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Chapter 8

Linear Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions

8.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse

The linear momentum p
r
of a particle of mass m moving
with velocity v
r
is defined as:


!
r
p " m
r
v

Note that p
r
is a vector that points in the same direction as
the velocity vector v
r
.












One can show that Newtons second law of motion,
!
= a m F
r
r
, may be written in terms of linear momentum.

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( )
dt
p d
dt
v m d
dt
v d
m a m F
r r r
r
r
= = = =
!


That is,

!
=
dt
p d
F
r
r


The net force
!
F
r
acting on a particle is equal to the time
rate of change of its linear momentum.


Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

When the net external force acting on a system is zero,
then the total linear momentum of the system remains
constant (or conserved). This is so because if
!
= 0 F
r
,
then 0 =
dt
p d
r
! p
r
= constant.

The Impulse - Momentum Theorem

The impulse
!
r
J of the net external force
!
F
r
acting on a
particle during a time interval t ! is equal to the change is
linear momentum p
r
! of the particle during that interval.

3

!
r
J " #
r
p =
r
F
$ ( )
t
0
t
f
%
dt =
r
F
ave
#t

that is,

!
r
J =
"
r
p
or
r
F
ave
"t
#
$
%
&
%



Impulse equals the area under the force versus time
curve.
















4











8.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum

When the net external force acting on a system is zero,
then the total linear momentum of the system remains
constant (or conserved). This is so because if
!
= 0 F
r
,
then 0 =
dt
p d
r
! p
r
= constant.



8.3 and 8.4 Momentum Conservation and Collisions

A collision is an event during which two objects come
close to each other and interact by means of forces.



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A. Elastic Collisions
An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic
energy of the system is the same before and after the
collision. That is, the total kinetic energy is conserved.

Consider the following elastic collision in one dimension:










(i) conservation of total linear momentum (if
!
F
r
=0)
means that

Bf B Af A Bi B Ai A
v m v m v m v m
r r r r
+ = +

which in this case yields:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
Bf B Af A Bi B Ai A
v m v m v m v m + ! = ! +

(ii) conservation of total kinetic energy gives:


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2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
Bf B Af A Bi B Ai A
v m v m v m v m + = +

which may be re-written for 1 dimensional collisions
(using conservation of linear momentum) as

( )
Bi Ai Bf Af
v v v v
r r r r
! ! = !


B. Inelastic Collisions
An inelastic collision is one for which the total kinetic
energy of the system is not conserved.

C. Completely (Perfectly) Inelastic Collisions
A completely inelastic collision is one for which the
colliding bodies stick together and move as a unit after the
collision.












7
Collisions in Two Dimensions

If 0 =
!
ext
F
r
, then the two components of the total linear
momentum of the system are conserved.

!
"
!
#
$
=
=
%
const P
const P
total
y
total
x


Often times, it is easier to solve for the components of the
final velocities than to solve directly for the magnitudes
of the final velocities.









8.5 The Center of Mass
The center of mass (CM) of a system of particles moves
as if all the mass of the system were concentrated at that
point.


8
A. System consisting of discrete particles
The x-coordinate
cm
x of the CM of a system of N discrete
particles is given by:
!
!
=
=
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
N
i
i
N
i
i i
cm
m
x m
m m m
x m x m x m
x
1
1
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
...
...


where x
i
is the x-coordinate of the i
th
particle. Also, the y-
coordinate of the center of mass of the system of discrete
particles is equal to
!
!
=
=
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
N
i
i
N
i
i i
cm
m
y m
m m m
y m y m y m
y
1
1
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
...
...

The position vector
cm
r
r
of the center of mass has
coordinated ( )
cm cm
y x , and equals
j y i x r
cm cm cm

+ =
r
or
!
!
=
=
=
N
i
i
N
i
i i
cm
m
r m
r
1
1
r
r






9
B. Center of Mass of an Extended Object

M
dm x
x
dm
dm x
x
cm cm
!
!
!
= " =

M
dm y
y
dm
dm y
y
cm cm
!
!
!
= " =

where M is the total mass.


















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C. Motion of a System of Particles
A. Position Vector
cm
r
r
of a system of N discrete particles:

M
r m
m
r m
r
N
i
i i
N
i
i
N
i
i i
cm
!
!
!
=
=
=
= =
1
1
1
r r
r


B. Velocity
cm
V
r
of the CM of a system of N particles:

i
N
i
i
i
N
i
i
cm
cm
v m
M dt
r d
m
M dt
r d
V
r
r r
r
! !
= =
= = =
1 1
1 1


i
N
i
i cm
v m
M
V
r
r
!
=
=
1
1

C. Total Linear Momentum
total
P
r
of system of N
particles:
cm total
V M P
r r
=

! !
= =
= " =
N
i
i i
N
i
i i total
v m v m
M
M P
1 1
1 r r
r


!
=
=
N
i
i total
p P
1
r
r


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D. Linear Acceleration
cm
a
r
of system of N particles:

dt
V d
a
cm
cm
r
r
=

!
=
=
N
i
i
i cm
dt
v d
m
M
a
1
1
r
r


!
=
=
N
i
i i cm
a m
M
a
1
1 r r


E. Net External Force on system of N particles:
Re-arrange last formula to obtain:

! ! !
= " =
=
cm ext
N
i
i i ext
a M F a m F
r
r
r
r
1

Note that if 0 =
!
ext
F
r
, then 0 0 = ! =
dt
V d
a
cm
cm
r
r


!
"
r
V
cm
= const "
r
P
total
= M
r
V
cm
= const

That is, the net linear momentum of a system of particles
remains constant (is conserved) if no net external force
acts on the system.
If an isolated system consisting of two or more particles is
initially at rest, then its center of mass CM remains at rest
unless acted upon by a net external force.
12
































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8.6 Rocket Propulsion
The operation of a rocket depends on the law of
conservation of linear momentum applied to a system,
where the system is the rocket and the ejected fuel.

As a rocket moves in free space (a vacuum) its linear
momentum changes when some of its mass is released in
the form of ejected gases. The rocket is thus accelerated
as a result of the push or thrust from the exhaust
gases.

The process represents the inverse of a completely
inelastic collision; that is, linear momentum is conserved,
but the kinetic energy of the system is increased at the
expense of the energy stored in the fuel of the rocket. Let

m = mass of the rocket plus fuel
(-dm) = mass of ejected fuel
v
ex
= exhaust speed of the ejected fuel relative to the
rocket. Thus v
fuel
= v - v
ex
= speed of ejected fuel.
v = speed of rocket before ejecting the fuel








14
After the rocket ejects fuel of mass (dm), the speed of
the rocket increases to v + dv.

Applying the law of conservation of linear momentum to
this system,


!
r
P
before
total
=
r
P
after
total


!
m v = m+ dm
( )
v + dv
( )
+ "dm
( )
v " v
ex
( )


!
0 = mdv + dmdv + v
ex
dm

neglect term dmdv because it is a product of two small
quantities and thus it is much smaller than the other terms,

!
dv = "v
ex
dm
m


integrate both sides of the equations (note the change to
dummy variables) so that

!
d " v
v
o
v
f
#
= $v
ex
d " m
" m
m
o
m
f
#


!
v
f
" v
o
= v
ex
ln
m
o
m
f
#
$
%
&
'
(
15
Comments:
1. The increase in the speed of the rocket is
proportional to the exhaust speed v
ex
.
2. Thrust on the rocket is
!
ma = m
dv
dt
= v
ex
dm
dt
. Note
that the thrust increases as the rate of change of mass
increases (i.e., as the burn rate increases).
3. We have assumed throughout this analysis that the
rocket is in gravity-free outer space. However,
gravity must be taken into account when a rocket is
launched from the surface of a planet. (see problem
8.112).

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