Poetry readings, specifically those at which poets
read their own works, are gradually gaining
popularity in Japan today. Such readings are held in small galleries, community centers, and even large theaters and halls on occasion. Performance methods are as varied as the settings. For instance, a poet may read his or her poetry over background music or as part of an artistic col- laboration with instrumental accompanists, dancers, or other performers. Occasionally, a poet may even provide his or her own musical accompaniment while reading. Despite the efforts of some contemporary poets, however, such performances have yet to attain widespread popularity due to the prevailing attitude among modern poets that the best way to appreciate poetry is still to approach it as text to be read silently rather than aloud. In this regard, one should remember that Japanese is a visual, highly ideographic language that uses Sino-Japanese characters (kanji) extensively. In this, it differs considerably from more auditory languages that employ phonetic symbols, such as characters of the Latin alphabet. Personally, I not only sup- port oral poetry reading but also wish to be actively involved in its promotion and growth. I am of the opinion that Japanese poetry reading would advance to a new level if a performance method that modifies the traditional linguistic rhythms of Japanese were developed. I myself have given experimental performances of oral poetry, or poems composed without pen and paper. I will discuss this topic further below. In this article, I will consider the present state of poetry reading in Japan and problematic aspects of oral readings of poetry in Japanese. First, however, let us look briefly at the history of the written word. The Power of the Written Word Invented at various times in ancient Mesopota- mia, Egypt, China, and India, writing facilitated the transmission of knowledge over time and space. The development of writing was undeni- ably momentous in the history of humankind. It is not hard to imagine the mystery and fascina- tion that written characters must have held for people when writing first reached Japan. In Japan, the skill with which the imperial family Katsunori Kusunoki The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 1 ARK MORI BLDG, 1-12-32 AKASAKA, MINATO-KU, TOKYO 107-6021, JAPAN Tel: +81 (03) 5562-3511 ISSN 0385-2318 VOL. XXVI/NO. 1 MAY 1998 The Current State of Poetry Readings in Japan Katsunori Kusunoki is a well-known poet and video auteur. Among his numerous video series are Kazoku [Family; Studio ams], Video Zoo (Naoshima Contem- porary Art Museum), and Toi Oto [Dis- tant Sound; Film Art Co.]. His books include Bideo Sakka no Shiten [A Video Auteurs Perspective; Heibonsha], Pepa Bideo Insutareshon [Paper Video Installation (a video poetry collection); Shichosha], and Kore wa Mienai Mono o Kaku Enpitsu Desu [This Pencil Writes of Unseen Matters; Film Art Co.]. ON OTHER PAGES CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS From the Japanese Press (March 1April 30, 1998) 5 RESEARCH REPORTS A Comparative Study on Images of Modernity 7 Behind the Veil: Shizuko Wakamatsu and the Freedom of Translation 8 BOOK REVIEWS Books in Other Languages 11 FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program 15 wielded the written word is thought to have been a key determinant of the extent of its power, indi- cating the written words role as an essential political instrument. For people who had previ- ously communicated solely through speech and gesture, the effect of the new communication medium must have been incalculable. In those days, communication with people within the range of ones voice, though comparable to modern-day poetry readings, could often be used only for impromptu conversations, discussions to reach a common understanding, and the like. Writing, on the other hand, facilitated communi- cation over great expanses of time and space and was therefore perceived as something unprec- edented and powerful. For nearly all peoples and cultures worldwide, poetry is said to have served as the primary means of expressing faith and other basic human emotions following the devel- opment of language. Accordingly, from time immemorial countless poems have been com- posed to be recited and performed with voice and gesture. This poetic tradition has been dissemi- nated more widely since the invention of writing. It can even be said that images evoked by written texts often make stronger impressions on readers. The ancient oral-poetry tradition can be truly revived only when the written word is vocalized in our minds. When the sense of hearing is thus stimulated by the sense of sightthat is, when the essence of verse is impartedthen, and only then, is poetry internalized by the individual reader. This is because the written word, whose chief attribute is universality, cannot be separated from speech. At first, this might seem contradic- tory in the case of written Japanese, which employs kanji, each having a specific meaning. If one approaches kanji solely in these terms, their meanings do appear to be unrelated to the spoken word. The relationship between the written word and speech becomes more obvious when one turns to China, the birthplace of kanji. Since ancient times, Chinese poets have composed with a dual emphasison both the meaning and the sound of charactersas is indicated by the fact that a fundamental element of any Chinese poem is its rhyme scheme. The intimate relationship between the written word and speech becomes even more obvious when one considers the great number of peoples who write with phonetic char- acters, such as those of the Latin alphabet. When we read poetry recorded in phonetic characters, we are considerably more sensitive to the sound of the characters than we are when reading Japa- nese poetry. This is attributable to the manner of reading inevitably demanded by the Latin alpha- bet and other phonetic scripts. The Written and Spoken Word Meet The poet and literary critic Makoto Ooka (b. 1931) relates an interesting tale in his book Koe de Tanoshimu Utsukushii Nihon no Shi Kin-Gen-dai Shi Hen [Beautiful Japanese Poems to Enjoy Reading Aloud: A Modern Poetry Col- lection; Iwanami Shoten, 1990]. In the Murasaki Shikibu Nikki [The Diary of Murasaki Shikibu], there is a scene in which Emperor Ichijos con- sort Shoshi returns to the mansion of her father, Fujiwara no Michinaga, and gives birth to a prince. Murasaki Shikibu [fl. ca. 1000], one of the court ladies who served drinks at the banquet celebrating the princes birth, wrote in her diary that she composed a congratulatory poem for the banquet, which she attended with the intention of reciting the poem while pouring drinks for guests. She wrote that when court ladies saw Shijo Dainagon [Major Counselor] Fujiwara no Kinto among the many distinguished guests in attendance, they remarked in unison, Oh, no! How embarrassing! I dont really care whether my poem is good or bad, but I dont think I can recite in front of him without my voice faltering. Kinto, considered the preeminent poet and poetry scholar of his day, compiled the famous anthol- ogy Wakan Roeishu [Collection of Chinese and Japanese Poems for Singing; 1013] and was an important member of the Fujiwara clan. In addition to being talented at composing waka [Japanese-style poems] and Chinese poems, he was also an accomplished extemporaneous poet and skilled player of various string and wind instruments. According to Murasaki Shikibus diary, upon seeing Kinto, the court ladies became extremely nervous at the prospect of being cho- sen to serve sak and recite their own poems to him. It is interesting to note that the women were more concerned about the actual act of reciting aloud than about the quality of their poems. Although Murasaki Shikibu had sufficient confi- dence in the poem she had prepared for that evening to record it in her diary, she seems to have been intimidated by the thought of actually reciting it in front of Kinto. This emphasis on vocal quality over the quality of the poem is an extremely interesting concept. In modern-day Japan, there appears to be little concern over whether someones voice is good or bad. This is because electronically altered voices, rather than natural voices, have become the norm as a result of advances in telephony and other The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 2 POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN communications technologies. Even at poetry readings, most poets use a microphone, deliver- ing their electronically amplified voices to the audience through a speaker system. Though such amplification may well suit modern performance spaces, I sometimes try to find voices capable of carrying in such spaces without the aid of micro- phones. This habit stems from my fondness for natural voices that can project a living, vibrant persona. Ooka also noted several fundamental points about written Japanese. Matsuo Basho [164494], the unrivaled haiku master of the Genroku era [16881704], often told his disciples that the secret of writing haiku is to say it aloud again and again. One would be hard pressed to make the point more concisely that the essence of verse is inseparable from speech. Since the past, there were numerous different forms of Japanese verse, most notably tanka (consisting of lines of 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables) and haiku (with lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables). One of the primary attractions of certain modern poetry that has been influenced by these ancient forms is the beauty of the harmony and interaction between the lines of five and seven syllables. When such poems were collected in written texts, punctuation marks were not used. Poetry collections published as modern, typeset books sometimes include punc- tuation marks, but these have been added for the benefit of modern readers. Punctuation marks were formerly omitted because people were able to understand those tanka, haiku, and other poems without them. Despite the obvious benefits of punctuation in terms of increased clarity, the use of punctuation in Japanese literary expression dates back only about a century; it was first introduced into the Japanese language early in the Meiji era (18681912) as a means of facilitating compre- hension of meaning. At around the same time, numerous translations of Western books became available, further promoting the use of punctua- tion. Its use in poetry is said to have come about during the Taisho era (191225). Though there are some poets who used punctuationincluding Bokusui Wakayama (18851928) and Yugure Maeda (18831951), both of whom used it dur- ing a brief phase in their careers, and Shaku Choku (Shinobu Orikuchi; 18871953), who used it over a longer periodthey are rare in the world of tanka. Even today, punctuation is hardly ever used in tanka, much less in haiku. In contrast, in free verse (modern poetry) written since the Taisho era, the use of not only commas and periods but also quotation marks, question marks, and excla- mation points has become the norm. Needless to say, punctuation was introduced into poetry as a phenomenon inseparable from the increased emphasis on logical elements and the priority placed on meaning in poems. The use of punctua- tion is a major difference between modern poetry and traditional, fixed-form poetry, such as haiku and tanka. Moreover, we can surmise that this difference is closely related to the prevailing atti- tude among modern poets that modern poetry must be read silently. While there may be some basis for this view, I do not feel many poems merit being read only silently. Ooka went so far as to say, If there is even a single verse of such poetry, it should be acclaimed as a remarkable accomplishment, for it would defy the very essence of language. Indeed, it would be a miraculous work that should be regarded with wonder. Ookas thoughts on this topic mirror my basic attitude toward oral poetry reading. Another poet who has profoundly influenced my view of oral poetry reading is Takaaki Yoshimoto (b. 1924). As a literary critic and prominent intellectual, Yoshimoto has influenced many peoples views on not only Japanese litera- ture but also Japanese politics and ideology. His recent book Isho [Testament; Kadokawa Haruki Jimusho, 1998] prompted me to consider the innate rhythms of the Japanese language. The vast majority of modern poets merely express poetic sentiments that were originally expressed in tanka or haiku, but instead of employing those traditional Japanese forms of poetic expression, they go out of their way to present their senti- ments in the style of modern Western literature. As Yoshimoto pointed out in Isho, if one com- pares the poetry of two modern poets, there will most likely be no discernible differences. Modern poets lack individuality. They seem to feel that poetry consists in the act of taking something that is properly suited to a traditional literary style, adapting it, and placing it in a modern Western context. This fallacious belief has tainted nearly all modern poets, and only a handful have been able to free themselves from its harmful influ- ence. Indeed, these modern poets regard the adaptation of Japanese poetry to fit a Western context as an avant-garde experiment. Such an approach could never yield original, innovative work, and if the result is gratuitously called poetry, it is poetry in name only. Yoshimoto also discussed the potential of Japanese poetry in the same work. The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 3 POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 4 POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN The poetry of Takashi Okai [b. 1928] and other modern poets, particularly their experi- ments with free meter and rhythms and meters that are unrelated to the poetic subject, remains faithful to Japanese poetic traditions while exploring innovative concepts. Takashi Okai is attempting to determine how much modernity can be injected into the traditional literary styles of haiku and tanka. Representing a slight depar- ture from traditional Japanese literary styles, Okais work retains only their meter and innate rhythm. The nature of the relationship between poetry and prose remains unclear, since it has proved extremely difficult to reconcile aspects of traditional Japanese prosody and metrics with those of modern Western languages. I am unable to say authoritatively how Japanese literary styles should be transformed and applied to new areas without losing their intrinsic qualities, but Soseki Natsume [18671916] is one author who was able to develop such a prose style, while Gozo Yoshimasu [b. 1939] was a pioneer in terms of his poetic style. The Power of the Spoken Word Not only were Yoshimasus text poems uniquely innovative but he also developed a unique per- formance method, not unlike that of a witch chanting incantations, which has demonstrated considerable potential for promoting readings of Japanese poetry. I agree with his view that the future of Japanese poetry lies with a return to basics, that is, accepting the five-seven and seven-five syllabic meters of haiku and tanka as the standard forms of Japanese verse, adopting these traditional forms as the underlying poetic meter, and then gradually modifying them. Yoshimoto makes a similar point in Gengo ni totte Bi to wa Nani ka [What Is Beauty with Respect to Language?] in volume 6 of the Yoshimoto Takaaki Zen Chosaku Shu [Complete Works of Takaaki Yoshimoto; Keiso Shobo, 1976]. In a passage on poetic meter, he takes as a specific example the following tanka: Kokkyo owareshi / Karu Marukusu wa / tsuma ni okurete / shininikeru kana (Pursued to the border / Karl Marx / Will he outlive his wife, I wonder). In the poems first line, Kokkyo owareshi, the author has assumed the persona of Karl Marx, who is being chased to a countrys border. With Karu Marukusu wa, the author steps into the role of an objective narrator describing a historical event. In the line tsuma ni okurete, the author seems to resume his own persona when he says that Marx has died in exile after having outlived his late wife. In the line shininikeru kana, the author comes full circle, returning to the original perspective as he is overcome by Marxs death. While on the surface this poem merely presents an objective account of a historical event, if it is viewed as a series of high-speed photographs while analyzing the authors choice of expres- sions, it becomes clear that the poem accom- plishes complex shifts in viewpoint, from Marx being chased to the border to objective narrator to author, who expresses emotions at Marxs death. Whether this shifting of viewpoint is conscious or unconscious is irrelevant. If the shift is uncon- scious, the author was merely following the con- ventions dictated by traditional syllabic meter. In such a case, concerns relating to the traditional meter take precedence over the authors inten- tions. I believe that it is most important to develop Japanese poetry while maintaining proper emphasis on traditional syllabic and met- ric forms, thereby preserving the innate rhythms of the Japanese language. In addition to poetry performance methods imported directly from the West, I believe we also need to experiment with the creation of original performance methods in Japanese. One possible solution, in my opinion, is the previously mentioned oral poetry. Though an extremely difficult experiment, it is not without promise. In my personal attempts to compose oral poetry, I have found Makoto Ookas idea that poems must be vocalized to be extremely edifying. Likewise, Takaaki Yoshimotos idea that the innate rhythms of Japanese cannot be ignored when composing oral poetry. Similarly, my quest to create an oral poetic tradition cannot be divorced from the influence of the traditional rhythms to which I have been exposed, both con- sciously and unconsciously. These rhythms per- meate my being and have naturally influenced the way I communicate with others through verse. The process of creation has led me to ask myself anew, What is poetry? When I vocalize, I experience a flash of hope that just maybe I can create oral poetry by shedding and transforming aspects of traditional Japanese literary styles, sometimes intentionally, other times uncon- sciously. For example, one approach to creating innovative oral poetry may be to compose while internalizing two, three, or more subjective beings within myself. By no means does this entail uttering words in a schizophrenic state of mind; rather, it means approaching themes from multiple viewpoints. This is one of the literary experiments currently underway in Japan. AWARDS Spring Honors The Japanese government announced the names of 4,514 people to be honored in the spring 1998 conferment of decorations. Prominent among the honors were the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers to be conferred on former chief justice of the Supreme Court Ryohachi Kusaba, 72, and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun to be con- ferred on Nobel Prize winner for physics Reona (Leo) Esaki, 73, former president of the Univer- sity of Tsukuba. The twenty-six foreign nationals to be honored include former prime minister of France Raymond Barre, 74, and former manager of the Chunichi Dragons professional baseball club Wally Kaname Yonamine, 72. (S: Apr. 29) HISTORY Kitora Tomb Murals Discovered Representations of constellations, or seishuku (celestial maps), were discoverd on the ceiling of the late-seventh- or early-eighth-century stone- chambered Kitora Tomb in Asuka, Nara Prefec- ture. Other discoveries in this tomb include polychrome murals depicting two creatures tra- ditionally considered sacred: the byakko (white tiger) and the seiryu (blue dragon). The seishuku, in particular, are finer than those in the contem- poraneous Takamatsuzuka Tomb, also in Asuka, which is known for its Chinese-style polychrome murals. The new finds will be vital to compara- tive analyses of the murals of the two ancient tombs, which should provide valuable informa- tion on cultural interaction between Japan, China, the Korean peninsula, and other areas in ancient times. (Y: Mar. 7) MISCELLANEOUS Ainu Artifacts in Russia Catalogued The Russian Academy of Sciences Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great possesses an extensive collection of artifacts of the Ainu, an ethnic group now found chiefly on Japans northern island of Hokkaido. Professor Shinko Ogihara of Chiba University and researchers from both Russia and Japan studied and photographed a total of about nineteen hundred items in the museums collec- tionincluding religious implements, hunting gear, woodenware, and clothingmany of which were recovered from the Chishima (Kuril) Islands, Sakhalin, and Hokkaido. A trilingual (English, Japanese, and Russian) catalogue of these Ainu artifacts was compiled and has been published by Sofukan, Tokyo. (A: Apr. 1) Bilingual Encyclopedia Published Kodansha International recently published The Kodansha Bilingual Encyclopedia of Japan, which presents a wide range of information on Japan in both English and Japanese. This richly illustrated encyclopedia offers a wealth of current information on Japan, with entries grouped in seven sections: Geography and Nature, History, Government and Diplomacy, Economy, Society, Culture, and Life. An indispensable source of information for fostering international and cul- tural exchange, it is ideal for language students or anyone interested in learning more about Japan and its culture. (Y: Mar. 22) Japan and Europe Discuss Digitization of Cultural Data Representatives from Japan and Europe met at EVA-GIFU 98 (International Electronic Image Conference on the Visual Arts), held in Gifu, Gifu Prefecture, to discuss the digitization of museum collections. Their primary goals are to ensure the preservation and recording of collec- tions that are subject to deterioration over time and to increase awareness of cultural treasures by making them more accessible for educational and CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS From the Japanese Press (March 1April 30, 1998) The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 5 Abbreviations used here: A...Asahi Shimbun M...Mainichi Shimbun N...Nihon Keizai Shimbun S...Sankei Shimbun Y...Yomiuri Shimbun commercial purposes. The conference high- lighted a variety of problems that remain to be resolved, such as copyright protection and the need to improve network technology. Among the proposals approved at the conference were future cooperation between Europe and Japan to stand- ardize communications technologies and data- storage methods. (Y: Apr. 15) The Kanagawa Declaration Released The international symposium Paths to Global Citizenship: Networks for the Preservation of Cultural Assets, held recently in Yokohama, was attended by museum curators from France, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The symposium culminated in the announcement of the Kanagawa Declaration, which proclaims: We all have an obligation to ensure that humanitys irreplaceable heritage is passed on to posterity. (Y: Apr. 22) International Cultural Exchange Summit Held The International Cultural Exchange Summit 98, intended to establish a network for the restoration of Japanese works of art located overseas, was held in Shiga Prefecture. Leading members of Japans museum and art worlds, including Ikuo Hirayama, chairman of the Art Research Founda- tion, joined representatives from the British Museum, the Freer Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.), and other notable institutions. The summit confirmed the participants determination to con- tinue promoting cooperative restoration projects involving both government and private organiza- tions, and this theme was adopted in the Shiga Declaration on the Restoration of Japanese Works of Art. (S: Apr. 28) World Heritage Sites to Be Recommended Japans Agency for Cultural Affairs has con- firmed its plan to recommend that the renowned shrine Tosho-gu and several other shrines and temples in Nikko, Tochigi Prefecture, be placed on the World Heritage List. The buildings to be recommended cover a total area of approximately 500,000 sq m and include Tosho-gu (the mau- soleum of the first Tokugawa shogun, Ieyasu), Futarasan Shrine, the Tendai temple Rinno-ji, and other historic religious buildings. More than one hundred buildings in the region that typify architecture of the Edo period (16031868) have been designated as either National Treasures or Important Cultural Properties. (S: Apr. 19) Hokusai International Conference Convened Hokusai Hall in Obuse, Nagano Prefecture, was the site of the Third Hokusai International Con- ference, an academic gathering focused on vari- ous subjects relating to the famed master of ukiyo-e (pictures of the floating world) Katsushika Hokusai (17601849). In his keynote address, Donald Keene, professor emeritus of Columbia University, described how the national- isolation policy of the pre-modern period led to an unprecedented era of peace and freedom, which allowed the populace to enrich their lives with a wide range of pursuits and interests and resulted in the development of a culture the com- mon people could call their own. (M: Apr. 20) OBITUARIES Tokuho Azuma (born Kikue Yamada), 89, the fourth iemoto (hereditary head) of the Azuma school of Nihon Buyo dance, April 23. She formed the Azuma Kabuki troupe in 1954 and took it on a two-year tour of Europe and the United States, where the troupes performances did much to introduce Kabuki to audiences abroad. The preeminent figure in the world of Nihon Buyo, Azuma was noted for a wide range of artistic activities that embraced not only classic works but also creative dance presenta- tions. Azuma was named a Person of Cultural Merit in 1991. (A: Apr. 24) Isokichi Asakura, 85, Kutani-ware ceramist, April 9. An innovator who improved glaze for- mulas and firing methods, Asakura created numer- ous masterpieces distinguished by their gravity and profoundness. His unique world of color suf- fused with an air of modernity, often dubbed Asakura Color, is a distinctive idiom based on Old Kutani works that favor a basic palette of yellow, green, and purple. Asakura was named a Person of Cultural Merit in 1992 and received the Order of Culture in 1996. (Y: Apr. 10) (Continued on page 10) The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 6 CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS A Comparative Study on Images of Modernity The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 7 RESEARCH REPORTS Artists and writers from both Japan and the United States have been physically and psycho- logically aloof from the orthodoxy of modern art or modern literature established toward the end of the nineteenth century in Europe, specifi- cally in France. Although both countries have been directly and indirectly influenced by the European modernist movement, they have man- aged to develop their own unique modern iden- tity. I have formed a theory of modernity in French art and literature (Hisaki Matsuura, Heimenron Senhappyakuhachiju-nendai Seio [The Surface Theory: The Western World in the 1880s; Iwanami Shoten, 1994] and Efferu-to Shiron [An Essay on the Eiffel Tower; Chikuma Shobo, 1995]) and am applying this theory to the study of Japanese and American poetry to identify characteristics of modernity in the light of the transformation of formal rearrangements of literary symbols. The first step in this process consisted of deci- phering the historical direction of American poetryspecifically from Edgar Allan Poe and Walt Whitman to Robert Frost, William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, e. e. cummings, Allen Ginsberg, and John Ashberywithin the theo- retical framework of imagery and representa- tion. The same process was applied to modern Japanese poetry, from the shintaishi (poetry in new forms) of the Meiji era (18681912) to the work of Tokoku Kitamura (186894), Ariake Kanbara (18761952), Hakushu Kitahara (18851942), and Sakutaro Hagiwara (1886 1942) and postwar poetry, including that of the Arechi (Wasteland) school. Through these pre- liminary probes, parallel imagery and representa- tions in the literary traditions of both countries were identified and then analyzed from a theo- retical and historical perspective. These studies have clarified a common pre- occupation of Japanese and American poets regardless of differences in schools, styles, personal mannerisms, or ideologieswith repre- senting and expressing form (i.e., arrangements of linguistic symbols and narrative structures) rather than content, a preoccupation characteristic of modernity in Japanese and American litera- ture as a whole. The refinement of semiotic forms in literary works has emerged as a parallel phenomenon in the development of both the modern American and the modern Japanese poetic tradition. Although many similar theories have been reported in the fields of comparative literature and comparative cultural history, an analysis of the concept of poetical modernity has yet to be undertaken from the perspectives of image theory, semiotics, media theory, and cul- ture and representation. Needless to say, compara- tive studies of the works of, among others, John Ashbery, from the United States, and Minoru Yoshioka (191990), from Japan, can also be conducted in terms of linguistic consciousness, but it is necessary for such studies to go beyond thematic or ideological similarities and differ- ences to juxtapose poetic texts in the context of poetic modernity, thus contributing to the recon- sideration of existing representational forms. The above-mentioned studies cannot be con- veniently limited to the framework of aesthetic or artistic high culture, however. The period since the latter half of the nineteenth century can be characterized by fundamental changes in the con- cept of image effected by the emergence of innovative visual technologies, such as photogra- phy, movies, and television. Throughout the twentieth century, technologies relating to the production, distribution, and consumption of reproducible visual images have been developed greatly, together with other mass-society phe- nomena, and have influenced the function and importance of images in linguistic representation media, including poetry and novels. This image transformation first emerged in its most radical form in the United States and seems to have infil- trated Japanese popular culture, as well. Hisaki Matsuura is a professor of culture and representation at the University of Tokyo and a published poet. His research on the theme Comparative Studies on the Images of Modernity in Japanese and American Literature at Harvard Univer- sity was supported by a 199798 Japan Foundation Fellowship. Hisaki Matsuura The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 8 Shizuko Wakamatsu (186496), perhaps more than any of her peers, embodies the early-Meiji- era (18681912) ideal of the woman writer. A child of the tumult that attended the Meiji Restoration in 1868, she was left at a very young age to fend for herself. By a stroke of fortune, she received a Western-based education and learned English alongside the Japanese classics. She devoted herself assiduously to the improvement of the female condition in Japanall the while serving faithfully as a wife and mother. Her early years of poverty, frequent childbirths, and con- stant overwork took their toll on her fragile health, however, and she died a few weeks before her thirty-second birthday, but not before accumulat- ing an outstanding record of accomplishments Japanese essays on education for women and on home science, English essays on Japanese Behind the Veil: Shizuko Wakamatsu and the Freedom of Translation Rebecca L. Copeland RESEARCH REPORTS In such a context, literature is also related to popular media phenomena. Studies on modern images lead necessarily to studies on the moder- nity of images, a field in which the precise area where media theories, semiotic image analyses, and literary theories overlap must be clarified. At the same time, the development of poetic language in this period has coincided with the emergence of modern nation states, in a political and economic sense. Consequently, it is also necessary to study the way that nationalistic ideologies and movements have influenced the development of literary consciousnesscompar- ing Japanese and American literary works and clarifying their relationship to political theories. We should therefore approach literary texts against a backdrop of political nationalism and power and consider other possible meanings of texts beyond the narrow framework of literary history. In this regard, I have noted an aspect of Minoru Yoshiokas wartime experience that seems to be a consequence of the development of this nationalistic aspect of literary consciousness. Although Yoshioka is commonly regarded as an aesthete and avant-garde poet who arranged words as poetic objets dart, his experiences as a soldier in Manchuria during World War II consti- tuted a vital underpinning of his creative world. War, as an incarnation of modern Japans nationalistic ideology, was transformed into and expressed in various grotesque or supernatural images by Yoshioka and formed the core of his literary activities. Parallels can also be found in the historical development of modern American poetry, which grew out of a simple, Whitman- like nationalism and eventually led to the birth of antiestablishment works by such poets as Allen Ginsberg. The above-described state of modern Japanese poetry is of great significance to me as a literary scholar, writer, and poet. An invitation to deliver a lecture and read some of my poems at the Japan Society in New York last February gave me an extraordinary opportunity to share the nature of contemporary Japanese poetry with an American audience. It was also a practical application of my studies, which normally focus on theoretical aspects of poetry. An unexpectedly large audi- ence attended and actively participated in the question-and-answer session after the lecture. The event yielded many thought-provoking insights into differences between American and Japanese ways of enjoying poetry. While it is natural in the American literary milieu to hear and appreciate poems that are read aloud, modern Japanese poetic language has been, in a sense, shaped by silencing the voice. Of course, the sub- ject of voice cannot be divorced from the broader framework of political media issues. Rebecca L. Copeland is associate profes- sor of Japanese language and literature at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Her research on Meiji-era women writers, conducted at Kokugakuin University, Tokyo, under the direction of Professor Yasuyuki Ogikubo, was sup- ported by a 1997 Japan Foundation Fellowship. The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 9 RESEARCH REPORTS literature and culture, prose fiction, poetry in both English and Japanese, and, more notably, a series of translations from English into Japanese. Although she translated Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and sections of Charles Dickens, it is for her translation of Frances Eliza Hodgson Burnetts Little Lord Fauntleroy that she is most remembered. Her translation, Shokoshi (1892; reprint, Tokyo: Nihon Kindai Bungakukan, 1968), contributed to the contemporary literary scene in numerous ways. It opened the door to the entirely new genre of childens literature. Furthermore, the language she crafted both substantially advanced the campaign to invent a modern literary idiom and raised the contemporary artistic level of liter- ary translation. Given the significance of her work, it is difficult to explain why she has been overlooked today. As the literary scholar Masahide Yamamoto (190780)one critic who obviously did not forget herpoints out, she is hardly mentioned at all in the many studies that treat early-Meiji-era translations or experiments with genbun itchi (unification of speech and prose). In studies of childrens literature, she is given slightly more credit, but her works are removed from context and abridged so severely that they lose all value. 1 Like so many of her female contemporaries, Shizuko Wakamatsu has become a footnote in a history that does not include her. Ironically, it is in part this anonymity, this refusal to insinuate herself into the pages of liter- ary history, that is responsible for Shizuko Wakamatsus current standing as an ideal Meiji- era woman writer. Women at the time, whether in the home or in the literary arena, were not to advertise their accomplishments too boldly. Those who did were often chastised for their unlady-like behavior. Those who did not were of course overlooked. A woman had to be a clever strategist if she were both to disseminate her writings publicly and to retain a feminine sub- missiveness. In many ways, translation allowed women to enter the literary arena without quite relinquishing their presumed modesty. As the poet and novelist Doppo Kunikida (18711908) argued, translation was more natural to women than creative writing: Composing original works encourages publicity; translating invites true merit. The former calls for arrogance; the latter, humility. The former touches on fantasy; the lat- ter on sobriety. This is why translation is, as I have said, a task for women. 2 Citing the success of Shizuko Wakamatsu and her contemporary Kimiko Koganei (18701956), Doppo encouraged women to abandon notions of becoming writers and to translate instead. Trans- lation, he continued, was an appropriate pastime for women because it was so automatic that it required little thought. A woman could attend to her children and to her husbandwhom she could consult on difficult mattersand still translate successfully. Of course, translation required diligence, attention to detail, and faith- fulnessbut who better than a woman to meet these demands! Moreover, with translation she did not have to worry about losing her inspiration or train of thought. Doppos misogyny was excessive even by Meiji-era standards, but his comments illuminate the essential bias against womens writing at the time (and against translation!). Writing required thought. It required not only a space between the bedroom and the kitchen but a mental space, as well, where a woman could enter at will and indulge in her own ideas and dreams and pas- sions. But indulgence of this kind threatened men like Doppo, because it required that women place their own creativity above their devotion to their husbands and fathers. Women who thought for themselves, who were creative, who had trains of thought entered a realm that put them beyond the control of men like Doppo, thus disrupting the proper balance in the sexual hierarchy. Shizuko labored over her translators art, and her efforts far exceeded a mere selection of words. Even so, she did not draw attention to her labors. She made translating seem simple because she made it so natural. And the texts she created as a result were equally readable. In a sense, translation became a mask for Shizuko. By presenting herself as a mere trans- lator, she avoided charges of immodesty, selfish- ness, and creativity. Unlike other women writers, she did not require kenagesa (boldness) to pres- ent her workbecause the work she presented was not her own. She was merely the conduit, the machine, the helpmeet, the wife. Through translation, however, Shizuko found she could explore other realmsrealms she could not reach in her own voice. She could write of seafaring men and golden-haired boys, and she could use their adventures, battles, and aspirations as a cipher for her own. More importantly, she could dare to be inventive. A ventriloquist for Burnett, Dickens, or Tennyson, she could write about the lower classes or experiment with colloquial lan- guage with impunity. In contrast, when Shizukos contemporary Kaho Miyake (18681943) wrote The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 10 from the point of view of stableboys and rick- shaw pullers, she was taken to tasknot because her portrayals were inept but because they were so skillful. How could an innocent schoolgirl have written with such incisiveness? Shizuko, on the other hand, was not chastised for writing about bootblacks and scullery maids because, of course, she hadnt. She had not authored these scenes and so was exempt from such criticism. With translation, Shizuko could touch an emo- tional depth she could not quite reach with her own [Japanese] words. Shizuko Wakamatsu, standing before the world unveiled as a jogakushi (lady-scholar)was inclined like Kaho Miyake to offer moral tales. Her original works, there- fore, were generally narrow and self-conscious and concluded with lessons and warnings. But translating freed her from herself. Translations permitted her the space to play without being unduly aware of her lady-scholar self. Cer- tainly, she consciously sought out works that she thought represented her own values and ideas, but she was free to imbue her renditions with an emotional intensity that she could not impart to her original works. In the process, she was also able to express something of herself. Shizuko was not a feminist by todays stand- ards nor even by Meiji-era standards. As the liter- ary scholar Ryohei Shioda (18991971) notes, she did not try to establish a new morality like Akiko Yosano [18781942] and the later Seito women [self-styled new women associated with or influenced by the magazine Seito (Blue- stocking)]. Nor did she cast a doubting eye on the existing moral system like the other women writers of her own generation. Rather, Shizuko worked within the system. 3 By working within the system, and behind the veil of translation, Shizuko was able to find the space she needed to accomplish what she desired. Critics did not try to silence her or change her or redirect heras they had tried with Kahofor there was no need to do so. She did not threaten. Rather, she pre- sented herself as the ideal, the exemplary new woman. As one of her American teachers observed: A new woman undoubtedly she was, not in the sense, however, which has come to be attached to that term on account of the appear- ance of a few monstrosities in modern civiliza- tion, but a new woman in the highest and best sense. A regenerated woman directed by the forces of a new life. 4 Masks, of course, have a way of manipulating even their wearer. Shizukos mask, her transla- tors veil, in allowing her to be creative also com- pelled her to retain those signifiers that marked her as properly feminine. She was successful as a translator, it was believed, because she was so femininewilling, as Doppo tells us, to forgo publicity, arrogance, and fantasy and thereby able to yield her own ego to that of a greater mind, an original author. And so it is that Shokoshi remainsa well-loved childrens story and an important forerunner to the modern narrative but the name of its translator has faded from his- torical memory. NOTES 1. Masahide Yamamoto, Wakamatsu Shizuko no Honyaku Shosetsu Genbun Itchi Bun no Shiteki Igi [The Historical Significance of Colloquial Language in Shizuko Wakamatsus Translation of English Novels], Sen- shuKokubun 14 (September 1973): 2325. 2. Doppo Kunikida, Joshi to Honyaku no Koto [About Women and Translation], in Kunikida Doppo Zenshu [The Collected Works of Doppo Kunikida] (1898; reprint, Tokyo: Gakushu Kenkyusha, 1965), 2:364. 3. Ryohei Shioda, Wakamatsu Shizuko, in Shintei Meiji Joryu Sakka Ron [A Study of Meiji Women Writers, Revised Edition] (Tokyo: Neiraku Shobo, 1965; reprint, Tokyo: Bunseido, 1983), 176. 4. Eugene S. Booth, foreword to In Memory of Mrs. Kashi Iwamoto, ed. Yoshiharu Iwamoto (1896; reprint, Tokyo: Ryukei Shosha, 1981), xi. RESEARCH REPORTS (Continued from page 6) Kenji Takahashi, 95, scholar of German litera- ture, March 2. He introduced Japanese readers to numerous classics of German literature, including Hesses Beneath the Wheel and works by Goethe, Heine, and the Brothers Grimm. Takahashi was particularly admired for his accessible, easy- to-read translations and won an international translation award in 1974. His lifelong quest to bring great works of literature to a larger audi- ence included efforts to introduce Japanese litera- ture to readers overseas, as exemplified by his translation into German of Ogai Moris 1916 story Takasebune [The Takase Boat]. He was named a Person of Cultural Merit in 1985. (A: Mar. 11) The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 11 BOOKS IN OTHER LANGUAGES BOOK REVIEWS Subsidized Under the Japan Foundation Publication Assistance Program Picturing Japaneseness: Monumental Style, National Identity, Japanese Film. Darrell William Davis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. viii + 304 pp. ISBN 0-231-10231-3. It is a welcome phenomenon that a number of scholarly books on Japanese cinema have been published in the last decade, particularly by film scholars in the United States who are interested in examining the film medium as a site where culture, politics, aesthetics, and history are encountered. Darrell William Daviss Picturing Japaneseness is one such effort. The relationship between cinema and history, between art and politics at any given time and in any given culture is highly complex and subject to both speculation and analysis. The early Showa era (192689), especially in the 1930s, is one of the most enigmatic and problematic periods in Japanese history, a past with which the Japanese still havent come to terms. Davis finds this era particularly significant because defining Japaneseness was at its highest stake, though it has never ceased to fascinate the Japanese. Assuming that filmic representations of Japa- nese identity in the 1930s can reveal the compo- sition of that identityits structure, function, and intended effectsin ways that are not visible to more conventional historical investigations (pp. 89), Davis explores this difficult era of heightened nationalism within a conceptual framework of national cinema. He argues for the existence of the monumental style, directly relating it to a national attempt to return to the pre-Meiji [pre-late-nineteenth-century] Japanese cultural heritage, a return to a kind of symboli- cally vibrant era of cultural supremacy and spirit- ual tradition best exemplified by kokutai (national policy) ideology. Although one may immediately associate this with numerous propa- ganda or kokusaku (national policy) films pro- duced in the period, Davis contends that films in the monumental style are different from those films because they are more subtle and com- pelling. The monumental style, for Davis, self- reflectively embodies an aura of Japaneseness, a form of spirituality in traditional Japanese her- itage, in a nutshell a cinematic spiritualization of Japanese identity. Daviss approach to creat- ing a definition of the national cinema in the 1930s through style is challenging and provocative, providing a new model of historical research that prompts reconsideration of previous discussions of the subject. The first half of the book is devoted to con- struction of the theory of monumental style and to the historical background from which it emerged. In an attempt to articulate cinematic Japaneseness, Davis sheds light on a Japanese indigenous film genre, jidai geki (period drama), and its political and cultural ramifications. His succinct summary of the milieu that characterized the Japanese cinema in a certain vein from the Taisho era (191226) to the Showa era is an excellent introduction for anyone interested in the social and cultural climate of the period. Thus Davis demonstrates that film indeed could not have been a better site for expressing the contra- dictions and ambivalence between West and East, between tradition and modernism. The conflict was, moreover, most apparent in the development of the jidai geki from a simple recording of tradi- tional theater to an appropriation of Western modes of representation. According to Davis, films in the monumental style bear testimony to the very process of internalization of ideology by appropriating form itself. Unlike blatant propa- ganda films, those in the monumental style spoke more deeply to the Japanese psyche by offering a model of aesthetic appropriation and invoking the mystic past of Bushido (the way of the warrior) as a spiritual form of Japanese culture. The other half of the book is devoted to in- depth analysis of films exemplifying the monu- mental style. Instead of tracing great directors artistic and biographical trajectories, Davis attempts to show how the cinematic spiritualiza- tion of Japanese identity is expressed through the monumental style. The style is best exem- plified in nine films: Genroku Chushingura (The Loyal Forty-Seven Ronin of the Genroku Era, in two parts, 1941 and 1942) and Zangiku Mono- gatari (The Story of the Last Chrysanthemum, 1939) by Kenji Mizoguchi (18981956); Abe Ichizoku (The Abe Clan, 1938) by Hisatora Kumagai (190486); and six other films, includ- ing two postwar jidai geki by Akira Kurosawa (b. 1910), Kagemusha (The Shadow Warrior, 1980) and Ran (1985), in which Davis sees the legacy of the monumental style. It is precisely at this point that his difficult approach to relating ideology to style reveals itself as contradictory, however. In fact, his work is characterized by a multiplicity of definitions, multiple parts of a stylistic complex. Among these definitions are The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 12 three pillars of military rule, an extreme concen- tration of Japanese nationality, a hieratic, sacra- mental appropriation of a classical heritage, and a style that works primarily with clusters of techniques and episodes. Sometimes it is a ques- tion of articulation of space and perception, and sometimes it is a sacramental depiction of the Japanese family system, and the reader is con- stantly called upon to rethink the very basis of the argument. This multitude of definitions might be attributed to the complexity of the object of his analysis itself, i.e., Japanese identity and the representation of Japaneseness. But the monu- mental style seems ultimately to work differently in each example, thereby stretching the definition rather than integrating the argument. The multiple definitions are further compli- cated by Daviss implication that such harking back to a mythical or culturally symbolic past is a particularly Japanese enterprise. The notion of a cultural sacrament between a mystic past and a militaristic present may be appropriate in cultures that value hieratic sacraments, but such an argu- ment in a Japanese context is rather reductive. Furthermore, Davis often uses Western religious metaphors (God, kingdom, sacrament, redemp- tion, salvation, etc.) when he defines the monu- mental style, as well as in his in-depth analysis. Such a translation or transposition of one cultural paradigm onto another may obscure the complex- ity of influences in the culture under analysis. Another potential source of confusion lies in his argument regarding the intrinsic system of the monumental style, and this becomes problematic in his discussion of two films, especially Genroku Chushingura, by Mizoguchi, one of the most brilliant cinematic stylists in Japan. Mizoguchis escape into formalism to avoid making obvious propaganda is well-known; however, he is very much a product of his time and thus not exempt from the nationalist fervor of the period. Such contextual dimensions as the question of genre, especially of the rekishi eiga (history films), of the process of production, and, most important, of authorship should not be ignored in the actual analysis. In fact, a copius literature is available in Japanese on the subjects of Mizoguchi and the Chushingura films, for example, and depending only on English sources may predispose a mono- lithic reading of a highly complex filmic text. Despite his admirable and rigorous scholarship in dealing with the relationship between aes- thetics and ideology, Davis seems to be at times caught by the seduction of defining Japanese- ness as such. His renderings of Japaneseness are sometimes reduced to the pure representation of Japaneseness in the most exotic sense (Zen, Japa- nese architecture, gardens, temples, decorative art, samurai, etc.). However, in spite of such criti- cism, the overall importance of Daviss work cannot be denied. Given the difficulty and com- plexity of the time and the textual richness of the films he analyzes, this book can be a point of departure for any scholar, Japanese or not, who wants to grapple with understanding the ways in which cinematic form is one of the most multi- layered cultural productions. In fact, Picturing Japaneseness says as much about the myth of Japaneseness that still prevails as about the Japa- nese cultural environment of the 1930s, and it is this that makes the book most engaging and revealing. Ayako Saito Visiting Curator National Film Center The National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo Ravine and Other Stories. Yoshikichi Furui. Trans. Meredith McKinney. Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Press, 1997. 142 pp. ISBN 1- 880656-29-9. All the world is a ravine, and we are but climbers scaling its heights or descending to its depths. In- deed the hills echo with the sound of our troubled cries for help. What is it that we human beings have to offer to each other in the face of triumph, despair, sickness, suicide, or death? World as ravine is a central metaphor in the prose of novelist Yoshikichi Furui (b. 1937), and translator Meredith McKinney has aptly chosen Ravine and Other Stories as the title of her anthology, which also includes Grief Field, The Bellwether, and On Nakayama Hill. In the nearly three decades since Furui was first rec- ognized by Yukio Mishima (192570) and his novel Yokothe story of a girl found in a ravine bottomwas awarded the Akutagawa Prize in 1970, this writer has established a solid reputa- tion in Japaneven a cult following. Yet with the exception of Howard Hibbetts translation of Tsumagomi [Wedlock], 1 Furuis works have been largely unavailable in English. Their ascent of the steep rockface to international recognition has been slow, but now Ravine and Other Stories has given them a powerful boost. BOOK REVIEWS The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 13 BOOK REVIEWS Typical Furui characters are married, some- what marginalized but moderately successful salary men who have entered the dangerous years of middle-age, cancer, and the loss of youth. Like their author, they were once amateur mountain climbersveterans of the 1960s who knew the dizzying heights of both Japans Alps and its rapid-growth economy. Male bonding is central to their lives, but as in the works of Kyoka Izumi (18731939) or Kenji Nakagami (194692), the spectre of a mysterious woman glimpsed in a ravine or leaping over a precipice and almost never the wifehovers in the back- ground provoking, nurturing, and/or haunting the mens dreamlike and highly lyrical journeys into the cul-de-sac of memory, or what we might call the snow country of the mind. A woman found deep in a mountain passage is, as Furui writes, an image that most everyone has seen in a dream, and it is the source of all tales wondrous and strange. Not the product of individual imagi- nation, it is communal property that transcends the individual like a path that links us to the ancients who spun tales of miracles and karmic beginnings. 2 An air of unreality hangs over what he calls his first-person projections (toei), and we find ourselves mesmerized by his narcotic prose, drawn along like a sleepwalker who, in the parlous moments prior to wakefulness, slips in and out of a dream. There is no question that Furui owes a great deal to Hermann Broch (18861951) and Robert Musil (18801942). A student of German litera- ture at the University of Tokyo and then a teacher at Kanazawa University and Rikkyo University, Furui began his literary career by translating Brochs Der Versucher [The Seducer] and Musils Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften [The Man Without Qualities]. The Bellwether, for example, takes from Broch its central image of the animal that is belled and sent out to lead the herd. As a com- muter among the silent faces at a Tokyo subway station, Furuis salaried worker ruminatesin a text that is more essay than storyon the extraor- dinary orderliness of the crowd, and he wonders aloud at the sort of person who can set the pack to stampeding. Even in the ravine of the subway, Furui raises the question of our relatedness. Has not each of us, in moving with a crowd, mentally sought to outstrip our anonymous neighborsto get one step aheador taken instant dislike to those who saunter and will not let us pass? And when frustration turns to heady omnipotence, who is not ready to push that bright red button and in a fantasy annihilate the madding crowd? Still and all, there is something powerfully Japanese about Furuis prose. To write a novel is a highly shameful act, he says in an essay on his literary stance. No one wants to lie unneces- sarily. Likewise, no one wants to reveal the truth of his innermost life. The pen of the novelist is slowed by the lead weight of these two contradic- tory forces. In wrestling with two fundamental kinds of shame, modern Japanese novelists have been far more subtle and wet than their Western counterparts. Westerners have been saved by an ongoing tradition of Art, namely, a supraindi- vidualistic presence that transcends the individ- ual. When they write, they are not thrown back onto the individual self the way Japanese novel- ists are. Still, this means the Japanese writer has the advantage of starting from the human stance of the first-person before formulating any artistic stance. 3 If Furuis ideas are couched in the over- worked discourse of the We/They-as-Other of the Nihonjinron so pandemic to Japan, it is none- theless interesting to see how he stands the tradi- tional paradigm of the Japanese I-novel as unindividuated and nonessentialist on its head to argue, contrary to the received wisdom, that it is the very freedom from transcendent Art, Logic, Truth, or God that allows the Japanese novelist to be a more subtle explorer of the nature of the individual self. Strict logicality in the West, he writes ironically, awaits a passion for self- abandonment. 4 For Furui, logic alone will not suffice to grasp the nature of human life. He is drawn simultaneously to the musicality of prose, especially as he finds it in the rhythms of the oral narration, or katari, of classical Japanese. An enviable master of English diction, transla- tor McKinney evokes all that is glowingly lyrical and deliciously soporific about these stories. A sanctity of timbre (neiro no tattosa) and an almost paralyzed quietness (mahikan ni nita shizukesa) reign in the beauty of the prose and the transparency of the translation. NOTES 1. Wedlock, in Contemporary Japanese Literature, ed. Howard Hibbett (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 340. Other English language translations of Furuis works are Yuki no Shita no Kani [Crab Under Snow], trans. Mark Harbison, Japan Echo 12, Special Issue (1985): 4661; Yoru no Kaori [Night Fragrance], trans. Kathy Merken, Literary Review 30, no. 2 (1987): 14183; and Child of DarknessYoko and Other Stories, trans. with commen- tary by Donna George Storey (Ann Arbor: Center for Japa- nese Studies, University of Michigan Press, 1998). 2. Yoshikichi Furui, Yoko no Iru Tani [Yoko in the Ravine], in Furui Yoshikichi Sakuhin [Works of Yoshikichi Furui] (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1983), 7:30. Origi- nally published in Chunichi Shinbun, February 24, 1971. 3. Yoshikichi Furui, Watakushi no Bungakuteki Tachiba [My Literary Stance], Ibid., 19. Originally published in Tokyo Shinbun, November 56, 1970, evening edition. 4. Yoshikichi Furui, Honyaku kara Sosaku e [From Translation to Creative Work], Ibid., 2829. Originally published in Asahi Shimbun, February 15, 1971, evening edition. William J. Tyler Associate Professor of Japanese Literature Ohio State University Reflections on Japanese Taste: The Structure of Iki. Shuzo Kuki. Trans. John Clark. Sydney: Power Publications, 1997. 168 pp. ISBN 0- 909952-30-2. This book is an English translation of Iki no Kozo [The Structure of Iki], the best-known work of the Taisho- and Showa-era (191289) philoso- pher Shuzo Kuki (18881941). The study first appeared in the philosophy journal Shiso [Thought], nos. 92 and 93, and was published in book form by Iwanami Shoten in 1930. It ana- lyzes the structure of the Japanese concept of iki, using the phenomenological method that Kuki had mastered while studying in Europe. The book consists of six chapters: Introduction, The Intensional Structure of Iki, The Extensional Structure of Iki, The Natural Expression of Iki, The Artistic Expression of Iki, and Conclu- sion. The author first presents iki as the product of the following three elements: the dualistic relations seen in flirtation between the sexes; ikiji (brave composure) as seen primarily in Bushido (the warrior ethical code); and akirame (resig- nation), derived in part from Buddhist thought. He further distinguishes it from such aesthetic concepts as johin (refined), hade (showy), and shibumi (astringent) and analyzes its modes of expression, both natural and artistic. This approach reflects Kukis intention to apprehend the culture of Japan through an entirely rational process; the result was a major contribution both to the history of Japanese thought and to theories of Japanese culture. As a work of Japanese cultural theory by an author intimately familiar with modern Western culture and philosophy, Iki no Kozo is a classic that ranks with the works of the earlier cultural interpreters Tenshin Okakura (18621913) and Inazo Nitobe (18621933). As such, it deserves to be widely known and studied outside Japan, and it is thus one of the texts for which a good English edition has long been needed. The publi- cation of this English translation, making Kukis study available to a wide audience in the West, is a significant and felicitous step in introducing Japanese culture abroad and fostering under- standing between the cultures of East and West. The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 14 BOOK REVIEWS Introducing the Japan Performing Arts Net http://www.jpan.org The Basic Information Page of the Japan Performing Arts Net (JPAN) provides general information about the performing arts of Japan, as well as links to the World Wide Web home pages of a network of participating individuals and organizations in the performing arts. For further information, please contact: Japan Performing Arts Net E-mail: jpan@acejapan.or.jp Fax: +81 (03) 5562-4423 The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 15 The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program for fis- cal 199798 invited stage director and playwright Hideki Noda to produce and present a joint Japanese-Thai production of his work Akaoni (Red Giant). The project is cospon- sored by the Setagaya Public Theater. Akaoni, whose primary theme is cultural conflict, was directed jointly by Noda and Nimit Pipitkul, a stage director and playwright from Thailand. The cast consisted of fourteen Thai actors and actresses and one British actor, in the role of Akaoni. The play was per- formed in the Thai language in Tokyo in December 1997 and in Bangkok in May through June 1998. Designed specifically for Thailand, this project sought to (1) create new performing arts through a blending of Japanese and Thai cultural sensibil- ities; (2) promote mutual understanding and establish a network of performing artists in the two countries; (3) help promote modern Thai theater arts, provide training in technical theater (particularly lighting and sound), and inspire Thai theatergoers and specialists in the perform- ing arts; and (4) stimulate modern Japanese thea- ter, which has been heavily influenced by Western theater. The third of these goals, in particular, was clearly achieved. The nine- teen performances in Bangkok were widely acclaimed in the media, and their immense suc- cess had a major impact on modern Thai performing arts. The high-tech stage equiment from Japan operated by the Thai stage crew and the high quality of the stage production are among the projects consid- erable achievements. In both Tokyo and Bangkok all performances sold out, and the production received consid- erable media attention. It was praised as an important inter- national collaboration, an endeavor widely considered difficult to achieve success- fully. For this joint production, it was necessary to overcome differences among the languages, customs, and artistic perspectives of the participants countries. The unfailing enthusiasm of the Japanese and Thai directors, performers, and staff members helped them find ways to communicate effectively. Such collaborative international productions not only yield new forms of artistic expression through the melding of different cultural perspec- tives but also foster the establishment of collabo- rative relationships among the participants. Thus they have attracted considerable attention as an effective means of achieving deep cultural The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program was inaugurated in 1995 under the Peace, Friendship, and Exchange Initiative announced in 1994 as part of Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayamas foreign policy. The program aims to provide opportunities for artists from other Asian countries to rehearse and perform together with Japanese groups, and in this way help the two groups develop new forms of artistic expression through mutual understanding. Under the program, performers and technicians involved in performing arts in other Asian countries go to Japan for technological training and then mount joint productions with Japanese groups. The works created through such collaborative efforts are performed in Japan and in the non-Japanese artists home countries. Akaoni: A Japanese-Thai Theatrical Collaboration The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 16 exchange. Recently, many theatrical companies in Japan have sought to undertake collaborative productions, but the participants often seem to encounter certain difficulties communicating their intentions clearly. With the experience gained through the Akaoni production, the Japan Foundation would like to promote the Asian Per- forming Artists Co-Production Program more effectively and in this way contribute to further cultural exchange. FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES The Japan Foundation Newsletter is distributed free of charge to individuals and organizations interested in Japanese Studies and international cultural exchange. Requests for subscriptions, or for copies of articles that have appeared in the Newsletter, should be addressed to: The Editor, The Japan Foundation Newsletter Media Department The Japan Foundation ARK Mori Bldg. 20F 1-12-32 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-6021, Japan Tel: +81 (03) 5562-3532 Fax: +81 (03) 5562-3501 E-mail: jfnl@jpf.go.jp If you are already a subscriber, we would appreciate being informed of any change in your address. 1998 The Japan Foundation Reproduction of Newsletter articles in whole or in part is prohibited without permission of the author. After per- mission has been received, articles may be reproduced providing the credit line reads, reprinted from The Japan Foundation Newsletter, Vol. xx, No. xx, and the Japan Foundation is notified. Printed in Japan. Newly Published An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies Vol. X, Part 2: Humanities 199394 The twentieth in the series of bibliographies compiled by the Toho Gakkai and published under the auspices of the Japan Foundation has been completed. This series is intended to facilitate access by non-Japanese researchers to scholarly works in the humanities and social sciences. The present book covers works published in Japan in 1993 and 1994 in the humanities, including archaeology, ancient history, medieval history, early modern history, modern and contemporary history, religion, philosophy, Japanese language, ancient and medieval literature, early modern literature, modern and contemporary literature, history of fine art, and performing arts. Copies of this volume, which are currently not for sale, will be donated mainly to the libraries of the worlds major Japanese studies institutions. Qualified research institutions and libraries may receive previous volumes of the bibliography upon request as long as stocks are available. Inquiries should be directed by letter or fax to: The officer in charge of Bibliography Media Department The Japan Foundation ARK Mori Bldg. 20F 1-12-32 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-6021, Japan Fax: +81 (03) 5562-3501
Beginner's Guide to Japanese Haiku: Major Works by Japan's Best-Loved Poets - From Basho and Issa to Ryokan and Santoka, with Works by Six Women Poets (Free Online Audio)