Wear 225–229 Ž1999.

621–628

1
Influence of disc topography on generation of brake squeal
Filip Bergman, Mikael Eriksson ) , Staffan Jacobson
˚ ¨ Laboratory, Uppsala UniÕersity, Box 534, S-751 21 Uppsala, Sweden
Department of Materials Science, The Angstrom

Abstract

The influence of the disc topography on the generation of automotive disc brake squeal has been studied. Two brake discs were
shot-blasted to produce small pits in the disc surface. The discs were then tested in a special brake squeal rig. During the tests, the
coefficient of friction increased from about 0.3 to 0.45 as pits were gradually reduced in size as the discs were worn. A removable section
in one of the discs made it possible to record the size and location of the surface defects by SEM-investigations before, during and after
the test. For the tested padrdisc combination, there were no brake squeals generated as long as the friction coefficient was below a
critical level of 0.4. The use of shot-blasted discs thus provides a unique possibility to investigate the correlation between brake disc
topography, friction coefficient and brake squeal generation without changing neither the composition nor the macroscopic geometry of
brake pad or disc. q 1999 Published by Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Brake squeal; Coefficient of friction; Surface topography; Disc brake; Brake disc

1. Introduction systems do not generate squeal although the friction coeffi-

Traditionally, brake squeal in automotive brakes has
been studied as a phenomenon caused by the design of the
brake system and the macroscopic friction properties. Many
different mechanisms have been suggested as being re-
sponsible for brake squeal generation. Most of the work
has concerned macroscopic frictional behaviour and com-
monly a stick–slip motion or a friction coefficient decreas-
ing with sliding velocity has been blamed w1–7x.
However, lately it has been shown that a brake system
theoretically will generate squeal even with a stable fric-
tion coefficient, if it exceeds a certain level w4,8x. The
question then turns over to why many commercial brake
)
Corresponding author. E-mail: mikael.eriksson@angstrom.uu.se
1
Prime NoÕelty of the Paper: It is shown that small pits in the brake
disc surface lower the coefficient of friction. The friction coefficient
gradually increases as the spits are worn away. Brake squeals are
prevented as long as the coefficient of friction is below a critical value.
This is a unique test for investigation of the correlation between disc
topography, friction coefficient and brake squeal generation without
changing any other test parameters.
cient is above this critical level? The answer can probably
be found within the microscopic friction characteristics of
the brake, an aspect not included in the theoretical models
and also almost neglected in the literature on brake squeal.
In some technical areas, it is well known that rough
surfaces excite less noise than do smooth. Despite this
knowledge among practicioners, there is very limited in-
formation in the literature on its physical background.
An earlier investigation has shown that the surface of
the tested pads exhibit well-defined contact spots sliding
against the disc. For an ordinary pad, it has been shown
that the number of contact spots is as high as in the order
of 10 5 w9x. These spots are considerably harder than the
mean hardness of the pad and are composed mainly of
structural fibres, abrasive particles and compacted wear
debris. Obviously, the macroscopic friction force is the
sum of the forces on the individual contact spots.
The objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of
a change in the microscopic friction conditions on the
generation of brake squeal and the macroscopic coefficient
of friction. The microscopic friction conditions were modi-
fied by the introduction of shallow pits evenly distributed
over the disc surface. The gradual wear of the pits was
repeatedly investigated in the SEM and correlated to the

0043-1648r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Published by Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 6 4 - 2
622 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628
gradual change of squeal generation and macroscopic fric-
tion.
2. Test material and experimental
One set of brake pads and two standard cast iron brake
discs, both made for a front wheel of a Volvo 850, were
first subjected to a run-in procedure of 42 brakings identi-
cal to one sequence of the following test program. Both
discs were then shot-blasted with angular SiC-particles
Ž f 1–2 mm. causing about 100mm wide pits in the disc
surface.
The pads selected are a slightly modified, noncommer-
cial version of the production pads used in the Volvo 850.
These pads are suitable for fundamental investigations of
brake squeal as they generate squeal over a wide range of
brake pressures and temperatures. The nominal composi-
tion of the discs is given in Table 1 and the approximate
composition of the pads are shown in Table 2. The exact
composition of the pad material was not available from the
manufacturer.
All tests were conducted in a special brake squeal rig
w10x. It is based on a Volvo 850 front-wheel suspension
with an electric motor rotating the wheel via the original
drive-shaft, see Fig. 1. The rotational speed is controlled
separately and is not influenced by friction forces as in a
normal brake dynamometer. The brake-line pressure is
controlled with a servo-valve and the brake torque is
measured using a torque gauge mounted on the drive-shaft.
Two squeal tests were performed, one for each disc.
Basically, both tests were based on a test sequence consist-
ing of 42 brakings, see Fig. 2a. This sequence was re-
peated 30 times for disc 1 in Test 1 and 14 times for disc 2
in Test 2, making it a total of 1260 and 588 brakings,
respectively. Each single braking lasted for 20 s during
which the rotational speed was reduced from 3 rps down to
1 rps, see Fig. 2b. The brake-line pressure was held
constant during each braking but was shifted from one
braking to another, following the sequence shown in Fig.
2a. Between consecutive brakings, there was a 100 s idle
period to avoid overheating of the brake components. This
test sequence was designed to cover a wide range of
pressure–temperature combinations, including high pres-
sures at low disc temperatures and vice versa.
During each single braking the brake pressure, brake
torque, rotational speed and emitted sound were measured
once every third second, see Fig. 2b. Sound was registered
Table 1
Nominal compositions of the cast iron discs
Element C Si Mn Cr S P
Wt.% 3.5 1.9 0.60 0.15 0.10 0.03
Table 2
Approximate composition of the pad
Structural component Ingredient Amount wwt.%x
Fibres Steel, aramid and glass fibres 30
Matrix Žorganic. Binder 8
Other 11
Friction modifiers Metallic Žbrass, bronze. 15
Graphite 15
Metal sulphides 8
Quartz Žabrasive. 5
Filler Clay minerals, iron oxide 8
only when the sound level exceeded 84 dB at frequencies
between 500 and 20,000 Hz.
Test 1 was interrupted five times Žafter 4, 9, 16, 23 and
30 sequences. to make silicon rubber replicas of the disc
surface. These replicas were later investigated using a
white light optical profilometer. Test 2 was interrupted
four times Žafter 1, 5, 10 and 14 sequences. to study the
disc surface using a scanning electron microscope ŽSEM..
Micrographs were made using both enhanced topographi-
cal mode and enhanced atomic number contrast mode in
order to study the shape of the pits and how they were
filled up with wear debris. The replicas and the SEM-in-
vestigations were made to monitor the running-in of the
shot-blasted surface and to correlate this to squeal genera-
tion.
In order to facilitate the repeated SEM-investigations of
the disc surface in Test 2 the disc was equipped with a
removable section, see Fig. 3. This section could easily be
remounted without noticeably affecting the sliding surface
of the disc.
3. Results
The coefficient of friction and the accumulated number
of squeals for the full test programs are shown in Fig. 4.
As a comparison, the squeal generation prior to the shot-
blasting is shown. Fig. 4d shows the gradual increase in
the fraction of smooth area on the brake disc surface, that
is part of the area not occupied by the pits. The surface
area increases as the pits are worn away, more rapidly at
the earlier stages of the test and considerably slower at the
end. After 1260 brakings, the pits still cover approximately
13% of the surface. Further, the surface profiles obtained
from the replicas revealed a maximum pit depth of 30–40
mm after 378 brakings and roughly 20 mm after 966
brakings. The average diameter to depth ratio was gener-
ally estimated to 5, i.e., the pits were five times as wide as
they were deep.
Ni The gradual reduction of the size of the blast pits during
- 0.05 Test 2, due to the wear of the disc surface is shown in Fig.
5. During the initial period, the pits exhibited diameters
 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628 623

Fig. 1. Ža. Schematic of the test-rig. An electric motor drives the wheel via the original drive-shaft. Žb. Photograph of the rig. The torque gauge is mounted
on the drive-shaft. The wheel that was mounted during the tests is removed in the photo to improve visibility.

Fig. 2. Ža. Squeal test sequence of 42 brakings at predetermined brake-line pressures. This sequence was repeated 30 and 14 times, respectively, to form
the two complete test programs. Žb. Pressure and rotational speed during one braking. Squeal measurements are made every third second.

Fig. 3. The brake disc and its removable wedge used to facilitate SEM-investigation of the disc surface in Test 2.
624 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628

Fig. 4. Ža. The coefficient of friction and accumulated number of registered squeals in Test 1. Žb. The coefficient of friction and accumulated number of
registered squeals in Test 2. The small step in friction after 420 brakings is a measurement artefact due to drift of the torque gauge between test sequences
number ten and eleven and should be disregarded. Dashed vertical lines in Ža. and Žb. indicate where the tests were interrupted for replication or disc
surface analysis. Žc. The run-in sequence prior to shot-blasting of the disc used in Test 1. Žd. Area fraction of disc surface not covered by pits and
corresponding friction coefficient in Test 1.

from 10 up to 100 mm. Wear debris was collected and
compacted in some of the smaller pits, as shown in the
lower row of micrographs in Fig. 5. EDX-analysis showed
that this compacted wear debris contained elements such
as Al and Cu and a high concentration of carbon, all
typical of the pad. As smaller pits were filled to a higher
degree than larger ones, the share of filled pits increased as
the disc was worn.
In both tests, the friction coefficient was initially low
Ž0.3. but quickly increased to 0.4 during the first 300
brakings. Even though the friction then started to stabilise,
it was still 25% below that of a nonprepared disc. As the
tests continued, the discs became smoother with the fric-
tion gradually increasing. When the average friction level
exceeded 0.4, squeal started to be generated more fre-
quently. Fig. 6 shows that no squeals were generated at a
coefficient of friction lower than 0.4. The same critical
coefficient of friction was obtained in Test 2, see Fig. 4b.
Squeals were first initiated at one specific brake-line
pressure but with further friction increase the system started
to generate squeals at other, neighbouring pressures as
well. In Test 1, the first 50 squeals Žup to 350 brakings.
 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628 625

Fig. 5. Gradual change of the disc surface and corresponding friction and squeal generation curves during Test 2. The top row of SEM-micrographs shows
the topographical contrast and the bottom row the compositional contrast. Dark compositional contrast corresponds to wear debris from the pad that has
become compacted into the pits. The test was interrupted for SEM investigation after 1, 5, 10 and 14 sequences, corresponding to 42, 210, 420 and 588
individual brakings, respectively.

were generated almost exclusively at a brake-line pressure
of 8 bar, see Fig. 7. Between 350 and 450 brakings, squeal
was mainly generated at 7 and 8 bar but also at 10 bar.
After 450 brakings, squeal was generated also at 6, 9 and
11 bar. This should be compared to the run-in sequence
prior to shot-blasting, where squeal was generated at all
tested brake-line pressures except 3 and 4 bar.
4. Discussion
The shot-blasted brake discs have proven an excellent
tool for studying the influence of macroscopic friction on
brake squeal generation. This technique allows the unique
possibility to study a system where the friction coefficient
gradually increases while the material combination and
other test parameters are kept constant. The results show
three important features.
Ž1. No squeals are generated when the coefficient of
friction is below a critical value.
The friction coefficient had to exceed 0.4 in both Test 1
and Test 2 before squeals were generated. This corre-
sponds well to the rule of thumb, practiced within the
brake industry, stating that brake pads with a high coeffi-
cient of friction also are more prone to generate squeals.
In the literature, several reports have concerned the
influence of macroscopic friction on squeal generation.
Commonly a stick–slip motion or a friction coefficient
decreasing with sliding velocity has been blamed w1–7x.
Recently, a numerical model by Hulten ´ suggests that disc
brake squeals can be generated also when the coefficient
of friction is velocity independent w8x. This model suggests
that the vibration in the pad is a nonsynchronous wave
626 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628

motion rather than a simple harmonic oscillation and that

no instabilities Ži.e. brake squeals. occur when the coeffi-
cient of friction is below a certain value. The model is
limited to two dimensions while optical measurements
have shown brake pad vibrations to be rather complicated
with both bending and torsional movements w11,12x. A full
description would thus require 3D-modelling. However,
within the limitations of Hulten’s´ model, our findings
basically support the assumption of a critical friction coef-
ficient for brake squeal generation.
However, we have previously shown that brake pads
with similar friction coefficient values can have very dif-
ferent squeal propensities w13x. Thus, the value of the
friction coefficient threshold must depend on other param-
eters such as pad and disc geometry, state of wear, stiff-
ness, modulus of elasticity, damping and the frictional
properties on both macroscopical and microscopical level.
Accordingly, the present experimental threshold value of
0.4 should be regarded as unique for this special combina-
tion of pad and disc.
Ž2. A very small friction increase may lead to a dra-
matic increase in squeal generation.
The present investigation has clearly demonstrated the
sharpness of the friction threshold for squeal generation.
The increase in the average friction coefficient between
braking no. 200 and 500 was less than 0.03 while the
generation of squeals increased dramatically.
At the threshold value, the system squealed only at one
specific brake-line pressure. As the friction increased,
squeals were generated at a growing number of pressures,
as shown in Fig. 7.
Ž3. The shot-blasted brake disc has a lower coefficient
of friction than a regular disc.
It is noteworthy that the uneven, shot-blasted discs
exhibited lower friction coefficients than do normal smooth

Fig. 7. Brake-line pressures that generated squeals. Ža. During the run-in
sequence prior to shot-blasting of the disc used in Test 1. Žb. During Test
1 Žshot-blasted disc..

discs. As the discs were gradually worn, the pits dimin-

Fig. 6. Friction level for the registered squeals during Test 1. Note that all
squeals were registered at a friction coefficient above 0.4.
ished and the friction coefficient slowly approached the
level of smooth discs.
Typically, the coefficient of friction also increases dur-
ing each individual braking, see Fig. 8. This behaviour
reflects that it takes some time for the pad and disc
surfaces to adapt to the new contact situation, and that the
adapted contact will exhibit a higher friction force.
The explanation to these two friction variation phenom-
ena is to be found in the nature of the contact between disc
and pad.
An earlier investigation has shown that the surface of
the tested pads exhibit well-defined contact spots sliding
against the disc w9x. Each spot exhibit a very inhomoge-
neous structure with widely varying mechanical properties.
The spots are composed mainly of structural fibres Žtypi-
 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628
Fig. 8. Example on the increase in the coefficient of friction during
individual brakings. ŽThe examples are from brakings no. 279 and 280 in
Test 1..
cally steel., abrasive particles Žtypically alumina. and com-
pacted wear debris Žmainly polymeric.. They typically
have a diameter of 100 mm, a height of 1 to 10 mm and
are separated by a few hundred microns, see Fig. 9. The
total number of spots on a pad is around 10 5 and hence
contact pressures are typically very low Že.g., 4 MPa at a
brake-line pressure of 10 bar..
The spot size is not constant, but can grow by the
addition of more compacted debris, etc. The ‘steady state’
size depends on the contact situation Žbrake pressure,
temperature, surface topography, etc.. and the pad compo-
sition. The main mechanism of friction is believed to be
shearing of the top layer of these contact spots in their
motion relative to the disc.
Given this general description of the contact situation,
the mechanism explaining the lower friction against the
Fig. 9. Ža. SEM-micrograph of the disc surface taken after 420 brakings in Test 2. Žb. SEM-micrograph of a pad surface. The contact spots, the flat islands
in the picture, are mainly constituted by metal fibres, abrasive particles and compacted wear debris.
627
shot-blasted disc surface with shallow pits must be either a
decreased contact area or a reduced shear stress within the
contact area.
Is there a mechanism by which the presence of pits
could reduce the shear stress within the areas of real
contact? Probably, the pits could increase the amount of
wear debris or alter the debris morphology. This would
change the conditions in the sliding interface and possibly
reduce the friction.
However, simple tests of cleaning the disc surface from
wear debris and surface contaminants by rubbing with a
cloth soaked in acetone or alcohol did not result in any
noticeable friction increase. This indicates that any differ-
ence in amount of wear debris in the contact area has
limited effect, or only a short-lived effect.
As reported by the present authors w14x, decreasing the
nominal brake pad area down to 50% only has marginal
effect on the friction coefficient. Thus, the brakes behave
as expected for materials following the classical friction
laws. This indicates that the presently achieved friction
reduction is not due to the pits causing a reduced nominal
contact area.
Based on this discussion, both the low initial friction in
each individual braking and the low friction against the
shot-blasted surface, in general, are proposed to be due to
a reduced real contact area.
It is believed that for each new braking the pad surface
has to adapt geometrically to the new position on the disc.
This geometrical adaptation will take some time and re-
sults in a gradual increase of the real contact area and
subsequently an increased friction force.
The low friction against the shot-blasted surface, in
general, is proposed to be due to the frequent encounters
between the contact spots and the pits in the disc surface.
These encounters damage the contact spots thus preventing
them from growing to their normal ‘steady state’ size. By
this mechanism, the real contact area is kept smaller than
628 F. Bergman et al.r Wear 225–229 (1999) 621–628
against a smooth disc and the friction force thereby stays
lower.
5. Conclusions
The run-in of a shot-blasted disc has been shown to be a
unique test where the effects of a slowly increasing friction
coefficient on squeal generation can be studied for one
specific disc–pad combination while other test parameters
are kept constant.
Brake squeal will not be generated if the coefficient of
friction is kept below some critical level. For the tested
padrdisc combination, this level was found to be 0.4.
Also a small increase in the coefficient of friction in the
close vicinity of the critical level causes a dramatic in-
crease in squeal generation, indicating some threshold
behaviour of the excitation mechanism.
The small impressions caused by shot-blasting of the
disc lowers the macroscopic friction coefficient and can
thus help to prevent brake squeals. The friction reduction
is proposed to be due to a reduction of the real contact
area. The frequent encounters with the pits in the disc
surface damage the contact spots, preventing them from
growing to their normal ‘steady state’ size. By this mecha-
nism, the real contact area is kept smaller than against a
smooth disc and the friction force thereby stays lower.
When the pits are worn down to become small and
shallow, material originating from the brake pads is com-
pacted in the pits making the surface virtually flat. This
surface still reduces the friction by 25% as compared to a
conventional, smooth disc.
The squeal reducing effect from shot-blasting is limited
in time due to the wear of the disc surface.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port from the Swedish board for Technical Development
ŽNUTEK., Volvo Technological Development for provid-
ing test materials and Claes Kuylenstierna for valuable
discussions.
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