Activation Polarization Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction. The polarization of an anode is always positive and that of a cathode always negative. Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and current density 2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates The corrosion rate is predictable within certain parameters and corrosion engineers work this out when designing a protection system. There are however, environmental factors that effect the overall corrosion reaction and these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors considered will be: Temperature Water Flow Rate The pH of the Water 2.1 Temperature Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Thus temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this effect. Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures. Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the corrosion rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine solution at a pH of 4.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was increased from 180 o
F (82 o C) to 250 o F (121 o C). Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 4 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 54 of 253 Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are particularly susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly. The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2 The Effect of Temperature on Corrosion of Steel in Seawater 2.2 Water Flow Rate In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also increased. If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger impellers are general examples of this. Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the flow. Figure 4.3 illustrates his findings. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 55 of 253
Figure 4.3 Effect of Seawater Velocity on Corrosion of Steel at Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days 2.3 The pH Value of the Water The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The resume starts by considering water, which is neutral. Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in the form of an equilibrium thus: - H 2 O H + + OH -
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be written thus: - [H + ]. [OH - ] = constant (I) This constant has been measured experimentally as 10 -14 (STP) and this value and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity. All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous solution of the hydrogen ion. The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 4 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 56 of 253 Water as indicated by the equilibrium equation represents a neutral substance as it contains both acid, (H + ) and alkali (OH - ) in equal quantities. The modern method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH, which indicates the amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14 thus: -
Figure 4.4 pH Scale
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 57 of 253
Bibliography Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain Longman Scientific & Technical Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 4 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006 Page 58 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 59 of 253 CHAPTER 5 Corrosion Protection 1 Corrosion Protection There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings, inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables; the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various protection methods. These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow. Figure 5.1 Pourbaix Diagram for Iron in Water It can be seen from Figure 5.1 that there are three distinct possible states of corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values: Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 60 of 253 Corrosion At intermediate electrode potentials and over a very wide range of pH values corrosion takes place and metal is removed Passivity At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH values, there is a passivity region. This it the region in which a corrosion product film is formed, that in most cases is an oxide film. It is worth noting that the diagram only indicates that an oxide film is formed; it does not mean that the oxide film gives protection. The properties of the film must be known in order to determine this Immunity At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the pH range, the rate of corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be immune 2 Cathodic Protection Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 5.1 it is also possible to determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion. Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at point C Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at point B Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the methods of cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for offshore structures. In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by determining an acceptable corrosion rate (r
) this information is input to a graph
to determine a value for current density (I
). This level of current density will
ensure the required corrosion rate is achieved. The electric potential to achieve this current is approximately -850 mV. Now it may seem that potentials more negative that 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) would produce even less metal loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very much more negative potentials. At potentials much more negative than 1000 mV (Ag/AgCl) the possibility of hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen embrittlement Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials that produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage barrier coating such as paint if it is present These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed current protection system but non-the-less are quite valid which makes the choice of 800 to 900 mV (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for offshore platforms. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 61 of 253
2.1 Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the cathode in a massive corrosion cell as indicated diagrammatically in Chapter 7, Figure 7.7. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of the anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the process its name. Refer to Figure 5.2 Figure 5.2 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium. This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The main question is how much anode material will be required? This question has two parts: How large a surface area must the anodes protect? How long will the protection last? To answer the question an example will be given: An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode cathodic protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What anode material should be used and how many anodes are required? o Total wetted surface area of structure = 2500 m 2
Minimum number of anodes required = 2510 Anode material should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would react to quickly Aluminium anodes will last longer and may be chosen because of this Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 62 of 253 2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems are summarised in Table 5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems Advantages Disadvantages No external electric power required Current output decreases with time No danger of overprotection Comparatively difficult to increase protection by retro-fitting anodes No running costs Initial costs are comparatively high Active from day of immersion Adds considerable weight and drag to the structure A well proven and reliable method Table 5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes 2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling. This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less. In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 5.4 shows the system diagrammatically. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 63 of 253
Figure 5.4 The Principle of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Using a Potentiostat The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the bottom. Materials such as titanium, Platonised niobium and lead/silver alloys are used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to prevent any of the problems associated with over-protection. Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of water, rather than metal dissolution: - 2H 2 O O 2 + 4H + + 4e -
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the oxidation of hydroxyl ions: - 4OH - O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e -
In seawater the reaction is usually the oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas: - 2Cl - Cl 2 + 2e -
Table 5.5 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 64 of 253
Material Consumption Recommended Uses Platinum Platonised Metals 8 x 10 -6 Marine environments and high purity liquids High Silicon Iron 0.25 1.0 Potable waters and soil or carbonaceous backfill Steel 6,8 9.1 Marine environments and carbonaceous backfill Iron Approx 9.5 Marine environments and carbonaceous backfill Cast Iron 4.5 6.8 Marine environments and carbonaceous backfill Lead-Platinum 0.09 Marine environments Lead-Silver 0.09 Marine environments Graphite 0.1 1.0 Marine environments, potable water, and carbonaceous backfill Table 5.5 Some Impressed Current Anode Materials and Their Properties (From Brand) 2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems Anodes made from materials such as listed in Table 5.7 are capable of supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a structure with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in practice anodes are usually distribute at regular intervals over the whole structure. This is because: - The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity of a single anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause embrittlement as previously discussed. o The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one and reduces the probability of this type of damage Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes it difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution potentials. Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each one protecting a smaller area thus minimising the areas at risk of inadequate protection o When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have any doubts about protecting any particular area of the structure Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 65 of 253 sacrificial anodes may be installed to work in conjunction with the ICCP system The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to provide 160 mA m -2 utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference electrodes. Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and 50 reference electrodes. In general in the North Sea the most common anode materials are Platinum sheathed Titanium and Lead/Silver alloys. It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity. The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the positive terminal must be connected to the anode. Should these connections be reversed the structure would corrode catastrophically. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 refer. Figure 5.6 Diagrammatic Layout of an Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 66 of 253
Figure 5.7 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Distribution of Anodes and Dielectric Shield As indicated in paragraph 2.2.1 the actual distribution of the anodes on any structure may be either: - Platform Based Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are insulated from the structure. Figure 5.8 refers. o Two problems are associated with this method. One is the possibility of shadow areas where inadequate protection is provided. This problem can be solved by the use of sacrificial anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier. The second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from the anode to the adjacent structure. This could cause embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this dielectric shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as well the possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See Figure 5.7 o There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are at about 80 V potential with some 1000 A current. If divers are employed adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated from the system Remote from the Structure A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated distance from the structure. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 67 of 253 o This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from the anode to the adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes the current density is higher and therefore there is still a possibility of coating damage and embrittlement. o As discussed in paragraph 2.2.1 design considerations generally favour more anodes distributed around the structure. o There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some distance away from the structure is may be possible to ensure safety by imposing a 12 m (40 ft) exclusion zone around the anode. See Figure 5.8 Figure 5.8 Diagram of ICCP System with Anodes Remote from Structure 2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC) or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications with reinforced concrete. Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They determine the current required from the power source, without these items the system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 5.9 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 68 of 253
Figure 5.9 Zinc Reference Electrode Installed On an Offshore Structure 3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications. 3.1 Paints When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface of the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond onto the metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation is required such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also be strong and the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the electrolyte as is possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents making up the topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission coefficients. Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most chemicals and hydroxyl ions (that are produced by the cathodic reaction) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 69 of 253 Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex silicates with a solvent-based self-curing binder give good protection to steel surfaces. These coatings are frequently over-painted by another system and are used on components such as ladders in a marine environment Concrete is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it provides a passive environment for the steel pipe as well as adding weight. Metallic coatings such as galvanising, using zinc impose a continuous barrier between the metal surface being protected and the surrounding environment. These coatings may be applied in a number of ways. o Electroplating utilises a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The component and rods of the plating metal are immersed in the electrolyte and a potential is applied between the component and the rods. The component becomes the cathode and the rods the anode so metal ions of the plating material deposit from the solution onto the component o Hot dipping involves the component being immersed in a bath of molten coating metal. Galvanising is accomplished by this method. See Figure 5.10
Figure 5.10 Galvanising Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed in the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s -1 that flatten and adhere on impact with the component Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can be applied by o Rolling o Explosive welding Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 70 of 253 o Buttering (building up a welded coat on the surface to be protected) o Sheathing Aluminium roll-bonded to duralumin is marketed as Alcad Some offshore risers are sheathed with Monel (cupronickel) See Figure 5.11 Figure 5.11 Monel Cladding on an Offshore Riser Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the melting point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in powder form and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to baste for several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of the component. 4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing corrosion: - Making the electrode more positive Making the electrode more negative Changing the electrolyte pH This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte. Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: - The anodic reaction Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 71 of 253 The cathodic reaction Ionic conduction through the electrolyte Electron conduction through the metal Only the first three are affected by the electrolyte, electron conduction through the metal is not considered here. The properties of the electrolyte that can be affected by using inhibitors are: - The conductivity of the electrolyte The pH of the electrolyte The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or strengthening passive films As an example of how this can be achieved consider steel in seawater. If distilled water is substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the electrolyte is reduced and a passive film will form on the surface of the steel. 4.1 Anodic Inhibitors Anodic inhibitors increase the polarisation of the anode by reaction with the ions of the corroding metals to produce either thin passive films or salts of limited solubility that coat the anode. See Figure 5.12 Figure 5.12 Anodic Inhibitor 4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate insoluble compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode from the electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site. In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen on Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 72 of 253 the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow hydrogen atoms to diffuse into steel and cause hydrogen embrittlement 4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed from the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of oxygen to the surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the double layer and reduce the rate of dissolution In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones. 5 Corrosion Protection by Design This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in this chapter. The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised thus: - Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate drainage, etc.) Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors Choose the material with the best properties for the environment 6 Anodic Protection In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix diagram. This allows the formation of a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the normal corrosion process. However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous solutions and therefore is not used on offshore structures. Aluminium does form such a film naturally and some types of aluminium can benefit from this because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 5 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 73 of 253
Bibliography Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain Longman Scientific & Technical Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 74 of 253 This Page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 75 of 253 CHAPTER 6 Corrosion Protection Monitoring 1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted. Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that there are no in-service effects interfering with this. The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current system required for protection varies: From metal to metal With the geometry of the structure With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.) With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density of the structure at various places. 1.1 Inspection Requirements Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are therefore as follows: - Visual inspection of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current nodes) for wear Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of the Pourbaix diagram Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current system is providing adequate protection Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting and loss of wall thickness The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 8 The potential measurements usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP) readings are obtained by: Taking contact readings with a CP meter Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Monitoring Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 76 of 253 o By hand employing a diver with a hand-held instrument o By mounting a contact probe on an ROV Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors with readout in a surface control room Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by: Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor and usually for a specific requirement. This method is not used for regular inspections Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes incorporated into the impressed current system 2 Cathode Potential Measurement The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated into an instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the previous Chapter these electrodes are commonly: - High purity zinc Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC) or Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete structures) 2.1 High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE) High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remote mounted monitoring systems as shown in Chapter 5 Figure 5.9. The site for mounting the electrode is selected because it is either, a representative site, it is an area of marginal protection or it is an area of high stress and it is installed as part of the impressed current system. The electrode is connected to a meter in the surface control room. See Figure 6.1 Figure 6.1 High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 77 of 253 2.2 CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is Silver/silver chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and proximity applications whether diver or ROV deployed. Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they form a cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in several contact CP probes, including the Bathycorrometer and the Morgan Berkeley Rustreader, that are hand held, and ROV probes. They are commonly used as proximity probes also. When used in contact CP meters the probe contact tip is placed on the cathode and the meter gives the readout in mV of the electrical potential between it and the half-cell. Figure 6.2 refers for a hand-held meter. Figure 6.3 illustrates an ROV contact probe and Figure 6.4 diagrammatically shows the proximity method. When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a sound electrical connection is made between the structure and the positive terminal of the surface control room installed meter, as indicated in Figure 6.4 Figure 6.2 Diver-held CP Meter (Bathycorrometer or similar) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Monitoring Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 78 of 253
Figure 6.3 Contact CP Reading Taken By an ROV Figure 6.4 Proximity CP Measurement 3 Current Density Measurements Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an ROV. This type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose such as investigating a particular area of the structure that was suspected of being under-protected or following up a visual inspection that had identified more Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 79 of 253 corrosion than was anticipated. Specific procedures will be provided for this type of survey. As stated earlier impressed current systems may have reference electrodes installed to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 5.10 shows a ZRE monitoring potential and Figure 6.5 illustrates a monitored anode. A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room. Thus the current can be constantly monitored. Figure 6.5 Monitored Electrode 4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose that is detailed here. 4.1 Necessary Equipment Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screw- on calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be proven as described below.) High impedance (10 ) voltmeter Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which may contain inhibitors) Log sheets Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Monitoring Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 80 of 253 4.2 Procedure The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are chemically saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells. There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell; however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with solution. They are sealed, and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir. Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial. (Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic) Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3 Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the negative terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal and record the reading Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes 1 and 3 2 and 3 o Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 2 mv Figure 6.6 Proving Calomel Reference Cells If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one to use If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 81 of 253 If all of the readings are either replace all the calomel cells or flush out the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated solution of potassium chloride, refill the phials and re-test On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water. Figure 6.6 refers. The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter. 4.2.1 Calibration of the Meter The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same whether it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed. 4.2.2 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer There is slight difference in the application if the meter is a Bathycorrometer being calibrated with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In this case the following procedure applies. Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not drawn from the fire main) Remove the contact probe tip from the meter Screw the calomel reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer instead of the tip Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the semi-permeable membrane. (The meter display may be left out of the water to assist taking readings.) Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes maximum) The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meters own Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly. Record the reading on the log o Acceptable readings are between 0 to -10 mV. (The reading will be negative as the Ag/AgCl cell built into the hand-held meter is connected to the positive terminal of the meter). The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison. The procedure is outlined under paragraph 4.3 below. 4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into a plastic bucket on deck Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block into the same bucket Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high resistance voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Monitoring Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 82 of 253 Take a reading from the voltmeter. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V 5 mV. Record the reading on the log Remove the zinc block and disconnect it from the clamp Soak the CP meter assembly in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30 minutes Place the zinc block into the same bucket as the CP meter and make submerged contact between the probe tip and the zinc. Take a reading from the CP meter. This reading should be the same as that recorded from the calomel 10 mV (this proves the CP meter by comparison) Record the reading on the log Remove the zinc and calomel cells from the seawater, wash in fresh water, dry and store. 4.4 Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes Before initiating this procedure ensure that the insulation on the conductors for the proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation test meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of the copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings. Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30 minutes Immerse the Ag/AgCl proximity probe in the same bucket for the same time Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the Ag/AgCl half-cell Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel electrode Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 10 mV Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only) positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp and electrical connection Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V to 1.050 V 5 Operating Procedures To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows. Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a battery-charging log. (Usual requirements for battery-operated equipment is 14 to 16 hours from fully discharged) Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are usually supplied with spare tips) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 83 of 253 Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use. (This allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable membranes.) Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the appropriate log sheet Take a reference reading on zinc on the inspection site prior to starting the survey For each contact reading ensure that there is correct metal-to-metal contact between the probe tip and the cathode surface. With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection to the structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface instrument For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and the cathode is correct During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly recorded on the appropriate log On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any battery-operated equipment as necessary and complete the battery- charging log Notes: - Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver chloride, on trickle charge continuously if required If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take check readings periodically during the survey 5.1 Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel structure Over-protected structure <-1.10 V (<-1100 mV) Zinc -1.00 to 1.05 V (-1000 to 1050 mV) Protected Steel < -0.80 V (<-800 mV) Unprotected Steel -0.45 to 0.65 V (-450 to 650 mV) Calomel (K Cl) 0 to 0.01 V (0 to 10 mV)
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Corrosion Protection Monitoring Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 84 of 253
Bibliography Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain Longman Scientific & Technical Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 6 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 85 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 86 of 253 CHAPTER 7 Welding and Welding Defects 1 Joining Metal Components In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place; by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts. The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order. Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding. 2 Fabricating Offshore Structures Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important to have some knowledge of the main type of welding. 3 Welding Processes Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and thus similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are: Solid phase welding Thermo-chemical welding Electric-resistance welding Unshielded arc welding Radiant energy welding Flux-shielded arc welding Gas-shielded arc welding Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 87 of 253 From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection, the following welding process is the most widely used. 3.1 Flux Shielded Arc Welding This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus formed melts and fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is used to prevent contamination. For example: Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding This is the most widely used technique. In this process, heat to melt the work piece is supplied by an electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and melts down forming small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the flux forms molten slag that protects the weld together with protective gases formed at the same time. See Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Manual Metal Arc Welding Common faults associated with MMA are: Overlap Porosity Slag inclusion Excessive spatter Lack of fusion Crater cracks Arc strike Incomplete penetration Undercut Excessive penetration Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 88 of 253
4 Types of Welded Joint There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures. Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint. 4.1 The Butt Joint The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at an angle of between 135 o and 180 o . This joint is used to join pipe sections end to end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Butt Joint 4.2 T Joint The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5 o to 90 o . This configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other areas. See Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 T Joint 4.3 Lap Joint The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them is 0 o to 5 o . See Figure 7.4. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 89 of 253
Figure 7.4 Lap Joint 4.4 Corner Joint The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle between 30 o and 135 o . See Figure 7.5
Figure 7.5 Corner Joint 4.5 Cruciform Joint A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross. See Figure 7.6. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 90 of 253
Figure 7.6 Cruciform Joint 5 Types of Weld The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the butt and the fillet. A butt weld is defined as: - A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals. A fillet weld is defined as: - The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or thickness. The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 7.7 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 91 of 253
Figure 7.7 Types of Weld Butt and Fillet Welds As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed with butt welds. 6 Welding Metallurgy The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 7.8. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 92 of 253
Figure 7.8 Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone (HAZ). HAZ One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (T recry ). Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow. In the diagram of the weld, Figure 7.8 this temperature is reached at point 3 so that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the re- Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 93 of 253 crystallisation temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld. The temperature continues to fall between point 3 and 4, which is ambient temperature. Figure 7.8 only shows what is happening along the line AA; but of course this happens throughout the section. This then, leads to the different regions of the weld as shown in Figure 7.9 below and is a graphic indication of the way temperature gradients have to be managed in any weld. Figure 7.9 Weld Regions or Zones This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as quenching) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the formation of a structure known as martinsite. Martinsitic steel has a grain structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation). Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above. 6.1 Further Considerations for Weld Control While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also be considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get into the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid metal of the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal reduces and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking. The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 94 of 253 the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as a residual stress, so that the normal working stress in imposed on top of and added to this residual stress, thus giving an in-service stress that is higher that the normal design working stress. The effect of residual stresses will be at the very least that the fatigue life is shortened. At the moment, there is no way that these residual stresses can be measured during the course of a routine inspection. (ACFM may be developed for this purpose). 7 Welding Terms There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These terms and symbols are defined in several international standards. BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990: Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for symbolic representation on drawings BS EN 22553:1995: Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic representation on drawings BS EN ISO 5817:2003: Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections BS EN 13622:2002: Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used for gas welding equipment BS 499-1:1991: Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting (This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS EN 13622:2002) A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is compiled below. 7.1 Plate Preparation Terms Double V butt weld A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing Vs in section, welded from both sides Included angle of a butt weld The angle between the prepared faces Included angle of a fillet weld The angle between the parent plates Parent plate The metals that are to be joined by the weld Prepared angle, weld prep The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular Prepared face Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 95 of 253 The bevelled portion of the parent plate prior to welding Root gap Separation between the parent plates to be joined Root face The un-bevelled portion of the parent plate adjacent to the root gap Single bevel butt weld A butt weld that has only one prepared face, welded from one side only Single V butt weld A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form a V in section, welded from one side only Figure 7.10 refers Figure 7.10 Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation 7.2 Terms Defining Weld Features Cap, Face of the weld The visible face of the completed weld Excess weld metal The weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes Toe of the weld The junction between the cap and the parent plate Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 96 of 253 Root The point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent plate Weld zone The area containing the weld and both heat affected zones Heat affected zone (HAZ) The part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding process but which has not melted Throat thickness The total thickness of the weld metal Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness) Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and the root Weld width The shortest distance between the toes of the weld Toe blend The transition between the weld material and the parent plate Leg (of a fillet weld) The distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld Figure 7.11 refers Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 97 of 253
Figure 7.11 Weld Feature Terminology 7.3 Welding Process Terminology Filler rod The filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long used in MMA welding Filler bead When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the successive passes are called filler beads Run or pass The weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod Weldment An alternative term to describe the weld zone Fusion zone The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face along which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate Root bead Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the parent plate Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 98 of 253 Figure 7.12 refers Figure 7.12 Weld Process Terminology 7.4 Welded Nodes and Nozzles Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost exclusively on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will be nodes or nozzles. Node A node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only has preparation on the minor member, a single bevel weld. The minor tubular is called the brace and it is this member that has the preparation. The major tubular is known as the chord. In joints where both members are the same size the through tubular is the chord. Nozzle Both tubular members have preparation, which also means that the chord has a hole to match the brace. This is a full penetration butt-welded joint. This type of joint is commonly found in pipelines and where fluid flow is required. Figure 7.13 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 99 of 253
Figure 7.13 Nodes and Nozzles 8 Weld Defect Terminology An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO 5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect are listed in 6 categories. Cracks Cavities Solid inclusions Lack of fusion and penetration Imperfect shape Miscellaneous Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 100 of 253 Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other engineers. 8.1 Cracks These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; - Longitudinal Transverse Crater Centreline Toe HAZ Figure 12.14 and 12.15 refer. Figure 12.14 Cracks Figure 12.15 HAZ Cracking
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 101 of 253 8.2 Cavities There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category. Porosity Gas pores that may be located in different locations Elongated cavities A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis Shrinkage cavity A cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state Crater A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed quickly Crater pipe A hole in the centre of a crater again caused by shrinkage See Figure 12.16 Figure 12.16 Cavities 8.3 Solid Inclusions These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld pool before it solidifies. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 102 of 253
Figure 12.17 Slag Inclusions 8.4 Lack of Fusion and Penetration Lack of fusion The weld metal has not bonded Lack of sidewall fusion No union between the weld metal and the parent plate. See Figure 12.17 Lack of root fusion No bonding at the root of the weld joint Incomplete root penetration No weld metal extending into the root of the weld Figure 12.18 refers Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 103 of 253
Figure 12.18 Lack of Fusion and Penetration 8.5 Imperfect Shape Excess weld metal Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes Excess penetration Excess weld metal protruding through the root Root concavity A shallow grove in the root Incompletely filled grove A grove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap Undercut A grove in the toe of the weld where parent plate is gouged due to the welding current Overlap Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 104 of 253 Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of the toe that has not fused with the parent metal Burn through A collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a hole in the weld Unequal leg length (Not a standard term but internationally understood), describing different leg lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint Poor restart (Not a standard term but internationally understood), an irregular start or pick-up after one bead is ended or interrupted and the next arc strike is imperfectly aligned with the previous bead Misalignment (Not a standard term but internationally understood), poor fit-up resulting in the parent plates being out of alignment either laterally or angularly See Figure 12.19 and 12.20 Figure 12.19 Imperfect shape 8.6 Miscellaneous Stray flash, or arc strike Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod off the line of the weld Excessive dressing Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 105 of 253 Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the depth of the parent plate Grinding mark Groves or marks on the parent plate caused by poorly controlled grinding or surfacing tools Tool mark Marks indented into the parent plate caused by chipping hammers or similar hand tools Hammer mark Obvious damage caused by a hammer blow Torn surface Surface irregularity caused by breaking off temporary attachments Surface pitting Small depressions on the parent plate Spatter Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves to the parent plate Dog scar A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, which is a temporary metal fixing used to stabilise the parent plates during the welding process See Figure 12.20 Figure 12.20 Miscellaneous Defects
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 106 of 253 9 Defect Categories and Reporting Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: - Planar Defects: These have a large surface area but small volume such as cracks and laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional. Volumetric Defects: Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that have a large volume compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3 dimensional and will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This category of defect is caused during fabrication, not in-service; while planar defects may be caused by in-service deterioration. 9.1 Reporting Defects in Welds As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections volumetric defects will seldom be identified as they are usually caused during fabrication. Planar defects may be observed as these could be caused by stress or fatigue failure leading to crack-like features becoming evident. This type of discontinuity will be of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is also the zone where it is most likely to be found. This is because at this point there is a region that has been heated and melted causing grain structure changes as outlined earlier. Also in this area the geometry of the weld changes, which may create a notch effect that, is an area where stress is increased above the average for the rest of the component. Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least: - The type of defect Describe the defect with correct terminology Location State the global location, i.e. what component is damaged, where on the component is the damage (state the clock position), give the relative location, i.e. is it on the HAZ, in the toe, on the weld cap or in the parent plate Dimensions State the start position and give length. If the defect is a crack-like feature state whether it is continuous or branching, the orientation and if it is measurable give width and depth Description Describe the feature, if it is a crack is it branching, if it is state the orientation of the branches 9.2 Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 107 of 253 Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of measuring gauges, templates and devices that are employed. These instruments are available for in-service inspections a review of a selection will be of interest for underwater applications. 9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge This is a gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement height, leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill. Figure 12.21 refers Figure 12.21 Welding Institute Gauge Measuring Various Weld Parameters 9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in Figure 12.22 Figure 12.22 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 7 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 108 of 253
Bibliography Underwater Inspection Mel Bayliss David Short Mary Bax Principles of welding technology L M Gourd Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Welding and Welding Defects Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 109 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 110 of 253 CHAPTER 8 Ultrasonic Inspection 1 Ultrasonic Inspection Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and the reflected wave will give information about the length of the waves path through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be measured and the presence of flaws can be detected. For offshore applications this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion monitoring and occasionally for weld inspection. 2 Producing Ultrasound Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 8.1 refers. 2.1 What Is Ultrasonic? Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human hearing. The frequency spectrum at Figure 8.1 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 111 of 253
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec -1
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 10 8 m sec -1
Sound Waves (Travelling at the speed of sound) Frequency (kHz) Electro-magnetic Waves (Travelling at the speed of light) Infrasound 2 x 10 -2 kHz (20 kHz) 10 -3
10 -2
10 -1 1
10 VLF 10 2 LF Sonar uses frequencies in the audio range Human hearing range 10 3 MF 2.5 kHz 10 4 HF 10 5 VHF Ultrasonic frequency test range 10 6 UHF 10 MHz 10 7 SHF 10 8
Radio frequencies EHF 10 9
10 10
Infra-red 10 11 3.8 Red 10 12 7.6 Visible 10 13
10 14
Ultra-violet 10 15
10 16
X-rays 10 17
10 18
-rays 10 19
10 20
10 21
10 22
10 23
Cosmic radiation Table 8.1 The Frequency Spectrum Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 112 of 253 The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is from 20 kHz up to approximately 6 MHz. For most practical ultrasonic testing the frequency range from 0.5 to 6 MHz is used. Frequencies lower than 0.5 MHz are not used for test purposes while the lower frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 MHz are used for testing materials with very large grain structures such as concrete or cast iron. Frequencies from 2 to 6 MHz are used for testing materials with fine grain structures including steels. 2.2 Frequency of the Wave The number of oscillations it causes per second determines the frequency of a signal. The basic unit of frequency is the Hertz, abbreviated Hz. One Hertz is one complete cycle of an event per second.
The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in seconds. Therefore: -
See Figure 8.2, which displays a graph for an alternating voltage
Figure 8.2 Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz) Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 8.2 in that as the sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front that causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be alternatively tensile and compressively stressed and relaxed. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 113 of 253
Figure 8.3 The Stress Variation with Time at a Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse from an Ultrasonic Transducer The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 8.3 may be calculated thus: -
The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency. Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: - Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 114 of 253
Number Engineering Prefix Symbol 1,000,000,000 10 9 giga G 1,000,000 10 6 mega M 1,000 10 3 Kilo K 1 1 0.001 10 -3 milli m 0.000001 10 -6 micro Table 8.4 Number Prefixes Used With Frequency The frequency calculated above would normally be written as 10 kHz and the period of the signal as 100 sec. 2.3 Speed of the Wave So far only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been considered. However, the wave itself is passing along through the material. (Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as well as this, the wave travels forwards). Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of sound for a given type of wave in a given material. That is, the speed of travel of a sound wave is different for different types of wave and the speed of travel is also different in different materials. 2.4 Types of Ultrasonic Wave Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that propagate as surface wave along the surface skin of the material. 2.4.1 Waves That Propagate Through Solids The two type of wave that propagate through a solid are discussed below. 2.4.1.1 Longitudinal or Compression Waves This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, V L is the velocity of propagation of these longitudinal or compression waves. With this type of wave propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is the same as the direction of the wave propagation. Figure 8.5 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 115 of 253
Figure 8.5 Longitudinal or Compression Wave 2.4.1.2 Shear or Transverse Waves Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus V T is the velocity of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the propagating wave. Figure 8.6 refers.
Figure 8.6 Transverse or Shear Wave Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 116 of 253
Figure 8.7 Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material If Figure 8.7 is compared with Figure 8.5 it may be seen that both diagrams represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main difference is in the movement of the atoms. Whereas in the compression wave the atoms are compressed and pulled apart in the direction that the wave is moving, the shear wave atoms are displaced pass each other that is sheared. 2.4.2 Surface Waves Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have uses in underwater inspection. Raleigh Waves The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface, thus resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily damped out if the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This mode of travel is not used underwater. Lamb Waves These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series of modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains mentioned so far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves are applied for testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie very close to the Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 117 of 253 surface of the part. They are also used to test the quality of bond in laminate materials. Love Waves Love waves travel on the surface of the material without a vertical component of displacement, which makes them analogous to a surface compression wave motion. Table 8.7 summarises properties of these modes of propagation. Type of Wave Symbol Condition Atomic Motion Single Velocity Comments on Underwater Use Longitudinal or Compression V L Passes through the large bulk of the material Longitudinal that is, in the direction of wave propagation Yes Used for thickness and lamination measurement Shear or Transverse V T Passes through the large bulk of the material Transverse that is, at right angles to the direction of wave propagation Yes Used for defect sizing Raleigh (often referred to as surface waves) V S Semi-infinite free surface Compound that is, motion up and down as well as in the direction of wave propagation Yes Not used underwater Lamb (plate waves) V RN Thin sheet Compound No Not used underwater Thin rods V O Small diameter bars Compound Yes Not used underwater Table 8.7 Properties of Ultrasonic Waves 3 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore be used with confidence for inspection tasks. A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here in a selection of materials is shown in Table 8.8. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 118 of 253
Acoustic Velocity (ms -1 ) Density (kgm -3 ) Modulus (GNm -2 ) Modulus (GNm -2 ) Material V L V T V S V O E G Aluminium 6350 3100 2900 5100 2710 70.8 26.5 Araldite 2500 1200 Concrete 4600 2000 Brass (Naval) 4430 2120 1950 3490 8100 98.4 36.4 Copper 4660 2260 1930 3710 8900 122.7 45.5 Lead (Pure) 2160 700 630 1200 11400 16.1 5.6 Air 333 1 Bronze, Phosphor (5%) 3530 2230 2010 3430 8860 Lead, Antimony (6%) 2160 810 740 1370 10900 Steel (Structural) 5940 3250 7850 213.3 82.9 Steel 5850 3230 2790 5170 7800 Steel Stainless 302 5660 3120 3120 4900 8030 Steel Stainless 410 7390 2990 2160 5030 7670 Water 1490 1000 Motor Oil 1740 870 Transformer Oil 1380 920 Nylon 2620 1080 1100 3.59 1.28 Polyethylene 2340 925 940 2.26 0.80 Perspex (Plexi-glass) 2730 1430 1180 6.33 2.41 Table 8.8 Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes in Selected Materials 4 Ultrasonic Wavelength A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity of any ultrasonic test is being assessed. The method of calculation is shown in the following equations. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 119 of 253
For example, to calculate the wavelength for a 20 kHz ultrasonic compression wave in aluminium: -
Now calculate the wavelength for a 5 MHz compression probe in steel. (Answer 1.17 x 10-3m or 1.17mm) What would the wavelength be if it were a shear wave? (Answer 6.46 x 10-4m or 0.646mm) Because the wavelength depends on the velocity of sound, the wavelength of the ultrasonic signal will change when it passes from one material into another. For example, when an ultrasonic compression wave passes from perspex into steel, (perspex would be the material used for the shoe of the transducer and steel the work piece), the wavelength in steel would be larger than that in the perspex as the velocity of sound in perspex is smaller than the velocity in steel. Refer to Table 8.9 and Figure 8.9 below.
Figure 8.9 Compression Wave Passing From One Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 120 of 253
5 Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials As the ultrasonic signal propagates through a material a pressure or stress front will be initiated in the material which will present resistance to the passage of the sound wave energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties of the material. This is a useful parameter of a material and must be determined if the pressure or stress magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be determined. 5.1 Acoustic Impedance (Z) The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance (Z). It is the product of density () and acoustic velocity (V). That is: - Z = x V (For a compression wave, V would be VL). 5.2 Acoustic Attenuation A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it passes through the material. Large amounts of attenuation will reduce the penetrability of the wave and a loss of the back wall reflection could be caused by this effect. The main physical phenomena that attenuate the ultrasonic signal are, Scattering Diffusion Viscous damping losses Relaxation losses The first two are due to the wave motion of the ultrasound and the second two are due to the effect of stressing the atoms in the material. 5.3 The Decibel System It is usual to measure the amplitude performance or how much a signal is attenuated in terms of the ratio of one signal to another; e.g. input to output; in the case of an amplifier the output is larger than the input, while with an attenuator the reverse is the case. It is therefore consistent to measure the attenuation of a signal using this technique. It is not an absolute measurement but gives the relationship of the decay of the power in a signal as it passes through a piece of material. Figure 8.10 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 121 of 253
Figure 8.10 Power in the Ultrasonic Signal Will Decrease With Distance into the Material The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the peaks of the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
P 1 and P 2 can be any successive two peaks. This can be calculated mathematically by logarithms using the formula: - 20 Log 10 V1/V2 dB This last expression is a standard ultrasonic formula for calculating the attenuation of a signal in dB. For example, what is the attenuation of the ultrasonic signal between the first and second echo for the signals shown in Figure 8.11 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 122 of 253
Figure 8.11 Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal between the First and Second Echoes
= 20 log10 (1.5) = 20 x 0.1761 = 3.52 dB What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would it be if V2 were one-tenth V1? (Answer 6 dB and 20 dB) The last two calculated results are most important, as they are both utilised in practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is halved that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop. A table showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as Table 8.12. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 123 of 253
Decibel Gain Ratio V 1 to V 2 Comments 0 1.0 No change, the ratio is 1:1 2 1.26 4 1.6 6 2.0 Double the value (half for loss) ration 2:1 8 2.5 10 3.2 12 4.0 Four fold (or quarter for loss) ratio 4:1 14 5.0 16 6.3 18 7.9 20 10.0 Ten fold (or one tenth for loss) ratio 10:1 Table 8.12 Decibel Gain for the Range 0 to 20 dB 5.4 The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a know speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the laws of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it passes through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to determine what happens when the wave meets an interface. An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (e.g. water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.). An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the back surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack or a porosity bubble are boundaries also. At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel of the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law of reflection for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the law of refraction (Snells Law) for the wave that passes into the second material (material 2). 5.4.1 Law of Reflection This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to the interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same as the angle that the incident wave makes with the same normal angle. Figure 8.13 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 124 of 253
Figure 8.13 Reflection of an Ultrasound Wave from an Interface When the angle of incidence is 0 o the reflected angle is also 0 o so the wave is reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness measurement using ultrasonic compression waves. 5.4.2 Law of Refraction At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass into the second material. The path in the second material will still be a straight line, but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of the incident wave, as it will have been turned through an angle that can be determined by Snells Law. Snells Law of Refraction states that: -
Angle need not be larger than as shown in Figure 8.14. The value of is determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The wavelength will always change between the two materials. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 125 of 253
Figure 8.14 Snells Law The constant in Snells Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two materials, so that Snells Law can be written: - As there are two velocities of sound in a material, VL and VT, if the incident wave can cause these then there will be two resulting refracted waves. Now an incident compression (longitudinal) wave at an angle can produce two stress waves, or forces, at the interface, as it has a component parallel to the interface given by sine that will produce a shear wave in material 2 and a normal component given by cos that will produce a compression wave in material 2. See Figure 8.15. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 126 of 253 Figure 8.15 Force Exerted by the Incident Wave on the Interface Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident direction by an angle determined by Snells Law and the velocity of sound in the two materials. Figure 8.16 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 127 of 253 Figure 8.16 Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material 2 is determined from Snells Law, which gives: - VL 1 = velocity of sound in 1 VL 2 = velocity of sound in 2 Therefore L is the angle whose sine is equal to: - The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material 2 is again determined using Snells Law, except that this time the velocity of sound of the shear wave V T2 is used in the equation, so that: - Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material 2 ( T ) is the angle whose sine is: - Example: - Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 128 of 253 Determine the resultant wave angle and wavelengths when an ultrasonic compression wave of 50 kHz travelling in perspex meets an interface with steel at an angle of 10 o to the normal. From Table 8.9 V L in perspex is 2730 ms -1
V L in steel is 5850ms -1
V T in steel is 3230ms -1
The incident compression wave in perspex will, on meeting the interface, produce three ultrasonic waves. o A reflected compression wave in the perspex o A refracted compression wave in the steel o A refracted shear wave in the steel See Figure 8.17. Figure 8.17 Diagram of Wave Configuration from a Perspex Block at 10 o
5.4.2.1 The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10 o to the normal. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 129 of 253 The wavelength of the reflected wave will be the same as the incident wave, as they are both compressive and travelling at the same speed. The wavelength is calculated from the equation: - 5.4.2.2 Refracted Compression Wave in the Steel For this wave Snells Law gives the angle of refraction thus: - The wavelength of the compression wave in steel is: - 5.4.2.3 The Refracted Shear Wave in the Steel Similarly Snells Law gives: -
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 130 of 253 The wavelength of the shear wave in steel is given by: - 5.4.2.4 First and Second Critical Angles If the last calculations are followed and projected it will be seen there are two critical angles. These are angles of inclination of the incident wave at which the ultrasonic compression or shear wave will not pass into material 2 from material 1. The first critical angle is when the refracted compression wave angle (path 4 in Figure 8.17) is 90 O . This means, of course, that the only wave transmitted is the shear wave. As the incident angle to the normal increases, the second critical angle is reached. At this angle, the shear wave is passing along the interface as a surface wave, having gone through a change of mode. Show that for the data given in the previous example, the first critical angle is 27.8 o and the second critical angle is 57.7 o . 6 Test Frequency The test frequency used for flaw detection in land-based equipment varies with different applications. Table 8.18 gives some examples of frequency and application. Applications Frequency Range Concrete Wood Natural rocks 25 100 kHz Coarse grain metal structures (e.g. cast iron, copper, stainless steel) 200 kHz 1 MHz Finer grain metal structures 400 kHz 5 MHz Plastics 200 kHz 2.25 MHz Forgings 1 10 MHz Welds 1 2.25 MHz Table 8.18 Selected Applications and Frequencies 7 Ultrasonic Transducers A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form to another. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 131 of 253 In the case of the ultrasonic transducer, it transforms high frequency electrical signals to the same high frequency mechanical signals and vice versa. There are two possible types of device for doing this. At the lower frequency end of the scale (below 100 kHz) a magneto-strictive device is used, and above this range Piezo electric devices are used. At the moment, ultrasonic non-destructive testing uses Piezo electric devices, while magneto-strictive devices are widely used in sonar and underwater signalling. Magneto-strictive devices use the expansion and contraction of magnetic materials under the influence of a varying magnetic field, to generate a mechanical pulse from a magnetic signal. The device also works in reverse, the input of a mechanical signal generating a magnetic signal. The Piezo electric transducer makes use of the property that certain crystalline and ceramic materials have whereby, if the material is subjected to a mechanical extension of contraction, it generates an electrical signal related to the size of the mechanical input. This effect is also reversible; an electrical signal will generate mechanical extensions and contractions. Early transducers were made from quartz, and Rochelle salt crystals, but now they are made from a range of synthetic crystalline and ceramic materials that include barium titanate, lithium sulphate and potassium zirconium titanate. In practice the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with electrodes; often silver foil, to apply the voltage across the crystal if it is acting as a transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from it if it is acting as a receiver. The crystal is attached to the case by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing but also as a backing to the crystal. The backing has a significant influence on the transducers performance. Its impedance controls the bandwidth of the transducer and the damping of the crystals ring. For maximum damping, the impedance of the backing must equal the impedance of the crystal. Also, it must have the ability to attenuate completely the sonic energy transmitted from the back of the Piezo electric element so that this signal is prevented from returning to the back of the Piezo electric crystal, which would thereby produce an unwanted signal. A shoe is added to protect the crystal from physical damage or wear, and also from the environment. Most transducers are completely sealed units. Furthermore, the shoe can be shaped to act as a lens. In this respect, sound waves behave like light waves and acoustic lenses are designed in a similar manner to light lenses. The shoe should absorb as little of the sound as possible and so its impedance is usually selected to be between the crystal and the material with which the transducer is in contact. Shoes are often constructed of perspex. Also, a probe that operates in a shear mode can be produced from a Piezo electric crystal that operates in a longitudinal mode, by having a wedge-shaped shoe. The wedge shape directs the longitudinal wave at an angle to the surface of the test part. Depending on the angle of incidence, this will produce partial or total conversion of the longitudinal wave into a shear wave, as previously seen. Figure 8.19 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 132 of 253
Figure 8.19 Basic Arrangement of a Single Crystal Transducer 7.1 Types of Transducers (Probes) There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only necessary to be familiar with the main types. All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test specimen with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is dependant on the actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types of probe. Single Crystal Probes Twin Crystal Probes Compression or Zero Degree Probes Angle Probes 7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that both transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic characteristics of this transducer are quite specific and the selected crystals possess particular characteristics. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical energy that is passed onto the receiver amplifier. So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely separated from the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure 8.19 indicates the main design features of a single crystal compression probe. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 133 of 253 7.1.2 Twin Crystal Probes This type of transducer has separate crystals for transmission and reception. The two crystals are mounted in the same housing but are carefully isolated from each other electrically and acoustically. The material properties of the crystals are quite different from those of the single crystal probe because the two crystals are not required to ring down in order to receive. One is constantly transmitting while the other is constantly receiving. The electrical isolation is achieved by providing two co-axial connectors one for transmit and one to receive, while the acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork. This is the arrangement for the transducers mounted on the Baugh and Weedon Sea Probe and the Wells Krautkramer D meter. Figure 8.20 refers.
Figure 8.20 Twin Crystal Compression Probe 7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into the test specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and the signal passes directly through the specimen at the normal. This type of probe may be single or twin crystal. Figures 8.19 and 8.20 refer 7.1.4 Angle Probes Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the case of normal angle probes. The angle is determined to either match the weld angle of preparation or to introduce the beam at an angle most propitious to reflect from internal defects. As has been shown this type of probe, in accordance with Snells Law, can produce shear and compression waves, purely shear waves or surface waves depending on the probe angle. Figure 8.21 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 134 of 253
Figure 8.21 Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge Producing a Shear Wave in the Material 7.2 Probe Selection Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics. Single crystal probes have: Advantages Good power output Greater penetration Disadvantages Poor near zone resolution Cannot measure thin plate accurately Twin crystal probes: Advantages Good near zone resolution Initial pulse and dead zone are contained in the shoe Can be focused to any depth Can measure thin plate Disadvantages Less power output Less penetration 8 Couplant Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 135 of 253 the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids, greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it would not enter the work piece. 9 The Ultrasonic Beam In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam exactly. The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far Zone (or Far Region). 9.1 The Dead Zone This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that cannot differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference caused by ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is due to the crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking time to return to rest. During this ringing period spurious harmonic frequencies are produced and while the crystal is being stimulated electrically it cannot simultaneously be stimulated mechanically. The volume of this region is extremely dependant upon the electronic circuitry that governs pulse length, amplifier recovery time gain setting and selection of the crystal itself. This region is usually of the order of 1 to 3 wavelengths in depth and the probe designer will normally construct the probe so that it is contained within the dimensions of the shoe. This region of the beam cannot be used for testing. 9.2 The Near Zone This is the name given to the cylindrical portion of the beam that extends from the face of the crystal to a predictable depth. As it commences at the crystal face it includes the dead zone. The depth or length of the near zone is calculated using the expression: - D = crystal diameter 4 = constant = wavelength This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in one material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 136 of 253 allowance must be made for the change in near zone length as the ultrasonic beam travels from one material into another with a consequent change in wavelength. It is possible to identify reflectors in the near zone but it is not possible to size defects because of the variations in signal intensity that is a characteristic of this region. 9.3 The Far Zone In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical shape to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight beam. The boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of the maximum power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of reduced power, either a 6 dB or 20 dB drop. The angle of spread of the cone is defined as , (in Figure 8.22 the cone angle is indicated as being /2, which shows the actual angle of spread from the edge of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle at the face of the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the angle of spread of the far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is /2: - = wavelength D = diameter of the crystal k = constant (for 6 dB drop k = 0.56 for 20 dB drop k = 1.06) This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness measurement, flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic energy of the beam decays exponentially according to an inverse square rule and is therefore predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable interfering signals in this region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected signal. Figure 8.22 refers.
Figure 8.22 The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam and the Beam Energy Envelope Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 137 of 253 10 Principles of Ultrasonic Testing There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing. The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic beam due to absorption by the flaw. This often involves the transformation of energy due to the internal friction of the defect or a failure to transmit energy across the air gap of the defect. This is sometimes referred to as the shadow method. It can be referred to as a through transmission technique also. Figure 8.23 refers.
Figure 8.23 Flaw Detection by Decrease in Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The principle is illustrated in Figure 8.24 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 138 of 253
Figure 8.24 Flaw Detection by Reflection of the Ultrasonic Wave 11 Ultrasonic Test Systems From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the through transmission type of test is used or the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if the pulse/echo method is employed. A versatile test system will measure both the parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement the main use of ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time the ultrasonic signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 8.24 illustrates. A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in Figure 8.25 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 139 of 253
Figure 8.25 Basic Block Diagram of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles) electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is reflected back along the transmission path. This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal. 11.1 The Flaw Detector There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 140 of 253 oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo system. With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation. A-scan Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the beam path B-scan Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views C-scan Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect P-scan Adds all of the above together and gives a three-dimensional computer impression The most commonly used diver deployed flaw detector is an A-scan instrument. As an example of this type of instrument Figure 8.26 gives a drawing of the control panel of a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011. Figure 8.26 Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 141 of 253
11.2 A-scan Flaw Detector Controls All A-scan flaw detectors have the same basic controls because they are all manufactured to the same standards and specifications. Some may have additional features or built in computer chips but the basic controls are all the same. The standard controls are all illustrated on the drawing in Figure 8.27 and their functions starting at the top left of the diagram are: - Course Range Control This adjusts the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) in steps, which sets the basic pulse transmission rate of the set. This control is calibrated in centimetres up to 100 Fine Range Control This control adjusts the PRF continuously within the step set on the Course Range Control. These controls together set the time base of the set and calibrate to different ranges as required for different tests Delay Control This control moves the whole time base (X-axis) across the screen without altering the PRF. This control is used with the two range controls to complete the calibration procedure Battery Indicator A meter to indicate battery life Reject Control This control suppresses incoming signals and cleans up the display. It is analogous with the squelch control on a radio set. Care must be exercised with the use of this control as it may adversely affect sensitivity Fine Gain Control This is calibrated in 1 or 2 dB steps depending on the manufacturer here it is 2 dB. The gain controls are analogous with the volume control on a radio and together adjust the amplitude of the screen display and affect the sensitivity of the set Course Gain Control This is a calibrated attenuator calibrated in 20 dB steps On/Off Control Switches the set on and off. In this set this is also a fine gain control Transmit Coaxial Connector The coaxial connector to the transmitting crystal in a twin crystal probe is connected here Single/Double Probe Switch Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 142 of 253 Selects the mode of operation of the set for either single or twin crystal probe operation Receive Coaxial Connector The coaxial connector to the receiving crystal in a twin crystal probe is connected here Charging Connection The lead to the battery charger is connected here 11.2.1 A-scan Display If a thickness measuring system using a twin crystal probe with the unit displaying the information on a CRT is considered it will serve to illustrate how this type of flaw detector works. On the CRT a spot moves across the screen at a fixed speed set by the controls. This has two effects; the first is that as the speed is constant the distance measured across the screen represents time. The second is that the phosphors coating the inside of the screen have an after-glow that persists in between pulses to give an apparently constant display. The signal processor via the control panel can adjust the speed of scanning of the spot. Thus the display can be adjusted for different distances or thicknesses of material. The transmitted signal is indicated on the screen by the first rise or peak, and a second peak indicates the reflected signal. This second peak should represent the thickness of the material provided there is a clear defect free path as it will be the reflection from the back wall. If there is a defect inside the material this may present a reflecting surface to the signal. This situation is discussed later in paragraphs 13 to 15. Taking the second signal to be the reflection from the back wall the distance between the two peaks is the time (t) taken for the ultrasonic wave to travel across the material and return. The thickness of the material can then be calculated in the following way. Table 8.8 gives the speed of the longitudinal wave (V L ) in a selection of materials. For example, take the test material to be structural steel; the velocity of the longitudinal wave (V L ) is 5940 ms -1 . The time taken for the wave to cross this material and back is t seconds, measured from the trace on the CRT screen. The product of V L and t then gives the distance travelled by the ultrasonic wave in this test. This distance is twice the thickness of the material as the wave has to travel there and back, so the thickness of the material (d) is given by the following expression: - d = (V L x t) If a through transmission method was used, see Figure 8.23, that is where a receiver is placed on the opposite side from the transmitter, the thickness of the material would be given by: - d = V L x t Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 143 of 253 These expressions are based on Newtons Laws of Motion and are the basis for ultrasonic testing. However, as stated earlier A-scan instruments are provided with controls to adjust the CRT display, which is part of a calibration procedure. This procedure adjusts the instrument for time base and therefore electronically adjusts the value of V L . 12 A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo. A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in this process but following is outlined the procedure for a standard instrument so as to illustrate the various stages that must be completed to ensure a valid test is completed. 12.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the contracting party. 12.1.1 Reference Block A reference block is produced to agreed measurements and specifications, is manufactured to the same tolerances and surface finish as a calibration block and is used in the same way. The difference between this and a calibration block is that the reference block is intended to be used only for the specified task and is not intended to be used for general work on any other components. 12.1.2 Calibration Block There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing. The two most popular are the V1 and the V2 calibration blocks. A calibration block is manufactured to standard specifications and to international standards. It is produced from specified material and is machined to close tolerances and laid down standard of surface finish. All the dimensions on the block are also specified and it is used to calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. A sketch of the V1 calibration block in Figure 8.27 shows all the major dimensions. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 144 of 253
Figure 8.27 IIW V1 Block 12.2 Pre-calibration Checks For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged Switch on the set and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturers recommended time. This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating temperature and stabilise. 12.2.1 CRT Display Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the first transmitted pulse) on the screen Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between 10 mm and 1 m depending on the actual instrument). Select and connect the required probe. (For thickness measurement and lamination testing this will be a 0 o or normal angle compression probe either single or twin crystal). Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 145 of 253 12.2.2 Time Base Linearity Place the probe onto a calibration block and use the course and fine range (time base) controls to display four back wall echoes on the screen. Adjust the back wall echoes so that they are equally spaced along the X-axis, then adjust the second and fourth so that they are on the fifth and tenth divisions on the graticule. Provided this is achieved the time base is linear. 12.2.3 Linearity of Amplification Set the reject or suppression control to off or zero. Place the probe over the 1.5 mm diameter hole on a V1 calibration block. Adjust the gain controls to display the height of the reflected signal to 80% (8 divisions on the graticule) full screen height. Note the gain settings. Use the fine (2 dB or 1 dB) gain control to increase the signal by 2 dB. This represents the difference in height between 80% and 100%, that is a ratio of 4:5, which will in fact increase the signal on the screen by of its displayed height and the signal should be at full screen height. Readjust the fine gain control to attenuate the signal back to 80% full screen height. Attenuate the signal by 6 dB. This represents a decrease of and the signal therefore should reduce to 40% of full screen height. Now attenuate a further 12 dB. This represents a decrease of of the displayed signal and the height should then be 10% of the full screen height. If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not linear and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves stripping it down to readjust internal trim settings. 12.3 Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that is 25 mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen. Adjust the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal amplitude to 75% full screen height Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that four back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the X-axis As the screen on the CRT has a graticule that is divided into 10 equal segments the four echoes are adjusted to 2, 5, 7, and 10 divisions along the X-axis. See Figure 8.28 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 146 of 253
Figure 8.28 A-scan Flaw Detector Calibrated to 100 mm 12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size, although this would be a very sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order of 1 to 2 . Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the procedure agreed with the contracting party. The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is not lost in background clutter. The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is displayed at full screen height. An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference block at the maximum range for the test. Figure 8.27 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1 calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 147 of 253 12.3.2 Setting Resolution The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of displaying several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at the maximum range of the test. This may be accomplished using an agreed and specified reference block. The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the step, cut out and back wall on the V1 block. Figure 8.29 refers. Figure 8.29 A Method For Setting Resolution 13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area. If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and determine its shape. 13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height. The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed on the screen reduces in amplitude. The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced to the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB reduction in signal Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 148 of 253 strength, which gives this method its name. The reason for this reduction at this point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is being reflected from the flaw while the remainder of that signal is now not reflected but continues on its transmission path through the material. The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on the surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire outline of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate. The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary. Figure 8.30 refers. Figure 8.30 6 dB Drop Method 13.2 Lamination Plotting Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is scanned with a compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure 8.31 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 149 of 253
Figure 8.31 Scanning for Laminations 14 Digital Thickness Meters Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the material under test at the normal angle. The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is shown in Figure 8.33. Figure 8.33 Schematic Block Diagram of the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 150 of 253 Of course in a working digital thickness meter the CRT is replaced by either a liquid crystal display (LCD) or a light emitting diode (LED) digital display. For underwater use the LED is preferred as it is easier to read in low light. The most widely used instrument for thickness measurement underwater is the digital thickness meter. Instruments manufactured by Baugh and Weedon, Wells Krautkramer, and Cygnus have all been employed for this purpose. 14.1 Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings For the purpose of stating a typical procedure for taking digital thickness readings the Baugh and Weedon Sea Probe (See Figure 8.37) will be considered. This instrument has been used extensively in offshore applications and a procedure for this type of DTM will also be valid for any other type. A block diagram of the instrument as shown in Figure 8.34 will help to illustrate the procedure. Figure 8.34 Block Diagram of a Sea Probe Digital Thickness Meter If Figure 8.34 is compared with 8.25 it will be seen that the circuitry is exactly similar except for the method of display. The actual procedure for taking wall thickness readings will be: - o Ensure the DTM is fully charged prior to use o Ensure that a properly qualified inspector is available to conduct the survey o Take calibration readings and record these onto the appropriate data sheet. (Strictly speaking this is a confirmation reading as the type of instrument referred to here is factory calibrated) o These readings are best done on a reference block in the form of a step wedge to confirm the instrument is in calibration over its entire test range o Record the serial number of the instrument, and the calibration or reference block Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 151 of 253 o Complete a visual inspection of the test surface. o This should be clean and free from marine fouling and rust cleaning standard SA 2. o For a Sea Probe coatings should be removed. (This is not necessary with a Cygnus DTM) o Take a calibration reading on the work site o Take a reading and record the result. Continue this process to complete the survey. o Any readings that are outside the CNC must be repeated to verify accurate results. Any readings thinner than expected may indicate either laminations, reduced material thickness or possibly an internal flaw. These readings should be checked with a flaw detector to verify the situation. o On completion of the survey take a final calibration reading on the work site o Wash off the meter in clean potable water, dry and store in a clean, dry environment o Report all results Figure 8.35 illustrates a typical ultrasonic data sheet Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 152 of 253
Figure 8.35 Typical Ultrasonic Inspection Data Sheet 14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen. It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test. The beam may reflect from an inclusion The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at all Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 153 of 253 If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to different sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the DTM Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion pit because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the meter will only display the depth to the back wall If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so much reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at all Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the reflected signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will be displayed All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose. Figure 8.36 refers. Figure 8.36 Possible Problems Associated With a DTM Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 154 of 253 Figure 8.37 Sea Probe SP 200 Underwater Digital Thickness Meter 15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure 8.37) and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness. With these instruments this reading is based on the value of V L for structural steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply divide the meter reading by the value of V L for steel and multiply by the value of V L for the new material. For example, if a measurement is made on aluminium the reading obtained is multiplied by 6350 and divided by 5940 to give the correct thickness measurement for aluminium. Say the meter indicates 30.5 mm. Then the required thickness for aluminium is: -
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 155 of 253 16 The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes Angle probes as their name indicates propagate the ultrasonic signal into the material at an angle. As mentioned earlier the actual angle will be determined by the expected orientation of the flaws that are being scanned for. Most frequently these will lie on the fusion boundary of a weld and therefore the probe angle will be the same as the angle of preparation. This will ensure that any signal reflected from a flaw will be returned along the same path as the transmission signal because the angle of reflection will equal the incident angle. There are standard probes available for 45 o and 60 o as these angles are common preparation angles in structural welds. Other angles may be calculated by trigonometry and the application of Snells Law. Figure 8.38 refers. Figure 8.38 Angle Probe Scanning the Preparation Face of a Weld The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is reduced to 1/10 th using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe. 17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern. Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls Wash off all housings with potable water Charge all batteries in accordance with manufactures recommendations Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas and cause an explosive hazard) Store equipment is a dry warm place Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 8 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 156 of 253 Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged get it repaired Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Ultrasonic Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 157 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 158 of 253 CHAPTER 9 Magnetic Particle Inspection 1 History of Magnetism Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE 3 O 4 ) attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction. This gave rise to its name loadstone, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning way or course. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in early navigational devices. The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an artificial magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar produced a power in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This power, named after him, was called magnetism. In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a current- carrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is now known as electro-magnetism. 2 Types of Magnetism There are three types of magnetism: - Ferromagnetism This is shown by materials which can be strongly magnetised and which show good magnetic properties Paramagnetism This is shown by materials, which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic fields Diamagnetism Materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field show this type of magnetism. Any externally applied magnetic field induces a like magnetic field within the material; hence repulsion occurs. Table 9.1 lists some common materials and their magnetic properties. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 159 of 253
FERROMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC Iron Platinum Bismuth Nickel Palladium Antimony Cobalt Most non-ferrous metals Most non-metals Steel Oxygen Concrete Table 9.1 Magnetic Properties Exhibited by a Selection of Materials
3 Theory of Magnetism In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and by electron spin, which is the rotation of the electron about its own axis. When the material is un-magnetised, the domains lie distributed randomly and their magnetic effects cancel each other. See Figure 9.2 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 160 of 253
Figure 9.2 Magnetic Domains If an external magnetic field is applied to the material the domains are aligned north to south in a common direction. Hence, one end of the material will be the north pole and the other the south pole. Figure 9.3 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 161 of 253 Figure 9.3 Material in a Magnetised State 3.1 Polarity When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be concentrated at these points. The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is said to be the pole that points towards the earths North Pole; the south pole of the magnet pointing towards the earths South Pole. Magnetic poles show attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles attracting. See Figure 9.4 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 162 of 253
Figure 9.4 Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract
3.2 Magnetic Field This is described as the area surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic field. These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday as a means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density) of a magnetic field. The symbol used for magnetic flux is and the SI unit is the weber (1 Wb = 10 8 Mx). The CGS unit is the Maxwell (Mx) and 1 Mx = 10 -8 Wb. The Tesla (T) is the SI unit used in practical magnetic particle inspection (MPI) 1 T = 1 Wb. 3.2.1 Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force The magnetic lines of force- They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs Travel from the north pole to the south pole externally Travel from south pole to north pole internally They form a closed loop They all have the same strength Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 163 of 253 Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles They do not cross They seek the path of least resistance They are in constant tension Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability They prefer to travel in materials that easily accept magnetic fields See Figure 9.4 and 9.5 Figure 9.5 Magnetic Field Surrounding a Bar Magnet The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 9.6 and 9.7. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 164 of 253
Figure 9.6 Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor Figure 9.7 Diagram of a Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor (Figures 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 attributed to University of Iowa) 4 Flux Density (B) Magnetic flux density is a term used to describe the amount of magnetism within a specimen and is abbreviated by the letter B. When a magnetising force Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 165 of 253 is applied, lines of force of magnetism will be created within the specimen, the number of lines depends on the size of the magnetising force. These lines represent the magnetic force, and the flux density is the term applied to the quantity of them that emerge per unit cross section of the specimen. The unit of flux density is defined as the density of a magnetic field in which a conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that field has a force of 1 Newton per metre acting on it. In the SI system this unit is called a Tesla (T). In the CGS system of units, this was called a gauss (G) and 1 G = 10 -4 T (1 T = 10 4 G). Flux density is measured as B Tesla. When a magnetic field is induced in a work piece by an electric current flowing in a cable arranged either as a coil or parallel conductors the input electrical force is called the magnetising force (H), and can be defined in the following way. Consider a very long coil (like a solenoid) uniformly wound with N turns per meter and let the current flowing in this coil be 1 ampere. Then the magnetising force H in this coil is N x 1 ampere-turns per meter. (In common practice the word turns is omitted so that the units H are Am -1 . In the CGS units this is called Orsted (Oe) and: - This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI. In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B = o H. The value of o is 4 x 10 -7 (T Am -1 ) and represents the permeability of free space (sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant). In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol r (for air r = 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000). Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 9.8 gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic materials, including steel. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 166 of 253
Figure 9.8 Variation of Relative Permeability With Magnetising Force When magnetising a piece of steel using an electrical magnetising force, there is not a uniform increase in flux density with a uniform increase in magnetising force see Figure 9.9. Figure 9.9 Induced Magnetic Field Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 167 of 253 The flux density rises rapidly to point A on the diagram and thereafter rises very much less rapidly as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field; i.e. there is a very small rise in flux density for a very large rise in magnetising force. The shape of this characteristic and the saturation value varies from material to material. The graph shown in Figure 9.10 shows flux density values for different magnetising currents for a field being set up in one direction by a DC supply. If the field is set up by an AC supply, then the magnetic field will experience a complete reversal of direction for each cycle and successive cycles will trace out a loop for the relationship between magnetising force and flux density. This is known as the HYSTERESIS LOOP. Figure 9.11 refers. Figure 9.10 Variation of Flux Density With Magnetising Force Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 168 of 253
Figure 9.11 Hysteresis Loop In Figure 9.11 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 9.9. After point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then passes through H c to B r then to P, which is the maximum flux density for the magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and the flux density reduces to H c and as the current increases in the opposite direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out the hysteresis loop P, H c , P, H c , P. The loop shows that energy is used up each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get quite hot. The value of B r indicates that when the magnetising force is removed the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual magnetism in the USA) and H c is the magnetising force required to remove it. This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 9.15 following refers. 4.1 Remanence or Residual Magnetism Remanence or residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. (Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.). The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use the Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 169 of 253 ideas of relative permeability and remanence have given them a more fundamental explanation. 4.2 Retentivity When the magnetising force is removed, the amount of magnetism retained varies from material to material and this effect was know as retentivity that is a measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point B r on the hysteresis curve, Figure 9.11). The amount has been related to the permeability of the material and the general rule was that material with high permeability having low retentivity while those with low permeability have high retentivity. Modern permanent magnets are generally made from low permeability/high retentivity special alloys that have been subjected to large magnetising forces. See Table 9.12. 4.3 Permeability () Permeability has been defined as the ease with which a material can be magnetised. Of course, it is only some of the ferromagnetic group that are usefully magnetised. Those that are easy to magnetise are: - Soft iron Low carbon steel These were said to have high permeability. As a contrast high carbon steel, which required more magnetising force to produce the same amount of magnetisation, was said to have low permeability. See Table 9.12 4.4 Coercive Force The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point H c on the hysteresis curve). 4.5 Reluctance This is another term that has been in use for many years in MPI. It is a term used to describe the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit, however it does not have units while resistance does of course. (This term is sometimes used as the opposite of permeability; low permeability would indicate high reluctance and visa versa). Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 170 of 253
Low Permeability (Difficult to magnetise) High Permeability (Easily magnetised) High Retentivity Low Retentivity High Remanence Low Remanence High Reluctance Low Reluctance High Coercivity to demagnetise Low Coercivity to demagnetise Table 9.12 The Relationship Between Permeability and Retentivity 4.6 Demagnetising After a work piece is magnetised for inspection a residual magnetic field will remain, the strength of this field will depend on the retentivity of the material. 4.6.1 Measuring the Residual Field Applying a Field Strength Indicator to the work piece will assess the magnitude of the residual field. This is a sensitive meter that has a small bar magnet mounted on a bearing built in. This magnet will swing to align itself with any magnetic field that is present in the test area. These meters may be calibrated, in which case the magnitude of the residual field may be read off directly, or they may be un-calibrated. It must be emphasised that these meters are only for measuring residual field strength. They are far too sensitive to measure the magnitude of the induced field applied for an inspection and will be damaged if they are attempted to be used for this purpose. See Figures 9.13 and 9.14 Figure 9.13 Field Strength Indicator Diagram Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 171 of 253 Figure 9.14 Field Indicator This residual field should be removed: - Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that would reduce the sensitivity of the inspection o A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be unpredictable On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earths magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic or electrical equipment Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow As required before any other process is initiated that may be affected by stray residual magnetic fields The process is illustrated in Figure 9.15 and only requires that the hysteresis be collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by reducing the magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in the diagram. Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil around the site to be demagnetised then using a rheostat to wind down the current as opposed to switching it off which would leave a residual field. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 172 of 253
Figure 9.15 Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop To Demagnetise a Material There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with a rheostat. 4.7 AC Aperture Coil A pre-formed coil consisting of a large number of windings with internal diameters up to approximately 1 m is connected to an AC supply. The supply is switched on, which generates a strong magnetic field surrounding the coil. This equipment is bench mounted. Any component that is to be demagnetised is passed slowly through the coil along its axis and withdrawn approximately 1 to 2 m. As the component is withdrawn it cuts fewer and fewer lines of flux, which collapses the hysteresis. See Figure 9.16 Figure 9.16 AC Coil Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 173 of 253 As an alternative to withdrawing the component it may be left in place and the current reduced by a rheostat as outlined above. This also collapses the hysteresis again demagnetising the component, which may then be removed. 4.8 Reversing DC Aperture Coil This is a time consuming method, which will not be used offshore but is applied when it is necessary to demagnetise strong residual fields that have been induced by a DC force or strong permanent magnets. The component is placed in the coil then a DC is applied that is high enough to produce a magnetic field stronger than the residual field. The polarity is then reversed and the current reduced in measured steps to ensure the residual field is reduced by each step. This process is continued until the residual field is reduced to zero. See Figure 9.17 Figure 9.17 Reversing DC Coil 4.9 AC Electromagnets If an AC induced the residual field it can be removed by stroking with an electromagnet. The stroking is accomplished in a circular manner ensuring the return path is as far removed from the metal surface as possible. Figure 9.18 refers. Figure 9.18 Demagnetising With an AC Yoke (This method may also be applied with a permanent magnet.) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 174 of 253 4.10 Other Methods to Demagnetise Demagnetising can be accomplished by heating the component up to the Curie point (700 720 o C). This method is not applied offshore. It is possible to demagnetise by vibrating or beating the component but this has no practical application. 5 Producing Magnetic Fields This system of inspection is based on the phenomenon that the path of the magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material is distorted because inhomogeneities (like cracks, blowholes, inclusions, grain boundaries etc.) have different magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding material. All systems of magnetic non-destructive testing need some method of detecting this distortion of the magnetic flux, most often called flux leakage. Of course all such systems need a method for producing the magnetic field in the first instance. 5.1 Magnetisation The magnetic field can be set up in a magnetic material in the following ways: - Align the test piece North South in the earths magnetic field Heat the test piece to the Curie point and align North/South Induced Magnetism: by the use of a permanent magnet Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current directly through the work piece Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current through a conductor close to the work piece The first two methods are only of interest in a laboratory and are of no further interest. The last three methods are applied underwater mainly by diver inspectors but could also be utilised by ROV 5.1.1 Use of Permanent Magnets (This also applies to electro-magnets) A U shaped magnet is used, the work piece completing the magnetic path or circuit between the poles. The lines of flux that normally exist between the poles are concentrated in the work piece, instead of returning through the air because the work piece completes the magnetic circuit in the same manner as a keeper normally acts. Figures 9.19A and B refer. The direction of the magnetic field set up using a permanent magnet is shown in Figure 9.19A. The maximum disturbance to the magnetic field and hence the maximum flux leakage is caused by defects that are at right angles to the field. This of course is true no matter how the magnetic field is produced. Figure 9.19C and D refer. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 175 of 253
Figure 9.19 Permanent Magnets Inducing Magnetic Flux 5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934- 1:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current). The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at least 18 kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The area that can be inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the pole spacing at right angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak the field will be insufficient to give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a dense accumulation of iron particles from the detection medium will make the patterns difficult to interpret, especially in the region of the pole pieces. On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between the pole pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces, flat for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces. For more complicated shapes, for example when examining the weld at 12 oclock on the joint of a vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as well as being shaped in order to make good contact. Figure 9.20 refers Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 176 of 253 Figure 9.20 Flexible Pole Electro-magnet Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and removed from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this system does need an electrical supply. 5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages and the use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception. 5.1.3.1 Advantages Magnets are cheap and readily available No power supply is required for permanent magnets There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece, thus arching or damage to the surface is avoided They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily They are relatively lightweight 5.1.3.2 Disadvantages All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a magnet is used it will loose a small amount of its strength They only produce a direct longitudinal field. There is no skin effect. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 177 of 253 The magnet will have to be physically removed from the work piece which will take some force if it is a 18 kg lift magnet or stronger. There is no control over field strength; the magnet only has one value. This may cause saturation in some circumstances. The magnetic poles on the magnet may attract the iron particles in the indicating medium and mask defect indications in the region adjacent to the poles. Good pole contact is extremely desirable to ensure maximum flux density in the work piece. 5.2 Electromagnet (or Yoke) Electromagnets are constructed of a soft iron laminated core around which is wound very many turns of insulated copper wire thus forming a coil. The reason for using a laminated core is to reduce inductance when the current is flowing. If an AC electromagnet is used the induced magnetic field will exhibit the skin effect. The method of application is as shown for a permanent magnet. 5.2.1 Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets The strength for an electromagnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934- 1:2001. The requirement is that the electromagnet must be able to lift 4 kilograms with pole spacing up to 300 mm. As with permanent magnets the inspection area should be between the poles. See Figures 9.20 and 9.21 Figure 9.21 Electromagnet 5.2.2 Advantages Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the metal surface Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 178 of 253 Mains power can be used there is no need for a transformer Will not damage the work piece Lightweight AC electromagnets can be used to demagnetise 5.2.3 Disadvantages A power supply is required Only longitudinal magnetisation can be generated Mains voltage is carried directly in the yoke There must be good pole contact on the metal surface to ensure adequate flux flow in the work piece 5.3 Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece Induced magnetism is achieved by using contact prods to pass an electric current directly through the work piece. Sometimes these prods are clamped in place but mainly they are hand held. (This method has been a recommended method for magnetisation in Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977, Appendix 1, In-service Inspection.). Passing a current through the work piece produces a circular field between the contact points as shown in Figure 9.22. The orientation of this field can be seen to be different to that produced by permanent magnets, which is longitudinal. The magnitude of the current employed will depend on: The plate thickness Prod separation The current requirement as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 is that for every 1 mm prod separation 4 to 5 Amperes current is required. This means that if the prod separation is 200 mm between 800 and 1000 Amps are required. (This requirement is equivalent to 100 Amps per one-inch prod separation). Figure 9.22 Magnetic Field Produced by Current Flow Prods Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 179 of 253 When using this technique, care must be taken to ensure that the contact areas are sufficiently clean to pass the current required without arching or burning. To ensure that arching is avoided the following applies: - Do not turn on the magnetising current until there is full and adequate prod contact Turn the power off before the prods are removed from the test surface The prods should have soft tips to assist with good prod contact Use only low voltage The prods may be separate, when two hands are required, or mounted on a bar, which allows one-handed operation. Direct or alternating current (DC or AC) may be used. DC produces magnetic fields that penetrate deeper into the work piece. AC produces a skin effect which confines the current and therefore the magnetic field, to the surface skin of the metal. 5.3.1 Alternating Current Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the United States, 60 cycles current is the commercial norm but 50 cycles current is standard in the UK. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as skin effect and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. See Figure 9.23 Figure 9.23 Skin Effect in a Circular Component Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 180 of 253 When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength rises from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface. However, the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is the "skin effect." It should also be remembered that with AC the field is constantly varying in strength and direction. OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit that is purpose designed and built for underwater use. See Figure 9.24. Figure 9.24 OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit and Current Flow Prods In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed below 5.3.2 Advantages Either AC or DC may be used Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V) Adjusting current output will control Field strength There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods 5.3.3 Disadvantages Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface There is a danger of overheating the equipment If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result 5.4 Induced Magnetism Using a Coil A conductor carrying a current induces a circular magnetic field around it as shown with prods. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials near the conductor will be in this magnetic field and lines of magnetic flux will be concentrated in them as they have less magnetic resistance than air. However, a different shaped magnetic field will be produced if the conductor is wound in the form of a coil around the material to be tested. See Figure 9.25 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 181 of 253
Figure 9.25 Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism. This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to show how the technique may be applied. 5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under inspection is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 9.26 refers. Figure 9.26 Evenly Spaced Coil Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 182 of 253 The current requirement for this technique is determined from the formulas: - Where I = Required current (DC) T = Wall thickness of the work piece Y = Coil spacing 4 = Constant 7.5 = constant If AC is to be used the formula is modified to: - Where I = Required current (AC) 10 = Constant Y = Coil spacing 7.7 = Constant As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece the thickness of the material is of no consequence therefore another constant 10 replaces T. 5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil to ensure an adequate flux density in this area. Figure 9.27 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 183 of 253
Figure 9.27 Close Wrapped Coil The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: - Where I peak = The peak current value (AC) r = The radius of the coil (mm) N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3) 16 = Constant The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 1.0 Tesla should be present is given by the formula: - Where d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0 T) N = Number of turns in the coil I = Peak current (Amps) 30 = Constant It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the conductor into a configuration called parallel loops, see Figure 9.28 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 184 of 253
Figure 9.28 Parallel Loops This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The loop has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is moving in the same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to cancel instead of reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area as shown in Figure 9.28. The direction of the field may be ascertained by applying the right hand rule. The required current may be found by applying the formula: - I peak (ac) = 30 x d It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed. 5.4.2.1 The Right Hand Rule If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a thumbs up gesture and the fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional current flow and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic field produced. See Figure 9.29 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 185 of 253
Figure 9.29 The Right Hand Rule The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique. Current up to 1000 Amps can be used. See Figure 9.30 Figure 9.31 OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit Showing Flexible Cables Connected That May be used as Parallel Conductors or Encircling Coils Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 186 of 253 This method of magnetising ferromagnetic materials offers development potential for producing adequate magnetic fields for inspecting structures that have complicated shapes, like nodes and pipe intersections. It was shown some 30 years age by Lumb and Winship in their paper on Magnetic Particle Crack Detection printed in Metal Construction, July and August 1977, that this method of magnetising could give good uniformity in the magnetic field between the parallel sides of the loop. 5.4.3 Advantages Flexible cables can be positioned relatively easily Large areas can be inspected with one placement of the coil or loop The field strength and thus flux density can be adjusted Demagnetising is easily achieved 5.4.4 Disadvantages A relatively weak field is produced Long cables are required Large, heavy step-down transformers are required Isolating transformers are required on deck 5.5 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous technique is used almost exclusively for underwater applications because of the possibility of wash out or dilution of the indicating medium in the water. 5.5.1 Continuous Magnetisation This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as the indicating medium is applied. The area under inspection is then examined while the magnetic field is maintained. This method is generally regarded as being the more sensitive, but indications of defects other than actual damage such as cracks can be given; for example, leakage fields from the coil wrapped around the work piece and flux leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious indications such as grain boundaries, due to high flux density in these regions. The closer the magnetic field is to saturation the more sensitive it is to flux leakage due to small order inhomogeneities in the material. Figure 9.31 refers. The recommended flux level for satisfactory crack detection is between 1/3 and full saturation. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 187 of 253
Figure 9.31 Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications as the Field Strength Increases 5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection is completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is examined with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any discontinuities. As these fields are much weaker than those produced by the continuous method there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the technique does eliminate spurious or false indications. Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the suspicion is that a false indication has been identified. 6 How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field Surface breaking and near-surface indications are detectable by MPI because of the way these discontinuities interact with the induced magnetic field. The defect will cause a distortion of the magnetic field because either its permeability is different to the surrounding metal or consequential poles are formed at the parameters of surface breaking discontinuities. In either case the flux density will increase. This is referred to as FLUX LEAKAGE. With a distortion in the field the flux lines will be grouped together raising the field strength while with consequential poles the tension in the lines of flux will increase; there will be increased field density due to this, as with the poles of a magnet. See Figure 9.32 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 188 of 253
Figure 9.33 Discontinuities Interacting With the Magnetic Field The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90 o to the lines of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to the field, if the orientation is at 45 o the indication will be less strong because the defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 9.34 refers. Figure 9.34 Flaw Orientation Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their orientation within the magnetic field. 7 Detection of the Magnetic Field In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices; called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 189 of 253 Those that are used underwater will be examined and explained. The minimum flux density required in the test area for a valid inspection is 1Tesla. 7.1 Burmah Castrol Strips This is a strip of steel that has 3 fine longitudinal cuts in it. This is completely encased in two strips of brass. When this is placed in a magnetic field at 90 o to the expected orientation and indicating medium is applied, the cuts will appear as crack indications provided the field is strong enough. These are available with different degrees of sensitivity. See figure 9.34 and 9.39 Figure 9.34 Burmah Castrol Strip 7.2 Berthold Penetrameter The Berthold Penetrameter is shown in Figure 9.35. When the Penetrameter is placed on the work piece being magnetised, some of the induced flux is shunted to two slits cut at right angles in the soft iron cylindrical stud that is the test element. The flux leakage at these air gaps in the test element can be detected by applying indicating medium to the thin plate that is held in place by a screw thread and covers the test element. The indication is a thin line of indicator where the iron particles have collected at the flux leakage. The direction of the field can be deduced from which line of the cross is shown up. The field lies at right angles to this line. Varying the distance between the test element and the plate that covers it will control the sensitivity. Screwing or unscrewing the cap and setting the calibration numbers against a datum mark on the swivel holder achieves this. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 190 of 253
Figure 9.36 Berthold Penetrameter 7.3 Gauss Meter This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly from the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a digital readout in Tesla. Figure 9.36 refers Figure 9.36 Combined Gauss Meter and White and Black Light Meter Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 191 of 253 8 Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage) The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection is determined by the sensitivity with which it is possible to detect the change in the magnetic field due to the presence of a defect causing the flux leakage. There are three possibilities Moving a compass over the test area and watch for the needle to kick Using a search coil and looking for a change in impedance By visual observation using indicating mediums to show the distortion The first two methods are impractical currently underwater for diver inspectors although the search coil may have potential for ROV. 8.1 Visual Detection Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of the magnetic field as shown by the patterns in magnetic particles distributed over the test surface. These magnetic particles are available in dry powder form, as a liquid suspension, magnetic ink, or as powders ready to mix with water to form a useable suspension. There are other types of indicating media but the water- based ink is the type used underwater and the other types will not be considered further. The particles used are fine ferrous oxides that are much lighter than iron filing and therefore will go into suspension in the water more easily and remain suspended much longer. For underwater use a fluorescent powder is mixed with the particles so that they will fluoresce under ultra-violet light, which makes them easier to see. Non-fluorescent ink powders are also available. The method of use is to apply the magnetic field and while the test surface is magnetised the ink is applied. Any flaws cause flux leakage with a resultant build-up in flux density. The iron oxide in the ink will be strongly attracted to this strong magnetic field and will collect. Using a suitable ultra-violet light the indication can be viewed, interpreted and reported. 8.1.1 Ink Properties Ink properties are required to meet standards for composition, content, safety and toxicity. The current standard for MPI inks is BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002. This standard states that inks must, be non-toxic, be free of contaminants, not cause discomfort to users, and be non-corrosive to the work piece. Additionally the ink should have the following properties: - The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce gravitational effects to go easily into suspension but not be so fine as to coagulate in the liquid The grains should have an elongated shape to facilitate polarisation The grains must have high permeability so as to be easily magnetised The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the test The ink itself must have a good contrast against the test background to ensure good visibility and greater sensitivity Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 192 of 253 The concentration of ferrous particles, additives and fluorescent powder is specified in the standard, as is the method for testing the correct concentration in any ink. 8.1.2 Ink Colours Used Underwater The most common ink used is fluorescent ink and this is available in different colours, although green is the most popular. Black and Red inks are also available. The fluorescent powder coating the ferrous particles is a salt that fluoresces when it is illuminated by ultraviolet light. 8.2 Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO standard with a batch number that should be recorded. The correct quantity of powder as per manufacturers instructions should be measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel. Inks are available which include wetting agents however; it is more common to add such an agent at this stage. The standard does not allow the addition of more than 10% by weight of any additives to the ink o A wetting agent is a chemical that lowers the surface tension of water; most washing up liquids contain one Enough water is added to the mixing vessel to make up it into a slurry, which is then put into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct quantity with water o It is becoming increasingly common to have batches of ink supplied in slurry form all ready to mix with water to the correct concentration Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the suspension is maintained and a 100 ml sample should be drawn off The sample is required to complete a settling test to confirm the ink has been made up to the correct concentration. 8.2.1 Settling Test The test is completed to the following procedure: - Draw off the 100 ml sample into a calibrated settling flask. Either a Sutherland or thistle type flask is suitable. See Figure 9.37 Allow the sample suspension to settle for 60 minutes Read off and record the quantity of solids that have collected in the bottom of the flask. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 193 of 253
Figure 9.37 Settlement Flask The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for different inks. 8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks Ferromagnetic particles 0.1% to 0.3% (0.6 2.4 gm l -1 ) by volume in the ink Other solids 10% by weight 8.2.3 Non-fluorescent Inks Ferromagnetic particles 1.25% to 3.5% (6 24 gm l -1 ) by volume in the ink Other solids 10% by weight 8.2.4 Carrier Fluid Water or paraffin Soluble Additives no more than 10% by weight 9 Lighting and Viewing Conditions As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001. The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the standard are summarised below. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 194 of 253
9.1 Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks) There must be a minimum of 500 lux white light in the viewing area. This light should be provided using a diffused light source if possible. (An 80-watt fluorescent light tube gives 500 watt at 1 m distance). 9.2 Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20 lux so that the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be easily seen. The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000 W cm -2 . The wavelength of the light should be 365 to 400 nm. (Refer to the electromagnetic spectrum in Chapter 13 Ultrasonic Inspection). 9.2.1 Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and cancer if not used under controlled conditions. As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum ultraviolet light covers a range of frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB with UVA, being the less harmful wavelengths. Wavelengths between 365 and 400 nm produce UVA which is why they are used for MPI testing. Mercury vapour spot light bulbs, which produce light by discharging an arc in mercury vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of ultraviolet light along with visible white light. This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Woods filter is placed in front of it. The woods filter blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA at 365 nm to pass through. Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid either looking into it directly or shining it into anyone elses eyes. 9.3 Testing the Ultraviolet Light There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used for MPI: The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the ink to make identification of flaws possible The wavelength of the light must be in the correct part of the spectrum for operator safety The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less ultraviolet light as they age. They must be checked regularly because of this The requirements stated in the standard must be met The procedure for testing an ultraviolet light is laid down below.
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 195 of 253 9.3.1 Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes Lamps designed for underwater use must be immersed in cooling water during this test otherwise the heat generated will damage the seals Shine the lamp onto a photometer (black light meter); holding it at the viewing distance from the meter. (The viewing distance is typically 30 40 cm) Read the meter and record the result. (The reading must be 1000 W cm 2 or the lamp must be changed). The lamp should be checked before every inspection and at least monthly when not in constant use. Figures 9.36 9.38 and 9.39 refer. Figure 9.38 Testing Output From A Black Light Figure 9.39 OIS Underwater Black Light With Castrol Strip Attached by Cord Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 196 of 253 10 Cleaning Standard The inspection area must be cleaned to a minimum SA 2 (for a weld this must be for at least 75 mm either side of the weld). Additionally sufficient general cleaning (SA 1) must be completed to allow intimate contact for magnetising apparatus. See Chapter 10 Figure 10.3. 11 Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI Inducing a magnetic field into a work piece electrically was examined in paragraph 5 where it was stated that either DC or AC might be used. The type of current must be considered further as the induced magnetic field strength and characteristics are determined by this current. First consider measuring electricity. Either current or voltage may be measured. For the purpose of inducing a magnetic field the amperage is the more important value. In underwater inspection the voltage is kept as low as possible for safety reasons and typically only about 4 volts potential is applied to the coils or prods. However, up to 1000 A may well be used. Direct Current Considering DC firstly the actual current flow is in one direction only, from positive to negative conventionally. This can be shown on a graph thus Figure 9.40: - Figure 9.40 Direct Current Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into the work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are just below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 197 of 253 Alternating Current AC reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 Hz. In the UK, 50 Hz current is the commercial norm but 60 Hz current is common in many countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for MPI. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. See Figure 9.41 Figure 9.41 Alternating Current Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC the Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on Figure 9.41. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the peak value by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage reading indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an RMS value. Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by 1.414. (This may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation value for the work piece). Rectified Alternating Current Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection applications may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the convenient access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections. However, AC can easily be converted to current that is very much like DC Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 198 of 253 through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted to a one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are described below. See Figure 9.42 Figure 9.42 Rectified Alternating Current (Figures 9.30, and 9.43 attributed to University of Iowa) Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC) When single-phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as the un-rectified current (50 or 60 HZ typical). Since half of the current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC. This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes. Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase) Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 199 of 253 half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved. Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current Three-phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more favourable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three-phase AC would usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing the advantages of each current form. However, currently this form of power is not deployed sub-sea. 12 MPI Test Procedure A general procedure that may be applied or adapted for offshore use would be: Surface Checks Obtain the necessary work permits (possibly hot work may be required) Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the circuit Test all circuit breakers or Residual Current Devices (RCD) Check all electric cables for integrity Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO 3059:2001 specifications Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 (settling test) Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning correctly Calculate the required current Function test all the MPI equipment Ensure the gauss meter is functioning and ready for deployment Ensure all ancillary equipment is available, (tapes, grinder, hammer, punch, etc.) Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed Prepare the recording equipment (CCTV, camera, data sheets) In Water Preparation Establish the down lines and working lines on the correct site Clean the inspection site to the specifications (SA 2 for 75 mm) Pre-inspection Establish the datum and place tape measure, mark up the weld Complete a Close Visual Inspection (CVI) identify areas that may cause spurious indication during the MPI MPI Rig the transformer safely as close as possible to the test site Switch on the ultraviolet light Confirm that ambient light is less than 20 lux Rig and lay out the coils or parallel loops or prods or magnet on the test site Demagnetise the work site Confirm the ink is constantly agitated Position the gauss meter ready to monitor the induced field strength Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 200 of 253 Switch on the current on the diver inspectors command, record current Read out the indicated field strength on the gauss meter (1.0 T minimum) Apply ink as required to the weld and complete the inspection As the inspection progresses confirm adequate field strength at each clock position If any indications are identified re-inspect to confirm the findings With confirmed indications record Location (distance from datum) Length Orientation and position on weld Continuous or intermittent Branching or not Weak or strong indication Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure Retest after grinding Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required Post inspection Demagnetise De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface Wash all equipment with fresh water Flush out the ink system Report the results to the client Cancel work permits 13 Interpretation of Indications There are three type of indication that may result from an MPI: Relevant indications These are produced by defects Spurious or non-relevant Caused by sharp changes in geometry, such as the toe of the weld Brazed joints because of the difference in permeability Changes in permeability caused by heat treatment. (The parent plate, the HAZ, the weld itself) Magnetic writing caused by two different metals rubbing together False indications Caused by other factors such as gravity Figure 9.43 refers Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 201 of 253
Figure 9.43 Spurious or Non-relevant Indications 14 Reporting Indications Any indications should be reported in a standard manner. The distance from the datum mark The length The orientation and position relative to the weld Whether the indication is strong or weak Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate etc. Always use the correct terminology. An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 9.44 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 202 of 253
Figure 9.44 Sample Data Report Sheet 15 Recording Indications The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways. 15.1 Ultraviolet Photography A conventional photograph can be taken using either: - An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash Client: MPI report sheet: Location: Node reference: Depth: Dive number: Date: Sheet of Description of workpiece Equipment: Used: Make & Serial No: Ink: % by vol: Permanent magnet: Make: Coil: Water based: Parallel loop: Fluorescent: U/V lamp: Black: Ink dispenser: Current used: Amps Other: AC: DC: Turns: Cleaning: HP water: HP grit: LP grit: Hyd wire brush Hand: Viewing conditions: Ambient light Lux _ UV/A W/CM 2 Surface finish: General report: Test restrictions: Client: Inspection engineer Flux indicator: 3oc 6oc 9oc 12oc Diver: Client: MPI report sheet: Location: Node reference: Depth: Dive number: Date: Sheet of Description of workpiece Equipment: Used: Make & Serial No: Ink: % by vol: Permanent magnet: Make: Coil: Water based: Parallel loop: Fluorescent: U/V lamp: Black: Ink dispenser: Current used: Amps Other: AC: DC: Turns: Cleaning: HP water: HP grit: LP grit: Hyd wire brush Hand: Viewing conditions: Ambient light Lux _ UV/A W/CM 2 Surface finish: General report: Test restrictions: Client: Inspection engineer Flux indicator: 3oc 6oc 9oc 12oc Diver: Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 203 of 253
15.2 Cast This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such as microset is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast. 15.3 Foil Packets (Magfoil) These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that are separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied to the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the mixing liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire flux indicator is also mounted inside the packet. The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents by manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents will take on a grey colour. Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100 seconds. Apply the magnetising force during this period The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes) The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth can be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect length and depth 15.4 Video Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on disc. 15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding habitat. 16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will depend in the main on three factors: - The diver inspector The equipment being used The conditions on site For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as being comfortable and as well equipped for the dive as possible: - Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 204 of 253 Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test Be confident in his own ability to detect defects with it Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the plant or structure he is inspecting. These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the inspection function. The sensitivity of the magnetic particle test will depend on several factors, some of which will be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity of detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between the defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape and orientation of the defect. Figure 9.45 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link. Figure 9.45 Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection 16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the test. 16.1.1 Surface Condition (1) The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic particles were being used. 16.1.2 Lighting (2) If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp to detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the efficiency of detecting defects. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 205 of 253 16.1.3 Ink Condition (3) Important factors here include the best colour to attract the attention of the inspector and the right size of particle. This is tightly controlled by the appropriate standard, there could be some consideration given to larger size particles that may give better contrast. The physical condition of the ink is also important. It should be a finely divided suspension of particles that is delivered to the work piece and so the diver inspector should check to see that the agitator is working continuously. This should be a regular part of the routine. 16.1.4 Field Strength (4) This must be high enough to hold the ink to the surface of the defect. 16.2 Factors Affecting Contrast The following factors are important when considering definition: - 16.2.1 Ink Condition (5) As can be seen from the chart the ink condition has an affect on both contrast and definition. The definition can be improved if the defect outline is picked out by fine magnetic particles. 16.2.2 Geometry of the Work Piece (6) In the main, MPI has to be carried out by diver inspectors on welds that are parts of complicated nodes in very difficult position in a hostile environment. This might be the most significant weakness in the system and methods of improving the procedures, back up for divers at the work position and redesign of the equipment with this in mind will bring about a marked improvement in defect detection. 16.2.3 Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7) The effectiveness with which the inspector can set up the magnetic field condition is the heart of the magnetic particle inspection. Factors like current flow, field direction, electrical contact of the prods, coil fill factor, need to be considered carefully. 17 Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI 17.1 Glossary Coercive Force: The force required to reduce the flux density within a material to zero. Consequential Poles: Areas of flux leakage that are cause by discontinuities forming breaks in the surface of the metal. Electromagnetism: The magnetic force at right angles to the direction of flow of an electric current. Field Strength: The units for magnetic field strength (H) are Am -1 . A magnetic field strength of 1 Am -1 is produced at the centre of a single circular Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 206 of 253 conductor of diameter 1 meter carrying a steady current of 1 A. See Figure 9.46. Figure 9.46 Field Strength Flux: Lines of force in a magnetic field Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area. The unit is the Tesla (T), symbol B, 1.0 T is the minimum flux density required for MPI. Flux Indictor: An implement used to indicate the amount of flux density produced by an external magnetising force. Flux Leakage: A point where a line of flux leaves a material or the pole of a magnet. Hysteresis: A diagram produced by plotting field strength (H) against flux density (B). Permeability (): The ease with which a material can be magnetised. Poles: The ends of a bar or horseshoe magnet where flux leakage occurs. Reluctance: The resistance to the flow of flux in a material, equivalent to resistance in electricity. Residual Magnetism: The amount of magnetism remaining in a material after the external field is removed. Retentivity: The point on the hysteresis loop that indicates the residual magnetism in a material that remains after the magnetising force is removed. Saturation: The point at which a material will not accept any more lines of flux. Vector Field: The resultant field orientation that is caused by two fields simultaneously interacting with each at different angles within a component.
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 207 of 253 17.2 MPI Standards There are a number of international standards that apply to MPI. Following is a current list of these. BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. General principles (BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection is obsolescent but remains current) BS EN ISO 3059:2001 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing. Viewing conditions BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied processes. Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers BS EN 22553:1995:1995 Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic representation on drawings BS EN 13622:2002 Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used for gas welding equipment (BS 499-1:1991 Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting is current but partially replaced) BS EN ISO 9934-1:2002 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. General principles (BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection remains current but is obsolescent, superseded) BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. Detection media BS EN ISO 9934-3:2002 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. Equipment Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 9 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 208 of 253
Bibliography Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Iowa State University Web site Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Magnetic Particle Inspection Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 209 of 253
This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 10 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 210 of 253 CHAPTER 10 Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding 1 General Comments There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 10.1 Table 10.1 1.1 HP Water Jets HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 10.2 NO Hazardous, may damage the surface Fast, matt finish HP Water Grit Entrainment NO Only in splash zone, environmental impact No diver intervention required Inhibitors (Including Henderson Rings) YES Depth limits, control, exhaust More efficient Pneumatics NO Will not remove soft growth Effective on hard growth, safe, no grit Cavitation Jet YES May be depth limited, large compressor required Fast, matt finish LP Air Grit YES Hazardous, maintenance, backup team required Removes all growth, matt finish Grit Blasting YES Hazardous, leaves reflective surface Fast, effective, least damaging HP Water Jet YES Expensive, limited choice, bulky hose More efficient Hydraulics NO Slow, diver fatigue, poor finish Inexpensive, easy to deploy Hand Cleaning (Scrapers etc) ROV Disadvantages Advantages Method NO Hazardous, may damage the surface Fast, matt finish HP Water Grit Entrainment NO Only in splash zone, environmental impact No diver intervention required Inhibitors (Including Henderson Rings) YES Depth limits, control, exhaust More efficient Pneumatics NO Will not remove soft growth Effective on hard growth, safe, no grit Cavitation Jet YES May be depth limited, large compressor required Fast, matt finish LP Air Grit YES Hazardous, maintenance, backup team required Removes all growth, matt finish Grit Blasting YES Hazardous, leaves reflective surface Fast, effective, least damaging HP Water Jet YES Expensive, limited choice, bulky hose More efficient Hydraulics NO Slow, diver fatigue, poor finish Inexpensive, easy to deploy Hand Cleaning (Scrapers etc) ROV Disadvantages Advantages Method Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 211 of 253
Figure 10.2 Hughes HP Water Jet Safety considerations are: Never block or wire the trigger open When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned Keep clear of any retro-jets Never get any part of the body in front of the jet Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition and are correctly fitted and tightened If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system because of circulation in the water If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing if not handled correctly All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater use. 1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of equipment. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 10 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 212 of 253 The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a very small hole that may not even bleed. Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture, particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries. 1.3 Management of any Injury The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or absence of infection and even through the injury seems trivial on the surface and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical examination is not immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid measures are confined to dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the development of further complaints over four or five days. The development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest the injury is serious together with persistence or occurrence of pain. On evacuation, the diver should carry the following card, which outlines the possible nature of the injury. This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500 psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm -2 ) with a jet velocity of 900 mph (1440 Kmhr -1 ). Please take this into account when making your diagnosis. Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at low temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood cultures may therefore be helpful 2 Standard of Surface Finish The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO 8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001, BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard normally applied offshore are: SA 1 Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection) SA 2 Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion products SA 2 Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull matt metal finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as it leave a surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that does not unduly reflect light. It is an excellent surface for CVI, MPI Video, Photography and all other NDT.) Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 213 of 253 SA 3 Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if Video and Photography are employed. 3 Area to Be Cleaned The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in un- necessary cleaning. For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 should include the weld and an area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See Figure 10.3. Figure 10.3 Cleaned Area 4 Profile Grinding Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structures life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc, spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an established place in welding fabrication. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 10 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 214 of 253 Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ profile grinding may be dictated by: The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed during inspection activities The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered during the normal IMR cycle When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holders engineering department via the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be given in a written instruction. 4.1 Profile Grinding The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the annual IMR program. A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication has been ground out or not. The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 10.4 applies. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 215 of 253
Figure 10.4 Remedial Grinding Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 10 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 216 of 253
Bibliography A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors L K Porter HMSO Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 217 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 218 of 253 CHAPTER 11 Other NDT Methods Used Offshore 1 Introduction There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapter 1 but they are important additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test structural integrity. An outline of the methods, principles of operation, advantages, disadvantages and uses are contained below. 2 Radiography Radiography is a well-proven method of NDT that has been employed in industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The worlds Navies employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 18.2 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test. Advantages Disadvantages Permanent records are produced as radiographs Safety requirements are very high The radiograph can be viewed by many Storage and transport of the radioactive sources are expensive due to the safety requirements It is a well proven method In the UK Government approval is required Measurements can usually be taken directly off the radiograph The radiographers must be HSE controlled and carry dosimeters Cleaning standard is only SA 1 Costs are high because of the safety requirements and the production methods to produce radioactive isotopes Interpretation of the radiograph often requires trained radiographic interpreters Table 18.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiography as an NDT Technique Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 219 of 253 3 Production of Radiation Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of radiation, X-rays and Gamma () rays. X-rays are produced electronically and therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky and heavy, rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel and storage must be extremely carefully controlled. 3.1 X-ray Production X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of electrons emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the electrons on the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 11.2
Figure 11.2 Production of X-rays As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment. Commercially this equipment is not used underwater. 4 Production of Rays Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy state to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie (Ci). Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of radiation and bombarding certain elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons, produces artificial isotopes. This changes the atomic structure of the element because the neutrons are captured in its nucleus. The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192 that has a radiation output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the isotope ages. Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is normally limited to Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 220 of 253 50mm. Cobalt 60 is an alternative source that is used offshore if a stronger source is required. In use the source is housed in a radiation shielded housing that may be constructed with depleted uranium. The housing is designed with an aperture that can be opened remotely to expose the source for a controlled exposure. There is at least one diver deployable source that is remotely controlled. The diver will place the film cassettes and the source in its housing unexposed. The housing is connected to a compressed air supply on the surface and is locked with a key in the safe, housed position. The last task for the diver when all is set up is to unlock the safety and withdraw the key and leave the site. The safety zone is maintained as 8m. The housing aperture is opened from the surface remote control to expose the source. On completion of the timed exposure the aperture is closed and an ROV would confirm via a visual indicator that the source is housed. The diver then returns to lock the unit and adjust it for the next exposure. The aim would be to cover the pipe radius in three hits. Figures 11.3 to 11.5 refer
Figure 11.3 Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 221 of 253
Figure 11.4 Source Placed at 12 Oclock Setup for First Exposure (Arrow indicates direction of 3 oclock)
Figure 11.5 Source Connected to Surface Unlocked with Key Removed Ready to be exposed Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 222 of 253
The method of placing the film cassettes is illustrated in Figure is 11.6
Figure 11.6 Placing Film Cassettes for Double Wall Single Image Technique 4.1 Safety It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers must be Home Office approved and the staff are all badged and monitored. 5 How the Method Works The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear when developed. Figure 11.7 illustrates the method. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 223 of 253
Figure 11.7 Radiation Exposing the Film The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 11.8. The alternative when there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.8 Single Wall Single Image or Panoramic Technique Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 224 of 253
5.1 Radiograph Quality The quality of the radiograph is important because it will determine how small a defect can be found. Radiography is best at recording volumetric defects not planar as illustrated in Figure 11.7. The quality of the radiograph is commonly indicated by the use of an Image Quality Indicator (IQI). This is a plastic packet that contains wires of different diameters that record or not on the radiograph. The size of the smallest wire that records is the size of the smallest defect that will show on the radiograph. See Figure 11.9
Figure 11.9 Image Quality Indicator 6 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT) Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: - Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production Sorting pure metals and alloys Taking coating thickness measurements Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 225 of 253 Assessing stress in conducting materials Assessing the thickness of marine growth The most sensitive area for stress cracks propagating is the toes of welds and this type of defect will be surface breaking. Eddy currents can find this type of defect through paint coating and therefore has real potential in the offshore scene. 6.1 How the Method Works As shown in Chapter 9 MPI when an electric current is passed through a conductor a circular magnetic field at 90 o to the current flow is generated around the conductor. If the conductor is twisted into a coil the magnetic field vectors into a longitudinal flux orientation. With the eddy current technique this is called the PRIMARY FIELD. If this coil is brought to close proximity to a conducting material the primary field will pass through the material and produce a circular electric current orientated at right angles to the direction of the primary magnetic field. This induced electric current is called an eddy current and this is the principal that transformers work on. Figure 11.10 refers.
Figure 11.10 The Eddy Current Principle These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field. These two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a display that would then read zero. This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no discontinuities. If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will cause the lines of current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the induced lines of magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 9 this increases the flux density, this in turn increases the magnetic field strength in the secondary magnetic field. This causes an imbalance between the two fields that will be indicated on the instrument display, which is commonly a CRT. Figure 11.11 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 226 of 253
Figure 18.12 Effects of a Crack Interacting With the Eddy Currents There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from surface breaking cracks: - Probe lift off can cause spurious indications Varying permeability can cause spurious indications If the probe is close to the edge of a plate edge effect will cause spurious indications Differences in material thickness can cause spurious indications Figure 11.12 refers
Figure 18.13 Spurious Indications
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 227 of 253
Other factors that effect eddy currents are: - Test probe frequency The higher the frequency the less the penetration Material permeability The higher the permeability the less the penetration Material conductivity The higher the conductivity the less the penetration Table 11.13 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method. EMD/ACFM Advantages over MPI MPI Advantages over EMD/ACFM Can size a defect for length and depth Well proven industrial technique Works through non-conducting materials Easier to use on complex geometry Data recorded directly onto computer Good for finding transverse or complex branching cracks Permanent record of inspection data Good for finding shallow cracks Quicker than MPI Gives a visual unambiguous indication Lower cleaning standard required Better for use with remedial grinding Works on non-magnetic materials The equipment is less complex Interpretation is completed topside The equipment is less costly Off-line interpretation is available There are no lighting problems ROV deployment may be possible Table 11.13 Advantages of EMD/ACFM over MPI Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during any EMD or ACFM inspection. The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and the diver inspector The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician and the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2 Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 228 of 253 The diver inspector must appreciate the important points concerning probe manipulation and know the name of the parts of the probe The weld must be correctly marked The diver inspector must be aware of the limitations of the technique regarding weld profile, seams and component geometry 7 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD) ACPD is a method for sizing the depth of a surface-breaking defect. The method is not used to detect defects only to size a known flaw. The method can be used on any conducting material as it relies solely on the resistance path to an alternating current. 7.1 How the Method Works Alternating current exhibits a skin effect as has been mentioned previously. The skin effect is more prevalent the higher the frequency of the alternating current. A pair of probes, called field probes is placed in contact with the surface of the material being tested and a current is applied across them. The current will flow from one probe to the other through the skin of the material. A second probe, which is the equivalent of the two prods of a voltmeter, measures the potential drop between them when they are placed in the current field established by the field probes. This establishes a baseline reading. The sensing probe is then placed to straddle the crack and a different reading is obtained because the resistance path is longer. Care must be exercised to ensure that the current carrying conductor for the field probes is kept as far away from the measuring probe and its umbilical as possible to avoid any interference with the readings. See Figure 11.14
Figure 11.14 Methodology for ACPD Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 229 of 253 To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for underwater deployment is shown in Figure 11.15.
Figure 11.15 ACPD Underwater Probe 8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data. The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector is often specified; however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in paragraph 7.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified personnel. Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required. 8.1 How the Method Works The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing with a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by inducing an electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced electric field then induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these magnetic fields are measured electronically to determine crack length and depth. The fact that electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine the measurement of the magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 11.16 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 230 of 253
Figure 11.16 Principle of Operation of ACFM
8.2 Application of the Technique The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the magnetic field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is required to the worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient. There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the field induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field sensors. These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should be exercised not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter the induced field strength. The diver inspector under directions from the surface technician manipulates the probe. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in paragraph 6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface by the surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can be reviewed at any time during or after the inspection. The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be sized for length and depth. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 231 of 253
9 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) Flooded members can be detected in two ways Gamma Radiography Ultrasonically The most widely used in the North Sea is radiography. FMD is used to identify tubular members that have flooded. It is used as a batch testing method on a go/no go system. If a member is tested and found to be dry it is a go and considered to be serviceable and fit for purpose. If it is flooded it is a no go and is identified for further follow up analysis and testing to determine where it has failed, why it has failed and what ramifications this has on the structure. 9.1 Radiographic FMD This technique places and exposes a source on one side of the tubular while a dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation penetrating the tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The diameter and wall thickness of the member must be known so that the expected doses may be calculated. The most common source used for this method is caesium 137 and safety zones must be established around the ROV when it is on deck with the source fitted. The last person to leave the ROV before launching is the radiographer and the first person to approach it on recovery is the radiographer. No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the software will compensate for the marine growth. Figure 11.17 illustrates the technique and Figure 11.18 shows a typical configuration on an ROV.
Figure 11.17 Radiographic FMD Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 232 of 253
Figure 11.18 Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV 10 Ultrasonic FMD The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be held exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic signal is propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the member is dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the member is flooded there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from, either the far wall or the surface of the internal water. It is a go/no go method the same as the radiographic technique. Figure 11.19 refers. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 233 of 253
Figure 11.19 Ultrasonic FMD The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the necessary cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the reading. 11 General Point for all FMD Readings All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 oclock position on any horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be tested. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Chapter 11 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 234 of 253
Bibliography A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors L K Porter HMSO Underwater Inspection M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax E & F N Spon Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Other NDT Methods Used Offshore Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 235 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 236 of 253 Appendix 1 Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Category A (Defects) Cracks Cracks can be divided into three categories: Fine cracks not more than 1mm wide Medium cracks between 1mm and 2mm wide Wide cracks more than 2mm wide The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service Delamination A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and is principally an in-service defect Pop-out A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars. This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs are an in-service defect Impact Damage Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected Tearing Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 237 of 253 shutter it adhered to the surface of the shutter and so when the shutter was moved upwards the concrete was torn apart Exposed Reinforcement The steel reinforcement bars become visible on the surface of the concrete accompanied by rust staining. There are two ways in which this occurs: either by displacement of the steelwork during construction or by removal of the outside covering of concrete during the in-service life of the structure (impact damage)
Figure A1.1 Exposed Reinforcement Faulty Repair Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage, should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete. There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 238 of 253
Figure A1.2 Faulty repair Variable Cover Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a construction defect. All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion to take place Category B (Areas of Concern) Embedded Objects Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects. They will all have been included at the time of construction Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 239 of 253
Figure A1.3 Embedded Object Cast in sockets The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar. Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A1.4 Cast in Socket Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 240 of 253 Recessed metal plates This is a metal plate, which has been cast into the structure. Usually it will be recessed some way into the concrete in order to allow the slip form shutter to pass unhindered. The recess will have rough uneven sides, there may also be some corrosion of the plate and so possibly some staining and cracking of the concrete around the plate. These plates will be included in the structure during the construction phase
Figure A1.5 Recessed Metal Plate Water jet damage Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and the surface will feel rough to the touch. The damage is caused by the use of pressures which are too high, or by the use of a jet which is too small. Water jet damage will occur in-service Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 241 of 253
Figure A1.6 Water Jet Damage Abrasion Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth. Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined. Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an in- service problem
Figure A1.7 Abrasion Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 242 of 253 Honeycombing Honeycombing will appear as an area of coarse aggregate, which has little or no grout around it. Voids will be apparent in the concrete. The course aggregate will not be broken. It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete during construction, or maybe grout loss beneath a shutter. Also it can be caused by the concrete not having sufficient fine material present. Honeycombing occurs during the construction phase Category C (Blemishes) Construction joint This will be a fairly straight line on the surface with irregular ridges and/or depressions along its length. The edges may be indistinct and may be accompanied by some tearing. The coarse aggregate will not be broken. The colour or texture of the surface above and below the joint nay differ somewhat. This blemish is formed at the end of one pour of concreter and beginning of another pour where the formwork has not been tailored to fit the structure very well. It will occur during the construction phase and may be useful as a datum for the location of defects etc. Formwork misalignment This will show as a step or a ridge on the surface of the concrete. It is caused by the poor tailoring or fitting of shutters during the fabrication or the structure. It will occur during the construction phase Figure A1.8 Formwork Misalignment Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 243 of 253 Blowholes These will be small holes in the surface of the concrete usually less than 10mm in diameter with sharp edges. There will not normally be any aggregate visible. Blowholes are caused by air bubbles being trapped against the formwork face. There will always be some blowholes in a concrete structure but they will not be significant unless they are frequent, due to insufficient vibration of the liquid concrete slurry They will occur during the construction phase Figure A1.9 Blowholes Scabbling This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete having been removed so exposing the course aggregate. This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 244 of 253
Figure A1.10 Scabbling Rubbing down marks Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of brush marks on wet concrete. These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair. Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase Good repair This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage. This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 245 of 253 Figure A1.11 Good Repair Regular horizontal ridge These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced regularly and will normally extend all around the structure. As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour. While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge. This will be formed at the construction phase Irregular horizontal ridge Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not expose aggregate. These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters. These are formed during the construction phase Vertical drag marks These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to as pebble runs. The drag marks are normally caused by stones or pebbles being trapped behind the slip form shutters and being dragged up the structure with them, so Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 246 of 253 causing indentation in the surface of the concrete. They can also be caused by dents or deformations in the shutter itself. Vertical drag marks are formed during the construction phase Figure A1.12 Vertical Drag Marks Resin mortar repair This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure. It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the structure. It can be an in-service blemish Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 247 of 253 Figure A1.13 Resin Mortar Repair Curing compound These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and flaking. Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete. Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 248 of 253 Figure A1.14 Curing Compound
Grout run These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the concrete. They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not pose a problem. Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 249 of 253 Figure A1.15 Grout Run General Concrete Terms Spalling Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A defects will be the cause of the spall. Grout Grout is a semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water. Gunite Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation than normal concrete. Cable Duct Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally grout filled after tensioning. Prestressed concrete Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction of compressive stress on the structure. Base Raft The foundation slab bearing on the seabed. Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 250 of 253 Caisson Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell. Cell Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for the base cells of a structure. Invert The lowest point of an opening or tunnel. Soffit The underside of a concrete beam. Jarlan Hole Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action, some of the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall where the ventury principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces acting on the wall. Laitance This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete as it sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied. Exudation Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing through a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid, which accumulates around the crack. Note that on the surface it will always run downwards, however in water it may drift sideways or even upwards, owing to the fact that its density may be less than the water around it. Reporting When inspecting concrete always report: All defects using correct terminology Length of defect Width of defect Depth of defect Location on the structure Any staining As far as possible report all defects in three dimensions Weathering Weathering is the term used for the deterioration of concrete due to environmental forces; this is the concrete equivalent of corrosion in steel. Weathering may be caused by: Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Extract of Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 251 of 253 Frost damage in the splash zone, water will penetrate the structure to a degree and will freeze and expand during winter weather thus causing the concrete to crack and spall Chemical attack, such as salt attack will cause the concrete to become softened; it occurs near the surface of the structure and will take a very long time to show. Alkali Aggregate Reaction from the aggregate can cause cracking but takes a number of years to manifest itself Corrosion of the reinforcement can occur if the seawater is allowed to flow too freely through the concrete reinforcement cage or pre-stressing tendons. This could lead to catastrophic failure, especially with pre- stressed structures Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 252 of 253 This page is blank Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course Appendix 1 Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006 Page 253 of 253