Love

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For other uses, see Love (disambiguation).
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rchetypal lovers !omeo and "uliet portrayed by Frank #icksee
Love is a variety of di$erent feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal
a$ection (%& love my mother%) to pleasure (%& loved that meal%). &t can refer to an emotion
of a strong attraction and personal attachment.'() &t can also be a virtue representing
human kindness, compassion, and a$ection*%the unsel+sh loyal and benevolent concern
for the good of another%.',) &t may also describe compassionate and a$ectionate actions
to-ards other humans, one.s self or animals.'/)
ncient 0reeks identi+ed four forms of love1 kinship or familiarity (in 0reek, storge),
friendship (philia), se2ual and3or romantic desire (eros), and self-emptying or divine love
(agape).'4)'5) 6odern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.'7)
8on-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states.'9)
:his diversity of uses and meanings combined -ith the comple2ity of the feelings
involved makes love unusually di;cult to consistently de+ne, compared to other
emotional states.
Love in its various forms acts as a ma<or facilitator of interpersonal relationships and,
o-ing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the
creative arts.'=)
Love may be understood as a function to keep human beings together against menaces
and to facilitate the continuation of the species.'>)
?ontents 'hide)
( #e+nitions
, &mpersonal love
/ &nterpersonal love
/.( @iological basis
/., Psychological basis
/./ Avolutionary basis
/.4 ?omparison of scienti+c models
4 ?ultural vie-s
4.( ncient 0reek
4., ncient !oman (Latin)
4./ ?hinese and other Binic cultures
4.4 Persian
4.5 "apanese
4.7 :urkish (Bhaman and &slamic)
5 !eligious vie-s
5.( brahamic religions
5.(.( ?hristianity
5.(., "udaism
5.(./ &slam
5., Aastern religions
5.,.( @uddhism
5.,., Cinduism
7 Political vie-s
7.( Free love
9 Philosophical vie-s
= !eferences
> Bources
(D A2ternal links
#e+nitions
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Love
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@asic aspects'sho-)
&n history'sho-)
:ypes of emotion'sho-)
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v t e
:he -ord %love% can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in di$erent conte2ts.
6any other languages use multiple -ords to e2press some of the di$erent concepts that
in Anglish are denoted as %love%E one e2ample is the plurality of 0reek -ords for %love%.
?ultural di$erences in conceptualiFing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a
universal de+nition.'(D)
lthough the nature or essence of love is a sub<ect of freGuent debate, di$erent aspects
of the -ord can be clari+ed by determining -hat isn.t love (antonyms of %love%). Love as
a general e2pression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like) is commonly
contrasted -ith hate (or neutral apathy)E as a less se2ual and more emotionally intimate
form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted -ith lustE and as an
interpersonal relationship -ith romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted -ith
friendship, although the -ord love is often applied to close friendships. (Further possible
ambiguities come -ith usages %girlfriend%, %boyfriend%, %<ust good friends%).
Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from ,5DH>DD #, of Cuastec origin). 6useum of
nthropology in Ialapa, JeracruF, 6e2ico
bstractly discussed love usually refers to an e2perience one person feels for another.
Love often involves caring for or identifying -ith a person or thing (cf. vulnerability and
care theory of love), including oneself (cf. narcissism). &n addition to cross-cultural
di$erences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time.
Bome historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Aurope during or
after the 6iddle ges, although the prior e2istence of romantic attachments is attested
by ancient love poetry.'(()
:he comple2 and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-
terminating clichK. Beveral common proverbs regard love, from Jirgil.s %Love conGuers
all% to :he @eatles. %ll Lou 8eed &s Love%. Bt. :homas Guinas, follo-ing ristotle, de+nes
love as %to -ill the good of another.%'(,) @ertrand !ussell describes love as a condition of
%absolute value,% as opposed to relative value.'citation needed) Philosopher 0ottfried
LeibniF said that love is %to be delighted by the happiness of another.%'(/) @iologist
"eremy 0ri;th de+nes love as %unconditional selMessness%.'(4)
Love is sometimes referred to as an %international language% that overrides cultural and
linguistic divisions.'clari+cation needed)
&mpersonal love
person can be said to love an ob<ect, principle, or goal to -hich they are deeply
committed and greatly value. For e2ample, compassionate outreach and volunteer
-orkers. %love% of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but
impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.'(5) People can also
%love% material ob<ects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or
other-ise identifying -ith those things. &f se2ual passion is also involved, then this feeling
is called paraphilia.'(7)
&nterpersonal love
&nterpersonal love refers to love bet-een human beings. &t is a much more potent
sentiment than a simple liking for another. NnreGuited love refers to those feelings of love
that are not reciprocated. &nterpersonal love is most closely associated -ith interpersonal
relationships.'(5) Buch love might e2ist bet-een family members, friends, and couples.
:here are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Pair of Lovers. (4=DH(4=5
:hroughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the
phenomenon of love. &n the ,Dth century, the science of psychology has -ritten a great
deal on the sub<ect. &n recent years, the sciences of psychology, anthropology,
neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding of the nature and function of
love.
@iological basis
6ain article1 @iological basis of love
@iological models of se2 tend to vie- love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or
thirst.'(9) Celen Fisher, a leading e2pert in the topic of love, divides the e2perience of
love into three partly overlapping stages1 lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the
feeling of se2ual desireE romantic attraction determines -hat partners mates +nd
attractive and pursue, conserving time and energy by choosingE and attachment involves
sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of
safety and security.'(=) :hree distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and
three behavioral patterns, are associated -ith these three romantic styles.'(=)
Lust is the initial passionate se2ual desire that promotes mating, and involves the
increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. :hese e$ects rarely
last more than a fe- -eeks or months. ttraction is the more individualiFed and romantic
desire for a speci+c candidate for mating, -hich develops out of lust as commitment to
an individual mate forms. !ecent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people
fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the
neurotransmitter hormones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same
compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain.s pleasure center and
leading to side e$ects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an
intense feeling of e2citement. !esearch has indicated that this stage generally lasts from
one and a half to three years.'(>)
Bince the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is
needed to account for long-term relationships. ttachment is the bonding that promotes
relationships lasting for many years and even decades. ttachment is generally based on
commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like
shared interests. &t has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals o2ytocin and
vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.'(>) AnFo Amanuele
and co-orkers reported the protein molecule kno-n as the nerve gro-th factor (80F) has
high levels -hen people +rst fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one
year.',D)
Psychological basis
Further information1 Cuman bonding
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist !obert
Bternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three di$erent
components1 intimacy, commitment, and passion. &ntimacy is a form in -hich t-o people
share con+dences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually sho-n in
friendships and romantic love a$airs. ?ommitment, on the other hand, is the e2pectation
that the relationship is permanent. :he last and most common form of love is se2ual
attraction and passion. Passionate love is sho-n in infatuation as -ell as romantic love.
ll forms of love are vie-ed as varying combinations of these three components. 8on-
love does not include any of these components. Liking only includes intimacy. &nfatuated
love only includes passion. Ampty love only includes commitment. !omantic love includes
both intimacy and passion. ?ompanionate love includes intimacy and commitment.
Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Lastly, consummate love includes all
three.',() merican psychologist Oick !ubin sought to de+ne love by psychometrics in
the (>9Ds. Cis -ork states that three factors constitute love1 attachment, caring, and
intimacy.',,) ',/)
0randmother and grandchild, Bri Lanka
Follo-ing developments in electrical theories such as ?oulomb.s la-, -hich sho-ed that
positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life -ere developed, such as
%opposites attract.% Pver the last century, research on the nature of human mating has
generally found this not to be true -hen it comes to character and personality*people
tend to like people similar to themselves. Co-ever, in a fe- unusual and speci+c
domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others -ho are unlike
themselves (e.g., -ith an orthogonal immune system), since this -ill lead to a baby that
has the best of both -orlds.',4) &n recent years, various human bonding theories have
been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and a;nities. Bome
Western authorities disaggregate into t-o main components, the altruistic and the
narcissistic. :his vie- is represented in the -orks of Bcott Peck, -hose -ork in the +eld of
applied psychology e2plored the de+nitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a
combination of the %concern for the spiritual gro-th of another,% and simple narcissism.
',5) &n combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
Psychologist Arich Fromm maintained in his book :he rt of Loving that love is not merely
a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact, the %feeling% of love is super+cial in
comparison to one.s commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.'(5) &n
this sense, Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a
commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions to-ards another, oneself, or many
others, over a sustained duration.'(5) Fromm also described love as a conscious choice
that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but -hich then later no
longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.'(5)
Avolutionary basis
Avolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival
tool. Cumans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans
compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote
parental support of children for this e2tended time period. nother factor may be that
se2ually transmitted diseases can cause, among other e$ects, permanently reduced
fertility, in<ury to the fetus, and increase complications during childbirth. :his -ould favor
monogamous relationships over polygamy.',7)
?omparison of scienti+c models
@iological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst.
'(9) Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. ?ertainly love is
inMuenced by hormones (such as o2ytocin), neurotrophins (such as 80F), and
pheromones, and ho- people think and behave in love is inMuenced by their conceptions
of love. :he conventional vie- in biology is that there are t-o ma<or drives in love1 se2ual
attraction and attachment. ttachment bet-een adults is presumed to -ork on the same
principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. :he traditional
psychological vie- sees love as being a combination of companionate love and
passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by
physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate)E companionate love is
a$ection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.
?ultural vie-s
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("anuary ,D(,)
ncient 0reek
0reek distinguishes several di$erent senses in -hich the -ord %love% is used. For
e2ample, ncient 0reek has the -ords philia, eros, agape, storge, and 2enia. Co-ever,
-ith 0reek (as -ith many other languages), it has been historically di;cult to separate
the meanings of these -ords totally. t the same time, the ncient 0reek te2t of the @ible
has e2amples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo.
gape (QRSTU agVpW) means love in modern-day 0reek. :he term s.agapo means & love
you in 0reek. :he -ord agapo is the verb & love. &t generally refers to a %pure,% ideal type
of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. Co-ever, there are some
e2amples of agape used to mean the same as eros. &t has also been translated as %love of
the soul.%
Aros (XYZ[ Kr\s) (from the 0reek deity Aros) is passionate love, -ith sensual desire and
longing. :he 0reek -ord erota means in love. Plato re+ned his o-n de+nition. lthough
eros is initially felt for a person, -ith contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the
beauty -ithin that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Aros helps the
soul recall kno-ledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth.
Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Bome translations list it as
%love of the body.%
Philia (]^_`a philba), a dispassionate virtuous love, -as a concept addressed and
developed by ristotle.'citation needed) &t includes loyalty to friends, family, and
community, and reGuires virtue, eGuality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical
reasonsE one or both of the parties bene+t from the relationship. &t can also mean %love of
the mind.%
Btorge (cdeYRf storgW) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.
Ienia (ghi`a 2enba), hospitality, -as an e2tremely important practice in ncient 0reece. &t
-as an almost ritualiFed friendship formed bet-een a host and his guest, -ho could
previously have been strangers. :he host fed and provided Guarters for the guest, -ho
-as e2pected to repay only -ith gratitude. :he importance of this can be seen
throughout 0reek mythology*in particular, Comer.s &liad and Pdyssey.
ncient !oman (Latin)
:he Latin language has several di$erent verbs corresponding to the Anglish -ord %love.%
am\ is the basic verb meaning & love, -ith the in+nitive amare (jto lovek) as it still is in
&talian today. :he !omans used it both in an a$ectionate sense as -ell as in a romantic or
se2ual sense. From this verb come amans*a lover, amator, %professional lover,% often
-ith the accessory notion of lechery*and amica, %girlfriend% in the Anglish sense, often
being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. :he corresponding noun is amor (the
signi+cance of this term for the !omans is -ell illustrated in the fact, that the name of the
?ity, !ome*in Latin1 !oma*can be vie-ed as an anagram for amor, -hich -as used as
the secret name of the ?ity in -ide circles in ancient times),',9) -hich is also used in the
plural form to indicate love a$airs or se2ual adventures. :his same root also produces
amicus*%friend%*and amicitia, %friendship% (often based to mutual advantage, and
corresponding sometimes more closely to %indebtedness% or %inMuence%). ?icero -rote a
treatise called Pn Friendship (de micitia), -hich discusses the notion at some length.
Pvid -rote a guide to dating called rs matoria (:he rt of Love), -hich addresses, in
depth, everything from e2tramarital a$airs to overprotective parents.
Latin sometimes uses amlre -here Anglish -ould simply say to like. :his notion,
ho-ever, is much more generally e2pressed in Latin by placere or delectlre, -hich are
used more colloGuially, the latter used freGuently in the love poetry of ?atullus. #iligere
often has the notion %to be a$ectionate for,% %to esteem,% and rarely if ever is used for
romantic love. :his -ord -ould be appropriate to describe the friendship of t-o men. :he
corresponding noun diligentia, ho-ever, has the meaning of %diligence% or %carefulness,%
and has little semantic overlap -ith the verb. Pbservare is a synonym for diligereE despite
the cognate -ith Anglish, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote
%esteem% or %a$ection.% ?aritas is used in Latin translations of the ?hristian @ible to mean
%charitable love%E this meaning, ho-ever, is not found in ?lassical pagan !oman
literature. s it arises from a conMation -ith a 0reek -ord, there is no corresponding
verb.
?hinese and other Binic cultures
%i,% the traditional ?hinese character for love () consists of a heart (, middle)
inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," () which shows a graceful emotion. It can
also be interpreted as a hand offering one's heart to another hand.
wo philosophical underpinnings of love e!ist in the "hinese tradition, one from
"onfucianism which emphasi#ed actions and dut$ while the other came from %ohism which
championed a universal love. & core concept to "onfucianism is 'en ("benevolent love",
(), which focuses on dut$, action and attitude in a relationship rather than love itself.
In "onfucianism, one displa$s benevolent love b$ performing actions such as filial piet$
from children, )indness from parent, lo$alt$ to the )ing and so forth.
he concept of &i () was developed b$ the "hinese philosopher %o#i in the *th centur$ +"
in reaction to "onfucianism's benevolent love. %o#i tried to replace what he considered to
be the long,entrenched "hinese over,attachment to famil$ and clan structures with the
concept of "universal love" (-iln.mi, .). In this, he argued directl$ against "onfucians
who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in
different degrees. %o#i, b$ contrast, believed people in principle should care for all
people e/uall$. %ohism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards
different people, love should be unconditional and offered to ever$one without regard to
reciprocation, not -ust to friends, famil$ and other "onfucian relations. 0ater in "hinese
+uddhism, the term &i () was adopted to refer to a passionate caring love and was
considered a fundamental desire. In +uddhism, &i was seen as capable of being either
selfish or selfless, the latter being a )e$ element towards enlightenment.
In contemporar$ "hinese, &i () is often used as the e/uivalent of the 1estern concept of
love. &i is used as both a verb (e.g. wo ai ni 23, or "I love $ou") and a noun (such
as ai/ing 4, or "romantic love"). 5owever, due to the influence of "onfucian 'en, the
phrase 61o ai ni7 (I love $ou) carries with it a ver$ specific sense of responsibilit$,
commitment and lo$alt$. Instead of fre/uentl$ sa$ing "I love $ou" as in some 1estern
societies, the "hinese are more li)el$ to e!press feelings of affection in a more casual
wa$. "onse/uentl$, "I li)e $ou" (1o !ihuan ni, 2893) is a more common wa$ of
e!pressing affection in "hinese: it is more pla$ful and less serious.;<=> his is also
true in ?apanese (su)i da, @). The Chinese are also more likely to say "I love you"
in English or other foreign languages than they would in their mother tongue.
Persian
Rumi !afi" and #a$di are i%ons of the &assion and love that the Persian %ulture and
language &resent. The Persian word for love is eshgh'%itation needed( derived from the
)ra*i% ish+ however is %onsidered *y most to *e too stalwart a term for inter&ersonal
love and is more %ommonly su*stituted for $doost dashtan$ ,$liking$).'%itation needed( In
the Persian %ulture everything is en%om&assed *y love and all is for love starting from
loving friends and family hus*ands and wives and eventually rea%hing the divine love
that is the ultimate goal in life .'%itation needed( -ver seven %enturies ago #a$di
wrote.
The %hildren of )dam are lim*s of one *ody
!aving *een %reated of one essen%e.
/hen the %alamity of time affli%ts one lim*
The other lim*s %annot remain at rest.
If you have no sym&athy for the trou*les of others
0ou are not worthy to *e %alled *y the name of "man".
1a&anese
-hatsu and Toku*ei %hara%ters of #one"aki #hin23
In 1a&anese 4uddhism ai ,) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can
develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment. &mae (A5) a
1a&anese word meaning "indulgent de&enden%e" is &art of the %hild6rearing %ulture of
1a&an. 1a&anese mothers are e7&e%ted to hug and indulge their %hildren and %hildren are
e7&e%ted to reward their mothers *y %linging and serving. #ome so%iologists have suggested
that 1a&anese so%ial intera%tions in later life are modeled on the mother6%hild amae.
Turkish ,#haman and Islami%)
In Turkish the word "love" %omes u& with several meanings. ) &erson %an love a god a
&erson &arents or family. 4ut that &erson %an "love" 2ust one s&e%ial &erson whi%h they
%all the word "a8k." )8k is a feeling for to love or *eing "in love" ,)8 k) as it still
is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word 2ust for their loves in a romanti% or se7ual
sense. If a Turk says that he is in love ,)8 k) with some*ody it is not a love that a
&erson %an feel for his or her &arents9 it is 2ust for one &erson and it indi%ates a huge
infatuation. The word is also %ommon for Turki% languages su%h as )"er*ai2ani ,e8+) and
:a"akh , ;<= ).
Religious views
>ain arti%le. Religious views on love
)*rahami% religions
Ro*ert Indiana$s ?@AA Bove s%ul&ture s&elling ahava.
Christianity
The Christian understanding is that love %omes from Cod. The love of man and womanDeros
in CreekDand the unselfish love of others ,aga&e) are often %ontrasted as "as%ending"
and "des%ending" love res&e%tively *ut are ultimately the same thing.'E@(
There are several Creek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian
%ir%les.
)ga&e. In the Few Testament aga&G is %harita*le selfless altruisti% and un%onditional.
It is &arental love seen as %reating goodness in the world9 it is the way Cod is seen to
love humanity and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians as&ire to have for one
another.
Phileo. )lso used in the Few Testament &hileo is a human res&onse to something that is
found to *e delightful. )lso known as "*rotherly love."
Two other words for love in the Creek language eros ,se7ual love) and storge ,%hild6to6
&arent love) were never used in the Few Testament.
Christians *elieve that to Bove Cod with all your heart mind and strength and Bove your
neigh*or as yourself are the two most im&ortant things in life ,the greatest %ommandment
of the 1ewish Torah a%%ording to 1esus9 %f. Cos&el of >ark %ha&ter ?E verses EHIJK).
#aint )ugustine summari"ed this when he wrote "Bove Cod and do as thou wilt."
#a%red Bove Lersus Profane Bove ,?MNEINJ) *y Ciovanni 4aglione. Intended as an atta%k on
his hated enemy the artist Caravaggio it shows a *oy ,hinting at Caravaggio$s
homose7uality) on one side a devil with Caravaggio$s fa%e on the other and *etween an
angel re&resenting &ure meaning non6eroti% love.
The )&ostle Paul glorified love as the most im&ortant virtue of all. Oes%ri*ing love in
the famous &oem in ? Corinthians he wrote "Bove is &atient love is kind. It does not
envy it does not *oast it is not &roud. It is not rude it is not self6seeking it is
not easily angered it kee&s no re%ord of wrongs. Bove does not delight in evil *ut
re2oi%es with the truth. It always &rote%ts always trusts always ho&es and always
&erseveres." ,? Cor. ?J.KIA FIL)
Relationshi&s
Ty&es'show(
)%tivities'show(
Endings'show(
Emotions'show(
Pra%ti%es'show(
)*use'show(
v t e
The )&ostle 1ohn wrote "Por Cod so loved the world that he gave his one and only #on
that whoever *elieves in him shall not &erish *ut have eternal life. Por Cod did not send
his #on into the world to %ondemn the world *ut to save the world through him." ,1ohn
J.?MI?A FIL) 1ohn also wrote "Oear friends let us love one another for love %omes from
Cod. Everyone who loves has *een *orn of Cod and knows Cod. /hoever does not love does not
know Cod *e%ause Cod is love." ,? 1ohn K.AIH FIL)
#aint )ugustine says that one must *e a*le to de%i&her the differen%e *etween love and
lust. Bust a%%ording to #aint )ugustine is an overindulgen%e *ut to love and *e loved
is what he has sought for his entire life. !e even says QI was in love with love.R
Pinally he does fall in love and is loved *a%k *y Cod. #aint )ugustine says the only one
who %an love you truly and fully is Cod *e%ause love with a human only allows for flaws
su%h as Q2ealousy sus&i%ion fear anger and %ontention.R )%%ording to #aint
)ugustine to love Cod is Qto attain the &ea%e whi%h is yours.R ,#aint )ugustine$s
Confessions)
)ugustine regards the du&le7 %ommandment of love in >atthew EE as the heart of Christian
faith and the inter&retation of the 4i*le. )fter the review of Christian do%trine
)ugustine treats the &ro*lem of love in terms of use and en2oyment until the end of 4ook I
of Oe Oo%trina Christiana ,?.EE.E?6?.KN.KK9).'JN(
Christian theologians see Cod as the sour%e of love whi%h is mirrored in humans and their
own loving relationshi&s. Influential Christian theologian C.#. Bewis wrote a *ook %alled
The Pour Boves. 4enedi%t SLI wrote his first en%y%li%al on "Cod is love". !e said that a
human *eing %reated in the image of Cod who is love is a*le to &ra%ti%e love9 to give
himself to Cod and others ,aga&e) and *y re%eiving and e7&erien%ing Cod$s love in
%ontem&lation ,eros). This life of love a%%ording to him is the life of the saints su%h
as Teresa of Cal%utta and the 4lessed Lirgin >ary and is the dire%tion Christians take
when they *elieve that Cod loves them.'E@(
In Christianity the &ra%ti%al definition of love is *est summarised *y #t. Thomas )+uinas
who defined love as "to will the good of another" or to desire for another to su%%eed.
'?E( This is the e7&lanation of the Christian need to love others in%luding their
enemies. )s Thomas )+uinas e7&lains Christian love is motivated *y the need to see others
su%%eed in life to *e good &eo&le.
1udaism
In !e*rew )hava is the most %ommonly used term for *oth inter&ersonal love and love
*etween Cod and Cod$s %reations. Chesed often translated as loving6kindness is used to
des%ri*e many forms of love *etween human *eings.
The %ommandment to love other &eo&le is given in the Torah whi%h states "Bove your
neigh*or like yourself" ,Beviti%us ?@.?H). The Torah$s %ommandment to love Cod "with all
your heart with all your soul and with all your might" ,Oeuteronomy M.T) is taken *y the
>ishnah ,a %entral te7t of the 1ewish oral law) to refer to good deeds willingness to
sa%rifi%e one$s life rather than %ommit %ertain serious transgressions willingness to
sa%rifi%e all of one$s &ossessions and *eing grateful to the Bord des&ite adversity
,tra%tate 4era%hoth @.T). Ra**ini% literature differs as to how this love %an *e
develo&ed e.g. *y %ontem&lating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature. )s for
love *etween marital &artners this is deemed an essential ingredient to life. "#ee life
with the wife you love" ,E%%lesiastes @.@). The *i*li%al *ook #ong of #olomon is
%onsidered a romanti%ally &hrased meta&hor of love *etween Cod and his &eo&le *ut in its
&lain reading reads like a love song. The ENth6%entury Ra**i Eliyahu Elie"er Oessler is
fre+uently +uoted as defining love from the 1ewish &oint of view as "giving without
e7&e%ting to take" ,from his >i%htav me6Eliyahu Lol. ?).
Islam
Bove en%om&asses the Islami% view of life as universal *rotherhood that a&&lies to all who
hold faith. )mongst the @@ names of Cod ,)llah) there is the name )l6/adud or "the
Boving -ne" whi%h is found in #urah 'Uuran ??.@N( as well as #urah 'Uuran HT.?K(. Cod is
also referen%ed at the *eginning of every %ha&ter in the Uur$an as )r6Rahman and )r6Rahim
or the ">ost Com&assionate" and the ">ost >er%iful" indi%ating that no*ody is more
loving %om&assionate and *enevolent than Cod. The Uur$an refers to Cod as *eing "full of
loving kindness."
The Uur$an e7horts >uslim *elievers to treat all &eo&le those who have not &erse%uted
them with *irr or "dee& kindness" as stated in #urah 'Uuran M.H6@(. 4irr is also used *y
the Uur$an in des%ri*ing the love and kindness that %hildren must show to their &arents.
Ish+ or divine love is the em&hasis of #ufism in the Islami% tradition. Pra%titioners of
#ufism *elieve that love is a &ro2e%tion of the essen%e of Cod to the universe. Cod
desires to re%ogni"e *eauty and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself Cod "looks"
at himself within the dynami%s of nature. #in%e everything is a refle%tion of Cod the
s%hool of #ufism &ra%ti%es to see the *eauty inside the a&&arently ugly. #ufism is often
referred to as the religion of love.'%itation needed( Cod in #ufism is referred to in
three main terms whi%h are the Bover Boved and 4eloved with the last of these terms
*eing often seen in #ufi &oetry. ) %ommon view&oint of #ufism is that through love
humankind %an get *a%k to its inherent &urity and gra%e. The saints of #ufism are infamous
for *eing "drunk" due to their love of Cod9 hen%e the %onstant referen%e to wine in #ufi
&oetry and musi%.'J?(
Eastern religions
4uddhism
In 4uddhism :Vma is sensuous se7ual love. It is an o*sta%le on the &ath to
enlightenment sin%e it is selfish. :aru V is %om&assion and mer%y whi%h redu%es the
suffering of others. It is %om&lementary to wisdom and is ne%essary for enlightenment.
)dve a and mettV are *enevolent love. This love is un%onditional and re+uires %onsidera*le
self6a%%e&tan%e. This is +uite different from ordinary love whi%h is usually a*out
atta%hment and se7 and whi%h rarely o%%urs without self6interest. Instead in 4uddhism it
refers to deta%hment and unselfish interest in others$ welfare.
The 4odhisattva ideal in >ahayana 4uddhism involves the %om&lete renun%iation of oneself
in order to take on the *urden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in
order to take the &ath of the 4odhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish
altruisti% love for all sentient *eings.
!induism
:ama ,left) with Rati on a tem&le wall of Chennakesava Tem&le 4elur
In !induism kVma is &leasura*le se7ual love &ersonified *y the god :amadeva. Por many
!indu s%hools it is the third end ,:ama) in life. :amadeva is often &i%tured holding a
*ow of sugar %ane and an arrow of flowers9 he may ride u&on a great &arrot. !e is usually
a%%om&anied *y his %onsort Rati and his %om&anion Lasanta lord of the s&ring season.
#tone images of :amadeva and Rati %an *e seen on the door of the Chennakeshava tem&le at
4elur in :arnataka India. >aara is another name for kVma.
In %ontrast to kVma &rema I or &rem I refers to elevated love. :aruna is %om&assion and
mer%y whi%h im&els one to hel& redu%e the suffering of others. 4hakti is a #anskrit term
meaning "loving devotion to the su&reme Cod." ) &erson who &ra%ti%es *hakti is %alled a
*hakta. !indu writers theologians and &hiloso&hers have distinguished nine forms of
*hakti whi%h %an *e found in the 4hagavata Purana and works *y Tulsidas. The
&hiloso&hi%al work Farada 4hakti #utras written *y an unknown author ,&resumed to *e
Farada) distinguishes eleven forms of love.
In %ertain Laishnava se%ts within !induism attaining unaldulterated un%onditional and
in%essant love for Codhead is %onsidered the foremost goal of life. Caudiya Laishnavas who
worshi& :rishna as the #u&reme Personality of Codhead and the %ause of all %auses %onsider
Bove for Codhead ,Prema) to a%t in two ways. sam*hoga and vi&ralam*ha ,union and
se&aration)Dtwo o&&osites .'JE(
In the %ondition of se&aration there is an a%ute yearning for *eing with the *eloved and
in the %ondition of union there is su&reme ha&&iness and ne%tarean. Caudiya Laishnavas
%onsider that :rishna6&rema ,Bove for Codhead) is not fire *ut that it still *urns away
one$s material desires. They %onsider that : a6&rema is not a wea&on *ut it still
&ier%es the heart. It is not water *ut it washes away everythingDone$s &ride religious
rules and one$s shyness. :rishna6&rema is %onsidered to make one drown in the o%ean of
trans%endental e%stasy and &leasure. The love of Radha a %owherd girl for :rishna is
often %ited as the su&reme e7am&le of love for Codhead *y Caudiya Laishnavas. Radha is
%onsidered to *e the internal &oten%y of :rishna and is the su&reme lover of Codhead. !er
e7am&le of love is %onsidered to *e *eyond the understanding of material realm as it
sur&asses any form of selfish love or lust that is visi*le in the material world. The
re%i&ro%al love *etween Radha ,the su&reme lover) and :rishna ,Cod as the #u&remely Boved)
is the su*2e%t of many &oeti% %om&ositions in India su%h as the Cita Covinda and !ari
4hakti #huddhodhaya.
In the 4hakti tradition within !induism it is *elieved that e7e%ution of devotional
servi%e to Cod leads to the develo&ment of Bove for Cod ,tai%he *hakti6&hale krsne &rema
u&a2aya) and as love for Cod in%reases in the heart the more one *e%omes free from
material %ontamination ,krishna6&rema asvada haile *hava nasa &aya). 4eing &erfe%tly in
love with Cod or :rishna makes one &erfe%tly free from material %ontamination. and this is
the ultimate way of salvation or li*eration. In this tradition salvation or li*eration is
%onsidered inferior to love and 2ust an in%idental *y6&rodu%t. 4eing a*sor*ed in Bove for
Cod is %onsidered to *e the &erfe%tion of life.'JJ(
Politi%al views
Pree love
>ain arti%le. Pree love
Bovers kissing on the street
The term free love has *een used 'JK( to des%ri*e a so%ial movement that re2e%ts marriage
whi%h is seen as a form of so%ial *ondage. The Pree Bove movementWs initial goal was to
se&arate the state from se7ual matters su%h as marriage *irth %ontrol and adultery. It
%laimed that su%h issues were the %on%ern of the &eo&le involved and no one else.'JT(
>any &eo&le in the early ?@th %entury *elieved that marriage was an im&ortant as&e%t of
life to "fulfill earthly human ha&&iness." >iddle6%lass )meri%ans wanted the home to *e a
&la%e of sta*ility in an un%ertain world. This mentality %reated a vision of strongly
defined gender roles whi%h &rovoked the advan%ement of the free love movement as a
%ontrast.'JM(
The term "se7 radi%al" is also used inter%hangea*ly with the term "free lover" and was
the &referred term *y advo%ates *e%ause of the negative %onnotations of "free love".
'%itation needed( 4y whatever name advo%ates had two strong *eliefs. o&&osition to the
idea of for%eful se7ual a%tivity in a relationshi& and advo%a%y for a woman to use her
*ody in any way that she &leases.'JA( These are also *eliefs of Peminism.
Philoso&hi%al views
>ain arti%le. Philoso&hy of love
Craffito in East Timor
The &hiloso&hy of love is a field of so%ial &hiloso&hy and ethi%s that attem&ts to e7&lain
the nature of love. The &hiloso&hi%al investigation of love in%ludes the tasks of
distinguishing *etween the various kinds of &ersonal love asking if and how love is or
%an *e 2ustified asking what the value of love is and what im&a%t love has on the
autonomy of *oth the lover and the *eloved.
>any different theories attem&t to e7&lain the nature and fun%tion of love. E7&laining
love to a hy&otheti%al &erson who had not himself or herself e7&erien%ed love or *eing
loved would *e very diffi%ult *e%ause to su%h a &erson love would a&&ear to *e +uite
strange if not outright irrational *ehavior. )mong the &revailing ty&es of theories that
attem&t to a%%ount for the e7isten%e of love are. &sy%hologi%al theories the vast
ma2ority of whi%h %onsider love to *e very healthy *ehavior9 evolutionary theories whi%h
hold that love is &art of the &ro%ess of natural sele%tion9 s&iritual theories whi%h may
for instan%e %onsider love to *e a gift from a god9 and theories that %onsider love to *e
an une7&laina*le mystery very mu%h like a mysti%al e7&erien%e.
Referen%es
1um& u& X -7ford Illustrated )meri%an Oi%tionary ,?@@H) Y >erriam6/e*ster Collegiate
Oi%tionary ,ENNN)
1um& u& X >erriam /e*ster Oi%tionary
1um& u& X Promm Eri%h9 The )rt of Boving !ar&er Perennial ,?@TM) -riginal English
Lersion I#4F @AH6N6NM6N@THEH6E
1um& u& X C. #. Bewis The Pour Boves ?@MN.
1um& u& X :risteller Paul -skar ,?@HN). Renaissan%e Thought and the )rts. Colle%ted
Essays. Prin%eton Zniversity Press. I#4F N6M@?6NEN?N6H.
1um& u& X #tendhal in his *ook -n Bove ,"Oe l$amour"9 Paris ?HEE) distinguished %arnal
love &assionate love a kind of un%ommitted love that he %alled "taste6love" and love of
vanity. Oenis de Rougemont in his *ook Bove in the /estern /orld tra%ed the story of
&assionate love ,l$amour6&assion) from its %ourtly to its romanti% forms. 4en2amin P[ret
in the introdu%tion to his )nthology of #u*lime Bove ,Paris ?@TM) further distinguished
"su*lime love" a state of reali"ed idealisation &erha&s e+uata*le with the romanti% form
of &assionate love.
1um& u& X >as%ar\ 1uan ,ENNJ). The 4hagavad Cita. Penguin Classi%s. Penguin. I#4F N6?K6
NKK@?H6J. ,1. >as%ar\ translator)
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1um& u& X !elen Pisher. /hy /e Bove. the nature and %hemistry of romanti% love. ENNK.
1um& u& X :ay Paul9 :em&ton /illett ,>ar%h ?@HK). "/hat is the #a&irI/horf !y&othesis]".
)meri%an )nthro&ologist. Few #eries HM ,?). MTIA@. doi.?N.?TET^aa.?@HK.HM.?.NEaNNNTN.
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X 1um& u& to. a * "#t. Thomas )+uinas #Th I6II EM K %or&. art". Fewadvent.org.
Retrieved EN?N6?N6JN.
1um& u& X Bei*ni" Cottfried. "Confessio &hiloso&hi". /ikisour%e edition. Retrieved >ar
ET ENN@.
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I#4F @AH?AK?E@NNAJ.
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1um& u& X Ois%overy!ealth. "Para&hilia". Retrieved ENNA6?E6?M.
X 1um& u& to. a * Bewis Thomas9 )mini P.9 Bannon R. ,ENNN). ) Ceneral Theory of Bove.
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X 1um& u& to. a * htt&.^^home&age.ma%.%om^helenfisher^ar%hives`of`se7`*eh.&df Oe ning the
4rain #ystems of Bust Romanti% )ttra%tion and )tta%hment *y Pisher et. al
X 1um& u& to. a * /inston Ro*ert ,ENNK). !uman. #mithsonian Institution. I#4F N6NJ6
N@JAHN6@.
1um& u& X Emanuele E.9 Polliti P.9 4ian%hi >.9 >inoretti P.9 4ertona >.9 Ceroldi O
,ENNT). "Raised &lasma nerve growth fa%tor levels asso%iated with early6stage romanti%
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,E). ??@I?JT. doi.?N.?NJA^NNJJ6E@TS.@J.E.
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#o%ial Psy%hology ?M ,E). EMTIEA'%larifi%ation needed(. doi.?N.?NJA^hNNE@HK?. P>IO
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MA?6ETNMA6?.
1um& u& X The !and*ook of Evolutionary Psy%hology edited *y Oavid >. 4uss 1ohn /iley b
#ons In%. ENNT. Cha&ter ?K Commitment Bove and >ate Retention *y Borne Cam&*ell and
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1um& u& X 1P: >iller "/hy the Chinese Oon$t #ay I Bove 0ou"
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?JT. doi.?N.?NJA^NNJJ6E@TS.@J.E.??@.
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E7ternal links
Book u& I love you in /iktionary the free di%tionary.
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