The Manufacturing

Process
The manufacture of concrete is fairly simple. First, the cement (usually
Portland cement) is prepared. Next, the other ingredientsaggregates (such
as sand or gravel), admixtures (chemical additives), any necessary fibers, and
waterare mixed together with the cement to form concrete. The concrete is
then shipped to the work site and placed, compacted, and cured.
Preparing Portland cement
1 The limestone, silica, and alumina that make up Portland cement are
dry ground into a very fine powder, mixed together
in predetermined proportions, preheated, and calcined (heated to a
high temperature that will burn off impurities without fusing the
ingredients). Next the material is burned in a large rotary kiln at 2,550
degrees Fahrenheit (1,400 degrees Celsius). At this temperature, the
material partially fuses into a substance known as clinker. A modern
kiln can produce as much as 6,200 tons of clinker a day.
2 The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine powder in a tube or
ball mill. A ball mill is a rotating drum filled with steel balls of different
sizes (depending on the desired fineness of the cement) that crush and
grind the clinker. Gypsum is added during the grinding process. The
final composition consists of several compounds: tricalcium silicate,
dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium
aluminoferrite.
Mixing
3 The cement is then mixed with the other ingredients: aggregates
(sand, gravel, or crushed stone), admixtures, fibers, and water.
Aggregates are pre-blended or added at the ready-mix concrete plant
under normal operating conditions. The mixing operation uses rotation
or stirring to coat the surface of the aggregate with cement paste and to
blend the other ingredients uniformly. A variety of batch or continuous
mixers are used.
4 Fibers, if desired, can be added by a variety of methods including
direct spraying, premixing, impregnating, or hand laying-up. Silica
fume is often used as a dispersing or densifying agent.
Transport to work site
5 Once the concrete mixture is ready, it is transported to the work site.
There are many methods of transporting concrete, including
wheelbarrows, buckets, belt conveyors,

The first step in making concrete is to prepare the cement. One type of
cement, Pordand cement, is considered superior to natural cement
because it is stronger, more durable, and of a more consistent quality.
To make it, the raw materials are crushed and ground into a fine
powder and mixed together. Next, the material undergoes two heating
stepscalcining and burning. In calcining, the materials are heated to a
high temperature but do not fuse together. In burning, however, the
materials partially fuse together, forming a substance known as
"clinker." The clinker is then ground in a ball milla rotating steel
drum filled with steel balls that pulverize the material.

After the Portland cement is prepared, it is mixed with aggregates such
as sand or gravel, admixtures, fibers, and water. Next, it is transfered to
the work site and placed. During placing, segregation of the various
ingredients must be avoided so that full compactionelimination of air
bubblescan be achieved.
special trucks, and pumping. Pumping transports large quantities of
concrete over large distances through pipelines using a system
consisting of a hopper, a pump, and the pipes. Pumps come in several
typesthe horizontal piston pump with semi-rotary valves and small
portable pumps called squeeze pumps. A vacuum provides
a continuous flow of concrete, with two rotating rollers squeezing a
flexible pipe to move the concrete into the delivery pipe.
Placing and compacting
6 Once at the site, the concrete must be placed and compacted. These
two operations are performed almost simultaneously. Placing must be
done so that segregation of the various ingredients is avoided and full
compactionwith all air bubbles eliminatedcan be achieved. Whether
chutes or buggies are used, position is important in achieving these
goals. The rates of placing and of compaction should be equal; the latter
is usually accomplished using internal or external vibrators. An internal
vibrator uses a poker housing a motor-driven shaft. When the poker is
inserted into the concrete, controlled vibration occurs to compact the
concrete. External vibrators are used for precast or thin in situ sections
having a shape or thickness unsuitable for internal vibrators. These
type of vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork, which rests on an
elastic support. Both the form and the concrete are vibrated. Vibrating
tables are also used, where a table produces vertical vibration by using
two shafts rotating in opposite directions.
Curing
7 Once it is placed and compacted, the concrete must cured before it is
finished to make sure that it doesn't dry too quickly. Concrete's
strength is influenced by its moisture level during the hardening
process: as the cement solidifies, the concrete shrinks. If site
constraints prevent the concrete from contracting, tensile stresses will
develop, weakening the concrete. To minimize this problem, concrete
must be kept damp during the several days it requires to set and
harden.


types

Glass fiber reinforced concrete has been successfully used since the last 25 years for concrete reinforcement, in
addition to steel. GFRC is being manufactured into big panels with a simple configuration or into intricate shapes
by using special techniques. Originally, GFRC components were anchored directly with the buildings by the use
of metal studs. It was revealed that GFRC shifts considerably due to which the direct anchors are being replaced
by slip anchors. Several structures use GFRC for dissimilar facing like ceramic tiles, bricks, and architectural
purposes.
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC)
Steel fiber reinforced concrete is a composite material that can be sprayed. It consists of hydraulic cements with
steel fibers that are dispersed randomly and possess a rectangular cross-section. The steel fibers reinforce concrete
by withstanding tensile cracking. The flexural strength of fiber reinforced concrete is greater than the un-
reinforced concrete. Reinforcement of concrete by steel fibers is isotropic in nature that improves the resistance to
fracture, disintegration, and fatigue. Steel fiber reinforced concrete is able to withstand light and heavy loads.
Different Types of Fibers Used for Concrete Reinforcement
Natural fiber reinforced concrete (NFRC) consists of cellulose fibers that are processed from pine trees. This
category is also producing good results. The recycled carpet waste has been successfully used for concrete
reinforcement by using the waste carpet fibers.
Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) concrete: Polypropylene is a cheap and abundant polymer widely used
due to its resistance to forming chemical reactions.
Asbestos Fibers: These fibers are cheap and provide the cement with mechanical, chemical and thermal
resistance, although the asbestos fiber reinforced concrete appears to have low impact strength.
Carbon Fibers: These fibers have been recently used due to their very high modulus of elasticity and flexural
strength. Characteristics such as strength and stiffness are better than those of steel fibers, although they are more
susceptible to damage.
Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC)
A fiber reinforced concrete has been developed recently that is called Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC).
It is claimed that this concrete is 40 % lighter than normal concrete, resistance to cracking exceeds 500 times, and
strain hardening exceeds several percent strain. Thus, the ductility is significantly greater than normal concrete. It
is also known as bendable concrete since it can easily be molded and shaped. It can self-repair minor cracks by the
reaction with carbon dioxide and rainwater, making the concrete stronger.




Pcc
Specifications for Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
Materials Specifications
Aggregate shall be of invert materials and should be clean, dense, hard, sound,
durable, non-absorbent and capable of developing good bond with mortar.
Coarse aggregate shall be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone, free
from dust, dirt and other foreign matters. The stone ballast shall be of 20mm
size and smaller. All the coarse material should be retained in a 5mm square
mesh and should be well graded such that the voids do not exceed 42%.
Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular
grains and shall pass through a screen of 5mm square mesh. Sand shall be of
standard specifications, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matter. Sea
sand shall not be used.
Cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard ISI specifications and shall
have the required tensile and compressive stresses and fineness.
Water shall be clean and free from alkaline and acid matters and suitable for
drinking purposes.
Proportion Specifications
1:2:4 (cement : sand : stone ballast) by volume when specified. Minimum
compressive strength of concrete of 1:2:4 proportion shall be 140 kg/cm2 in 7
days.
Hand mixing
Mixing shall be done on masonry platform or sheet iron tray.
Machine mixing
Stone ballast, sand and cement shall be put into cement concrete mixer to have
the required proportions.
Slump
Regular slump test should be carried out to control the addition of water and to
maintain the required consistency. A slump of 7.5cm to 10cm may be allowed
for building work.
Formwork
Formwork centering and shuttering shall be provided as required as per the
standard specification before laying concrete to confine to support or to keep
the concrete in position. The inner surface of shuttering shall be oiled to prevent
concrete sticking to it.
Laying Technique
Concrete shall be laid gently (not thrown) in layers not exceeding 15cm and
compacted by pinning with rods and tamping with wooden tampers or with
mechanical vibrating machine until a dense concrete is obtained.
Curing Method
After about two hours of laying of concrete, when the concrete has begun to
harden, it shall be kept damp by covering with wet gunny bags or wet sand for
24 hours.



Plain cement concrete (PCC) is used to provide rigid impervious bed to RCC
in foundation where the earth is soft and yielding. PCC can be used over brick
flat soling or without brick flat soling.

Plain cement concrete can also called only "cement concrete (CC)" or
"binding concrete".



Materials used for producing PCC:

Cement: we generally use Portland cement as bonding material in PCC.

Fine Aggregate: Sand is used as fine aggregate. The FM of sand should be
1.2 to 1.5.

Course Aggregate: We normally use brick chips for producing PCC. Stone
chips can also be used for this purpose. The size of the course aggregate is
20mm downgrade.

Water: Pure drinkable water should be used in PCC.

Tools used for producing PCC:
We normally use following tools for producing Plain Cement Concrete-
Wooden or Steel rammer
Mixture machine (if any)

Thickness of PCC:
The thickness of PCC is normally 50mm over Brick Flat Soling (BFS). If we
dont use BFS below PCC then the thickness should be 75mm. when the PCC
is used in car park area then the thickness should be 75mm over BFS.

Material proportion for PCC:
The proportion of cement, sand and brick chips by volume in foundation or
basement is 1:3:6. But, in car park area, the proportion should be 1:2:4.

Procedure of manufacturing PCC:
If you want to use ready-mix concrete then you should skip this step. If you
want to produce PCC by mixture machine then click How to mix concrete by
mixture machine. If you dont have concrete mixture machine and want mix
concrete by hand see how to mix concrete by hand.

Placing and Compaction of PCC:

Make sure brick soling/sand bed level for PCC is ok.


Make form work for PCC with wooden plank as per specified
dimentions.


Clean dust or foreign or loose earth from concreting area.


Spread polythene over the bed of PCC.


Make level pillars of fresh concrete in the area at suitable intervals but
not more than 2m c/c both ways.


Place the concrete gently (dont through) from one side. Use the mixed
concrete within 45 minutes after the water is added.


Use wooden rammer for compaction and finishing of PCC.


Make the surface of PCC roughen for joining future work before the
concrete become harden.

Curing of PCC:
After 24 hours of laying PCC, moist the concrete surface by flooding with
water or by covering with moist gunny bags at least for 7 days.

Checking and Inspection:

Check the dimensions of form work of PCC before mixing concrete.


Check polythene sheet is laid over PCC bed.


Check the concrete slump (maximum slump should be 75mm)


Check the thickness level of PCC before casting by putting steel pegs
in concreting area or putting level pillar of fresh concrete at suitable distance.


Check the finish level of PCC by thread fixing with nails in form work.


Inspect if the concrete is placing gently.