English 2 NOL

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10ATE02
Technical English II
Syllabus
10ATE02 TECHNICAL ENGLISH II L T P C
3 1 0 4
AIM:
To encourage students to actively involve in participative learning of English and to help them
acquire Communication Skills.
OBJECTIVES:
1. To help students develop listening skills for academic and professional purposes.
2. To help students acquire the ability to speak effectively in English in real-life
situations.
3. To inculcate reading habit and to develop effective reading skills.
4. To help students improve their active and passive vocabulary.
5. To familiarize students with different rhetorical functions of scientific English.
6. To enable students write letters and reports effectively in formal and business
situations.
UNIT I LANGUAGE FOCUS
Technical vocabulary Synonyms and Antonyms- Numerical Adjectives
Conjunction-Preposition- clauses noun & Adjective clauses SI Units
Abbreviation & acronyms homonyms-Phrasal verbs & idioms
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UNIT II LANGUAGE FOCUS
Relative clauses Imperative Infinitive structures Question Pattern Wh- Aux-Verbs
(Yes/No Questions) Contrasted time structures Adverbial clauses of time, place and manner
intensifiers Basic pattern of sentences.
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UNIT III READING
Intensive Reading Predicting content Interpretation inference from the text
(Implication) Inferential information implication critical interpretation reading brief
notices, advertisement and the implication-
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UNIT IV WRITING
Paragraph /Essay writing preparation of proposal - Taking down minutes of the
meeting creative and critical thinking expressed Descriptive and persuasive writing
preparation of a report Technical reports.
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Unit V (Not for Examination)
Listening to Lectures/ Seminar/Workshop
1. Write a brief summary of the listened matter
2. British council recording
Speaking
1. Oral presentation on any topic (5 Minutes)
2. Group discussion
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
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3. Accepting others views /ideas
4. Arguing against the others views
5. Interrupting others when they speak (techniques/)
6. Pronunciation /stress/intonation-
7. Addressing the higher officials, colleagues, subordinates on any issue
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TEXT BOOKS :
1. English For Engineers and Technologists, (Dept. of Humanities and Social
Sciences Anna University, Chennai: Vol I & II combined edition) Orient
Longmans Reprint 2008.
2. Perform In English, Dr. M. Balasubramanian & Dr. G. Anbalagan:
Anuradha Pub, Kumbakonam Rev Ed: 2008, Reprint 2010.

REFERENCES:
1. A Course in Communication Skills, P. Kiranmai Dutt and others:
2007 Edition Foundation books: Cambridge House, 4381/4 Ansari Road,
Daryanganj, New Delhi 2.
2. Effective Technical Communication, M. Ashraf Rizvi: Tata Mcgraw Hill,
Reprint 2007.

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UNIT I LANGUAGE FOCUS
Technical vocabulary Synonyms and Antonyms- Numerical Adjectives Conjunction
Preposition- clauses noun & Adjective clauses SI Units Abbreviation & acronyms
homonyms-Phrasal verbs & idioms

Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are
synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The
words car and automobile are synonyms. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended
time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to
be synonymous if they have the same connotation:
Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as
long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English
synonyms are:
noun
o "student" and "pupil"
o "petty crime" and "misdemeanor"
verb
o "buy" and "purchase"
adjective
o "sick" and "ill"
adverb
o "quickly" and "speedily"
preposition
o "on" and "upon"
Note that synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the
"aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the
same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died.
In English, many synonyms evolved from the parallel use, in the early medieval period, of
Norman French (from Latin) and Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words, often with some words
being used principally by the Saxon peasantry ("folk", "freedom", "bowman") and their
synonyms by the Norman nobility ("people", "liberty", "archer").
Exercise:
polite
???

temper
???

chorus
???

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rude
???

selection
???

foolish
???

toxic
???

meeting
???

childish
???

domesticate
???

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym
http://www.synonyms.net/synonyms/A/1
http://www.synonym.com/synonyms/browse/LI/
http://www.english-for-students.com/Synonyms.html

A word having a meaning opposite to that of another word is known as antonym.
Antonym is the antonym of synonym. Antonym is the sense relation that exists between words
which are opposite in meaning.
The term antonym has also been commonly used as a term that is synonymous with opposite;
however, the term also has other more restricted meanings. One usage has antonym referring to
both gradable opposites, such as long : short, and (non-gradable) complementary opposites, such
as male : female, while opposites of the types up : down and precede : follow are excluded from
the definition. A third usage defines the term antonym as referring to only gradable opposites
(the long : short type) while the other types are referred to with different terms.
Graded Antonyms
Pairs of graded antonyms belong on a scale. For example, good and bad are antonyms.
However, if an essay, say, is not good, that does not mean it is bad. There is a whole scale
including appalling, terrible, bad, poor, satisfactory, fair, good, excellent, incredible, etc.
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1. dark light
2. intelligent stupid
3. dangerous safe
4. evil good
5. beautiful ugly
6. best worst
7. clever foolish
8. early late
9. easy difficult
10. empty full
11. fat skinny
12. young old
13. happy sad
14. hard soft
15. last first
16. foolish wise
17. quick slow
18. warm cool
19. wide narrow
20. abundant scarce
21. joy grief
22. knowledge ignorance
23. lazy industrious
24. stiff limp
25. miserable happy
26. violent gentle
27. chaos order
28. soften harden
29. nervous calm
30. reckless cautious
31. luxury squalor
32. sweet bitter

Complementary Antonyms
Pairs of complementary antonyms represent the two opposite possibilities. (There is no
continuum, or middle-ground, as in the examples above.) For example, one is either married, or
single.
1. man woman
2. push pull
3. dead alive
4. off on
5. raise lower
6. forget remember
7. day night
8. sadism masochism
9. right wrong
10. absent present
11. against for
12. exit entrance
13. sink float
14. employ dismiss
15. married single
16. question answer
17. true false
18. send receive
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19. attack defend
20. accidental intentional
21. former latter
22. depart arrive
23. exterior interior
24. extinguish ignite
25. solid fluid
26. thaw freeze
27. vacant occupied
28. inward outward
29. input output
30. exhale inhale
31. pass fail
32. read write

Relational Antonyms
Pairs of relational antonyms are often considered as a third type. However, they are really a
subcategory of complementary antonyms.
In this type of antonymy, there is a relationship in which the two opposites must both exist. For
example, if someone is selling, there must be someone buying.

Relational antonyms describe the same situation from opposite sides. Here are 16 examples:
1. servant master
2. husband wife
3. doctor patient
4. buy sell
5. parent child
6. borrow lend
7. predator prey
8. instructor pupil
9. above below
10. give receive
11. teach learn
12. come go
13. toward away
14. employer employee
15. customer supplier
16. divisor dividend

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Exercise:
1. Mar
enhance
wither
limpid
impede
skimp
To Mar is to damage in a way that makes it
less attractive. The correct answer choice
will be synonym for beautify. Enhance
means to increase the value or beauty of
something. Hence the answer is A.
2. Vituperate
acclaim
assail
censure
ordinary
stout
Vituperate meaning to rebuke or criticize
harshly. Look for a word that means to
acknowledge or declare with enthusiastic
approval. Acclaim is the antonym.
3. Mutability
tenacity
volatility
luxuriant
harmony
insolvency
Mutability refers to change. Tenacity
meaning firmness is the antonym.
4. I nvigorate
augment
enervate
strive
callous
censure
Invigorate means to impart strength, vigor.
Enervate means weaken and is the antonym
5. Stupefy
saturate
enliven
purge
depress
convince
Stupefy means astonish, to make or become
less responsive. Enliven is the antonym.
6. I ncognito
plethora
palpable
commend
soothe
acquiesce

Incognito means unknown or disguised. The
antonym is palpable.
7. Dissuade
demoralize
weaken
reserve
foment
nefarious
Dissuade means to discourage. Foment
means to encourage. Hence answer is D.
8. Gravity
levity
patience
security
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fasten
chagrined

Gravity is not only the force that holds us to
Earth, but it also means seriousness. Levity
means lightness and humor.
9. Purblind
cede
perceptive
reunite
external
dull
Purblind means unable to see. Look for a
word that means able to have sight. Those
who are perceptive are able to perceive, that
is, able to discern things. This is the correct
answer.
10. I ncense
quell
disavow
manumit
augment
garrote
Incense means inflame. The opposite is
quell that means to subdue, to allay. Garrot
is hard word that means to strangle.
11. Dessicated
sodden
repine
approbate
fragile
maladroit
Dessicated means dry and sodden means
wet.
12. Linger
bolt
intense
smooth
banish
restore
The opposite is bolt to move quickly.
13. Foster
impede
pitiless
extricate
delight
discord
The word foster means to encourage. Its
opposite is impede- to hinder.
14. Transitory
extinct
audacity
temerity
bristly
Indefinite
Transitory means fleeting. Indefinite
meaning endless is the antonym.
15. Splenetic
cordial
peevish
sullen
spasmodic
fretful
Splenetic means gloomy, angry. Hence
antonym is cordial
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http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/antonymsterms.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposite_(semantics)
http://wps.ablongman.com/long_licklider_vocabulary_2/0,6658,417045-,00.html
http://synonym-antonym.com/default.asp
http://www.fun-with-words.com/nym_antonyms.html
http://wps.ablongman.com/long_licklider_vocabulary_2/0,6658,417045-,00.html
http://learnhub.com/lesson/5940-gre-antonyms-practice-exercise-ii
Numerical adjective
A number used as an adjective; either a cardinal adjective or an ordinal adjective.
The ordinal numbers: first, second, third, etc., are usually adjectives:
The first one. The second train. The third man.
Also, the adjectives of quality: few, many, several are adjectives.

Conjunctions
A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause
and the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are
printed in bold type.
e.g. We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.
He neither finished his homework nor studied for the test.
I went out because the sun was shining.
1. Coordinate conjunctions
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical constructions; for instance,
two words, two phrases or two clauses.
e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.

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In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the two words friend and I, the
two phrases the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses
the sun rose and the birds began to sing.

The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are and, but and or. In addition, the words
nor and yet may be used as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate
conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word
order in the clause beginning with nor.
Coordinate Conjunctions

and: in addition She tried and succeeded.
but: however They tried but did not succeed.
or: alternatively Did you go out or stay at home?
nor: and neither I did not see it, nor did they.
yet: however The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which have the same
subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance, in the example she tried and succeeded,
the pronoun she acts as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It should also
be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which do not have the same subject,
the two coordinate clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the
meaning clear.

2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas
expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression
either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two
alternative choices of action.
e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course.

The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ... and, either ... or and neither ...
nor. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of
its use. Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be omitted.
Correlative Conjunctions

both ... and He is both intelligent and good-natured.
either ... or I will either go for a walk or read a book.
neither ... nor He is neither rich nor famous.
hardly ... when He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.
if ... then If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
no sooner ... than No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.
not only ... but also She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
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rather ... than I would rather go swimming than go to the library.
scarcely ... when Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
what with ... and What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives.
whether ... or Have you decided whether you will come or not?

3. Subordinate conjunctions
As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns
such as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words such as how,
when, where, wherever and why. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are
underlined.
e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
I wonder how he did that.

In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as
subordinate conjunctions. In the following examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed
in bold type.
e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
Let us wait until the rain stops.

The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.
Subordinate Conjunctions

As
1. because: As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when: We watched as the plane took off.
After
1. later in time: After the train left, we went home.
Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that: Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.
Before
1. earlier than: I arrived before the stores were open.
Because
1. for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early.
For
1. for, because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work.
If
1. on condition that: If she is here, we will see her.
Lest
1. for fear that: I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.
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Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest.
Providing or provided
1. on condition that: All will be well, providing you are careful.
Since
1. from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because: Since you are here, you can help me.
So or so that
1. consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal
English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.
Supposing
1. if: Supposing that happens, what will you do?
Than
1. used in comparisons: He is taller than you are.
Unless
1. except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.
Until or till
1. up to the time when: I will wait until I hear from you.
Whereas
1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.
Whether
1. if: I do not know whether she was invited.
While
1. at the time when: While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand: He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.
As if
1. in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything.
As long as
1. if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while: He has lived there as long as I have known him.
As soon as
1. immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can.
As though
1. in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm.
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Even if
1. in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains.
In case
1. because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold.
Or else
1. otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.
So as to
1. in order to: I hurried so as to be on time.
Exercise:
1. I opened the door _________ looked out. (and, yet)
2. She was not in the back yard, _________ was she upstairs. (or, nor)
3. The sun had set, _________ it was still light outside. (or, yet)
4. Do you know his address _________ telephone number? (but, or)
5. He has not arrived yet, _________ have they. (and, nor)
6. I read the book, _________ did not understand it. (but, or)
7. We searched diligently, ________ found nothing. (or, yet)
8. I invited him _________ his friends. (and, but)
9. We recognized her at once, ____________ we had not seen her for years. (although, in case)
10. He kept reading ___________ he fell asleep. (for, until)
11. The moon will rise ____________ the sun sets. (as soon as, than)
12. It looks ____________ the train will be late. (while, as though)
13. ____________ she got her degree, she became a teacher. (After, Than)
14. We will not go skiing ____________ the weather is good. (as if, unless)
15. ____________ he left, he made sure he had his keys with him. (Before, For)
16. ____________ I told the truth, you would not believe me. (Even if, So that)
17. They have known her ___________ she was a child. (until, since)
18. I must leave now, ____________ I have a great deal of work to do. (as, than)
19. What shall we do ____________ it rains? (or else, supposing)
20. ____________ you read this book, you would be sure to enjoy it. (If, Until)
21. The door was open, ____________ we could hear everything. (in case, so)
22. I studied more ____________ he did. (than, whereas)
23. We packed a lunch, ____________ we knew we would soon be hungry. (lest, for)
24. I will join you, ____________ the weather is fine. (providing, than)
25. ____________ he is very busy, he is seldom at home. (Or else, Because)

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction
http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htm
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http://eslus.com/LESSONS/GRAMMAR/POS/pos8.htm
http://www.better-english.com/grammar/conjunctions.htm
http://www.fortunecity.com/bally/durrus/153/gramch28.html

English Prepositions List
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of
the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use
individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of,
to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more
common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please
refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
Aboard, about ,above ,across , after, against, along, amid, among, anti, around, concerning,
considering, despite, down, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between,
beyond, but, by, during, except, excepting, excluding, following, for, from, in, inside, into, like
minus, near, of, off, on, onto, opposite, outside, over, past, per, plus, regarding, round, save,
since, that, through, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, versus, via,
with, within, without.
English Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)
proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we
must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be
impossible, according to the above rule:
I would like to go now.
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She used to smoke.

Here are some examples:
Subject + verb preposition "noun"
The food is on the table.
She lives in Japan.
Tara is looking for you.
The letter is under your blue book.
Pascal is used to English people.
She isn't used to working.
I ate before coming.
I dont like to drink coffee.
Do you wish to go for a picnic?
Sheela is going to buy a car.
In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive ("to go", "to smoke").
Prepositions of Place: at, in, on
In general, we use:
at for a POINT
in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
on for a SURFACE
At In On
POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE
at the corner in the garden on the wall
at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
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at the door in France on the door
at the top of the page in a box on the cover
at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor
at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet
at the crossroads in a building on the menu
at the front desk in a car on a page
Look at these examples:
Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
The shop is at the end of the street.
My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
When will you arrive at the office?
Do you work in an office?
I have a meeting in New York.
Do you live in Japan?
Jupiter is in the Solar System.
The author's name is on the cover of the book.
There are no prices on this menu.
You are standing on my foot.
There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:
at In On
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television
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at the side in a row on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street on the way

Prepositions of Time: at, in, on
We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES
at In on
PRECISE
TIME
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG
PERIODS
DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday
at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays
at noon in the summer on 6 March
at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day
at sunrise in the next century on Independence
Day
at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday
at the moment in the past/future on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.
Where will you be on New Year's Day?
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Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression Example
at night The stars shine at night.
at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s) on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
Prepositions are used before nouns to give additional information in a sentence. Usually,
prepositions are used to show where something is located or when something happened.
Location Time Action and Movement
above at at
below on by
over by from
under before into
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among from on
between since onto
beside for off
in front of during out of
behind to
next to until
with after
in the middle of
on
in
at

Noun Clauses
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun
clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb
Clauses.

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.
A noun clause can be an object of a verb:
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Billys friends didnt know that he couldnt swim.
A noun clause can be a subject complement:
Billys mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.
A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it
in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on
the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake =
I know that Billy made a mistake.
To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =
George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.
To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I dont know + Where is George? =
I dont know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the
noun clause markers:
that
if, whether
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever
21

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it
can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
Billys friends didnt know that he couldnt swim.
correct:
Billys friends didnt know he couldnt swim.
correct:
Billys mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
correct:
Billys mistake was he refused to take lessons.
correct:
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
not correct:
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a
question:
not correct:
* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)
correct:
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)
not correct:
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)
correct:
22

Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause
is:
future if its action/state is later
He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.
He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.
present if its action/state is at the same time
He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.
past if its action/state is earlier
He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:
was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later
He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.
He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.
past if its action/state is at the same time
He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.
past perfect if its action/state is earlier
He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.
If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the
sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.
If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is
writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present
tense can be used even if the main verb is past.
We learned that English is not easy.
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and
one independent clause:
23

Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
That George learned how to swim is a miracle.
Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.
What Mary said confused her parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.
Noun clauses as objects of verbs:
We didnt know that Billy would jump.
We didnt know Billy would jump.
Can you tell me if Fred is here?
I dont know where he is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Noun clauses as subject complements:
The truth is that Billy was not very smart.
The truth is Billy was not very smart.
The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.
The winner will be whoever runs fastest.
Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:
Billy didnt listen to what Mary said.
He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.
Noun clauses as adjective complements:
He is happy that he is learning English.
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve.
1. The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.
2. He said that he would not go.
3. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.
4. He said that he was not feeling well.
5. I cannot rely on what he says.
6. I don't know where he has gone.
7. He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.
8. The news that he is alive has been confirmed.
24

9. The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal.
10. It is certain that we will have to admit defeat.
11. It was fortunate that he was present.
12. The report that only ten persons were killed in the riots is not true.

http://faculty.deanza.edu/flemingjohn/stories/storyReader$23
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/nounclausequiz.html
http://www.learnenglishfeelgood.com/lefg1_nounclauses1.html

Adjective Clauses
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun
clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun
Clauses.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify
nouns.
The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
Its a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. Its a clause because it has a
subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); its an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the
nouns they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result
of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent
clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
25

1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun
which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to
make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause
is now an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of
prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns
that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in
academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns
that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the
subject of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns
and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a
verb or preposition.
26

THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the
subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a
preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a
preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction
Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of
an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be
omitted. Here are examples with whose:
The man is happy. + I found the mans wallet. =
The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.
WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted. Here is an example with when:
I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will never forget the day when I graduated.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.
WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can
be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.

27

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the
main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a
comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective
clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
People who cant swim should not jump into the ocean.
2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but
is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a
sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is
separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be
used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a
nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who couldnt swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the
subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two
different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)
2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)

Identifying Adjective Clauses
Only some of the sentences below contain adjective clauses. See if you can pick out the adjective
clauses, and then compare your responses with the answers at the end of the exercise.
28

1. I bought a car from Merdine, and it turned out to be a lemon.
2. The car that I bought from Merdine turned out to be a lemon.
3. Pandora, who had recently celebrated a birthday, opened the box of gifts.
4. Lila, who has been the fire warden for 30 years, lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs
and cats.
5. Lila, who lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats, has been the fire warden for 30
years.
6. People who smoke cigarettes should be considerate of nonsmokers.
7. Jacob, who smokes cigarettes, is considerate of nonsmokers.
8. Mr. Mann has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses.
9. My wedding ring is worth at least ten dollars, and now I have lost it.
10. I have lost my wedding ring, which is worth at least ten dollars.
Punctuating Adjective Clauses
In the following sentences, add commas to set off adjective clauses that provide additional, but
not essential, information. Don't add commas if the adjective clause affects the basic meaning of
the sentence.
1. Caramel de Lites which are cookies sold by the Girl Scouts contain 70 calories each.
2. These are the times that try men's souls.
3. I refuse to live in any house that Jack built.
4. I left my son at the campus day-care center which is available to all full-time students with
young children.
5. Students who have young children are invited to use the free day-care center.
6. A physician who smokes and overeats has no right to criticize the personal habits of her
patients.
7. Gus who gave Merdine a bouquet of ragweed has been exiled to the storm cellar for a week.
8. Professor Legree lost his only umbrella which he has owned for 20 years.
9. Healthy people who refuse to work should not be given government assistance.
10. Felix who was once a hunter in the Yukon stunned the roach with one blow from a
newspaper.
http://faculty.deanza.edu/flemingjohn/stories/storyReader$20
http://www.english-zone.com/grammar/adj-clz-30.html
http://www.englishpractice.com/improve/adjective-clauses-exercise-1/
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adj1.htm
http://netgrammar.altec.org/Units/Unit_10/menu.html
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/adj1.htm
http://www.learn4good.com/languages/toefl/structure_cmplx_sntc1.htm
29

http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/adjclause.htm

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Short Name Full Form or Abbreviations
3G Third Generation
AAA Asian Athletics Association
AAFI The Amateur Athletics Federation of India
AC Ante Christum (Before Christ), Ashok Chakra, Air Conditioner
ADB Asian Development Bank
AFI Athletics Federation of India
AFMC Armed Forces Medical College
AI Artifical Intelligence, Air India
AICTE All India Council for Technical Education
AIFF All India Football Federation
AIIMS All India Institute of Medical Science
AITUC All India Trade Union Congress
ALGOL Algebric Oriented Language
AM Ante Meridiem (before Noon), Amplitude Modulation
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
ARPANET Advanced Research Project Agency Network
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
ASLV Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
AT&T American Telegraphic and Telephone Co. Ltd.
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATM Automated Teller Machine
AVSM Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
B2B Busines to Business
B2C Business to Consumer
BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
30

BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BBS Bulletin Board Service
BC Before Christ
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electri-cals Ltd
BIOS Basic Input Output System
BIT Binary Digit
BPL Below Poverty Line
BPO Business Process Outsourcing
BPR Business Process Re-engineering
Bps bytes per second
BSE Bombay Stock Exchange
BSF Border Security Force
BSNL Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
C2C Consumer to Consumer
CA Chartered Accountant
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAT Common Admission Test
CBI Central Bureau of Investigation
CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education
CDAC Centre for the Development of Advanced Computing
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CFSL Central Forensic Science Laboratory
CGI Common Gateway Interface
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CID Criminal Investigation Department
CISC Complex instruction-set computing
CITU Centre of Indian Trade Unions
CNN Cable News Network
COMSAT Communications Satellite Corporation
COPRA Consumer Protection Act
CORBA Common Object Request Broker Architecture
31

CPI(M) Communist Party of India / Marxist
CPWD Central Public Works Department
CRIS Centre for Railway Information System
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
CYMK Cyan, Yellow, Magenta, Kinda
D.Litt. Doctor of Literature
D.Phil. Doctor of Philosophy
D.Sc Doctor of Science
DC Direct Current
DIG Deputy Inspector General
DMA Direct Memory Access
DMK Dravida Munetra Kazhagam
DNA Deoxyribo-nucleic Acid
DTP Desktop Publishing
DVC Damodar Valley Corporation
DVD Digital Versatile/Video Disc

http://www.onlinegk.com/general-knowledge/acronym.aspx

http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/

English Homonyms
The following is a list of English homonyms. A homonym is a pair, sometimes a triplet, of words
that have different spellings and the same pronunciation. Homonyms marked with an asterisk (*)
are in dispute (see the bottom of the page).
Air, Heir, 'Ere
Aisle, Isle, I'll
Allowed, Aloud
Altar, Alter
Ant, Aunt
Ate, Eight
Away, Aweigh
Bait, Bate
Bans, Banns
Bard, Barred
Base, Bass
Be, Bee
Beach, Beech
Bear, Bare
Bean, Been
32

Beat, Beet
Beer, Bier
Birth, Berth
Bite, Byte
Blue, Blew
Boll, Bowl
Bore, Boar
Bored, Board
Born, Borne
Bow, Bough
Bow, Beau
Boy, Buoy
Brews, Bruise
But, Butt
By, Bye, Buy
Cannon, Canon
Capital, Capitol
Carrot, Carat, Karat
Cause, Caws
Cell, Sell
Cellar, Seller
Censor, Censer, Sensor
Cent, Scent, Sent
Chews, Choose
Chilly, Chili, Chile
Choir, Quire
Clause, Claws
Click, Clique
Cocks, Cox
Conquer, Conker
Coral, Choral
Corral, Chorale
Council, Counsel
Councilor, Counselor
Crews, Cruise
Cygnet, Signet
Dam, Damn
Dessert, Desert
Die, Dye
Doe, Dough
Draft, Draught
Eerie, Ayrie
Eye, I, Aye
Faint, Feint
Fare, Fair
Feat, Feet
File, Phial
Filter, Philter
Finish, Finnish
Flour, Flower
Flow, Floe
Foaled, Fold
For, Fore, Four
Forth, Fourth
Foul, Fowl
Freeze, Frieze
Gait, Gate
Gale, Gael
Gambol, Gamble
Grease, Greece
Great, Grate
Hangar, Hanger
Hair, Hare
Herd, Heard
Here, Hear
Him, Hymn
Hoarse, Horse
Hole, Whole
Holed, Hold
Holy, Wholly
Hue, Hew
Idle, Idyll, Idol
In, Inn
Incite, Insight *
Key, Quay, Cay
Leased, Least
Light, Lite
Links, Lynx
33

Lo, Low
Locks, Lox
Made, Maid
Male, Mail
Main, Mane
Mantle, Mantel
Maze, Maize, Mays
Meet, Meat
Medal, Meddle
Metal, Mettle
Might, Mite
Miner, Minor
Missed, Mist
Mistle, Missile, Missal,
Missel
Mode, Mowed
Mussel, Muscle
Naught, Nought
Naval, Navel
Need, Knead, Kneed
New, Knew, Gnu
Nice, Gneiss
Night, Knight
No, Know
Nose, Knows, Nos
Not, Knot
One, Won
Or, Ore, Oar
Pact, Packed
Pain, Pane
Palate, Palette, Pallet
Patience, Patients
Pea, Pee
Peak, Peek, Pique
Pear, Pare, Pair
Pedal, Peddle
Peer, Pier
Pie, Pi
Piece, Peace
Pistol, Pistil
Place, Plaice
Plain, Plane
Pole, Poll
Pore, Pour, Poor
Practice, Practise
Pray, Prey
Principal, Principle
Prophet, Profit
Pyx, Picks
Rain, Reign, Rein
Raise, Rays, Raze
Read, Reed
Real, Reel
Red, Read
Rest, Wrest
Rex, Wrecks
Rhyme, Rime
Right, Rite, Wright, Write
Ring, Wring
Rode, Road, Rowed
Roe, Row
Rude, Rued
Rye, Wry
Sacks, Sax
Sale, Sail
See, Sea
Sees, Seas, Sieze
Seem, Seam
Seen, Scene
Sense, Scents
Sent, Scent
Shoes, Shoos
Sign, Sine
Sink, Synch
Site, Sight, Cite
Slay, Sleigh
Slight, Sleight
Sloe, Slow
34

So, Sow, Sew
Soared, Sword
Son, Sun
Sore, Soar
Soul, Sole
Sowed, Sewed
Sown, Sewn
Staid, Stayed
Straight, Strait
Stair, Stare
Stationary, Stationery
Steak, Stake
Steal, Steel
Sticks, Styx
Succour, Sucker
Surplus, Surplice
Swayed, Suede
Sweet, Suite
Symbol, Cymbal
Tacks, Tax
Tact, Tacked
Taut, Taught
Tea, Tee
Team, Teem
Tecnology, Technology
Tents, Tense
There, Their, They're
Throw, Throe
Tier, Tear
Tire, Tyre
To, Too, Two
Tolled, Told
Ton, Tonne, Tun
Tow, Toe
Vail, Vale, Veil
Vain, Vein, Vane
Vial, Vile
Wade, Weighed
Wait, Weight
Want, Wont
Ware, Wear, Where *
Waste, Waist
Way, Weigh, Whey
We, Wee
Weak, Week
Weave, Weve
Weather, Whether
Were, Whir
Wet, Whet
Whale, Wail
Whales, Wales, Wails
What, Watt
Wheel, Weal, We'll
While, Wile
Whine, Wine
Wit, Whit *
Witch, Which *
Wood, Would
Word, Whirred *
Yoke, Yolk
You, Ewe
You'll, Yule
35

Disputed Homonyms
Incite, Insight
Wear, Where
Which, Witch
Whit, Wit
Word, Whirred

http://users.accesscomm.c/nsalway/homonyms.html

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal
Verb
Meaning Example
A abide by
respect or obey. (the law, a
decision, a rule)
If you want to stay at this school, you must abide
by the rules.
account for explain, give a reason I hope you can account for the money you spent!

add up make sense, seem reasonable Her story just doesn't add up.

advise
against
recommend not doing
something
The doctor advised him against carrying heavy
loads.
agree with
have the same opinion as
somebody else.
I agree with you. I think she deserves the award
too.
aim at
point something in the
direction of
a target
The policeman aimed his gun at the hijacker.
allow for
take into consideration,
include in a calculation
You'd better leave early to allow for traffic jams.
answer back reply rudely Don't answer back your mother!
appeal to
1) plead or make an earnest
request
2) be attractive or interesting
1) The organizers appealed to the crowd to stay
calm.
2) A trekking holiday doesn't appeal to me.
apply for
make a formal request for
something
(job, permit, loan etc.)
He applied for the job he saw advertised in the
newspaper.

avail
(oneself) of
take advantage of something
(an opportunity)
When the company is privatized, you should avail
yourself of
36

the opportunity and buy some shares.

B back away
move backwards, in fear or
dislike
When he saw the dog, he backed away.
back down withdraw, concede defeat
Local authorities backed down on their plans to
demolish the building.
back up
1) give support or
encouragement
2) make a copy of (file,
program, etc.)
1) If I tell the boss we've got too much work, will
you back me up?
2) It is recommended to back up all files in a secure
location.
bail out
1) pay money to secure
someone's release
2) rescue from financial
difficulties
1) When he was arrested, his family refused to bail
him out.
2) The government bailed out the bank.
bank on
base your hopes on
someone/something
Don't forget the date. I'm banking on your help.
beef up
improve, make more
substantial
He beefed up his presentation with diagrams and
statistics.
black out faint, lose consciousness When he fell off the horse he blacked out.
block off Separate using a barrier. The area was blocked off during the demonstration.
blow up
1) explode;
2) be destroyed by an
explosion
1) The terrorists said the bomb would blow up at 9
o'clock.
2) The car blew up but luckily there was nobody in
it.
boil down to be summarized as The problem boils down to a lack of money.
boot up
start a computer by loading
an
operating system or program.
Just give my a few minutes to boot up the
computer.
break away escape from captivity A few horses broke away from the paddock.
break down
1) go out of order, cease to
function
2) lose control of one's
emotions
1) John's car broke down so he had to take the bus.
2) The parents broke down when they heard the
bad news.

break into enter by force Burglars broke into the house around midnight.
break out start suddenly Rioting broke out as a result of the strike.
break out of escape from a place by force Three prisoners broke out of jail.
37

break up
come to an end (marriage,
relationship)
After her marriage broke up, Emma went to live in
London.
bring up raise (a child)
She stopped working in order to bring up her
children.
brush up on
improve, refresh one's
knowledge of something
Mary had to brush up on her Spanish before going
to South America.
bump into
meet by accident or
unexpectedly
Pedro bumped into his English teacher at the
supermarket.
burn out
1) stop (something) working
2) become exhausted from
over-working
1) The fuse has burnt out.
2) Tom will burn himself out if he doesn't slow
down.

butt in (on
sthg)
interrupt impolitely It's rude to butt in on a conversation like that!

C call back return a phone call I'll call you back as soon as possible.
call off cancel The meeting was called off because of the strike.

call on/upon
sby
formally invite or request
I now call upon the President to address the
assembly.
calm down
become more relaxed, less
angry or upset
He was angry at first but he eventually calmed
down.
carry on continue He carried on gardening in spite of the rain.
carry out
1) do something as specified
(a plan, an order, a threat)
2) perform or conduct (test,
experiment)
1) The plan was carried out to perfection.
2) Tests are carried out to determine the efficiency
of a new drug.
carry over postpone until later
As regards holidays, can you carry over any days
from one year
to the next?
check in register at a hotel or airport
For security reasons you have to check in two hours
before your flight.
check out
1) pay one's bill and leave (a
hotel)
2) investigate
1) Is Mr. Blair still at the hotel? No, he checked
out this morning.
2) I don't know if the address is still valid. I'll check
it out.
clam up refuse to speak When the teacher arrived she clammed up.

clamp down
on
act strictly to prevent
something
The government has decided to clamp down on
smoking in public places.
close down
stop operating (company,
restaurant, cinema).
When the factory closed down, the employees lost
their jobs.
come across
1) find by chance
2) appear, seem, make an
1) Julie came across some photographs of her
grandparents in the attic.
38

impression 2) The candidate came across as a dynamic person
during the interview.

come
forward
present oneself
The police have asked any witnesses to come
forward.

come up
against
be faced with or opposed by The project came up against a lot of criticism.
conk out
1) stop working
2) stop or fall asleep (from
exhaustion)
1) The car conked out on the motorway.
2) He was so exhausted, he conked out in front of
the TV.
count on rely or depend on (for help) I'm counting on the taxi driver to find the theatre.
cross out
remove by drawing a line
through
In some exercises, you are asked to cross out the
incorrect word.
cut down on reduce in number or size The doctor told him to cut down on cigarettes.
cut out
1) remove using scissors
2) stop doing something
1) She cut out a picture in a magazine.
2) I'm going to cut out eating between meals.

D deal with
handle, take care of
(problem, situation)
The manager is good at dealing with difficult
customers.
die down
calm down, become less
strong
When the applause died down, she started to sing.
do without manage without
The shops are closed so we'll have to do without
sugar.
drag on last longer than expected
We expected a short speech but it dragged on and
on!
draw up
write (contract, agreement,
document)
An agreement was drawn up and signed by the two
parties.
dress up
1) wear elegant clothes
2) disguise oneself
1) Do people dress up to go to the opera in your
country?
2) Children love to dress up at Halloween.
drop in
visit, usually on the way
somewhere
I sometimes drop in to see my grandparents on my
way home from school.
drop off
1) deliver someone or
something
2) fall asleep
1) I'll drop you off at the bus stop if you like.
2) Granddad often drops off in front of the TV.
drop out
leave school without
finishing
She decided to go to art school then dropped out
after the first term.

E ease off
reduce, become less severe or
slow down
(pain, traffic, work)
After Christmas the workload generally eases off.
39

end in
finish in a certain way; result
in
Their marriage ended in divorce.
end up
finally reach a state, place or
action
If he continues his misconduct he'll end up in
prison.
even out
1) eliminate differences of
opinion.
2) become level or regular
1) After a long discussion they managed to even out
their differences.
2) The road was evened out to make it safer.

F fall through fail; doesn't happen
Our planned boat trip fell through because of the
storm.
figure out understand, find the answer
I'm trying to figure out how to assemble the
bookshelves.
fill out
complete (a form/an
application)
Please fill out the enclosed form and return it as
soon as possible.
find out
discover or obtain
information
I'm going to call the cinema to find out what time
the film starts.
focus on concentrate on something
The advertising campaign will focus on the quality
of the product.
figure out understand; find a solution
We'll have to figure out a way to deliver the goods
faster.

G
get along
(with)
be on good terms; work well
with
I get along (well) with my mother-in-law.
get at imply What exactly are you trying to get at?
get away escape The robbers got away in a black car.
get by manage to cope or to survive It's difficult to get by on a low salary.
get in enter How did the burglar get in?

get into
(+noun)
enter How did the burglar get into the house?
get off
1) leave (bus, train, plane)
2) remove
1) You should get off the bus at Trafalgar Square.
2) She can't get the stain off her sweater.
get on board (bus, train, plane) You can pay when you get on the bus.

get on with
(something)
continue to do; make progress Be quiet and get on with your homework.

get on (well)
with
(somebody)
have a good relationship with I get on very well with my colleagues.
get out leave How did he get out?
40

get out of
(+noun)
leave How did he get out of the house?
get out of avoid doing something
Some husbands manage to get out of doing any
housework.
get over
recover from (illness,
disappointment)
My grandmother had pneumonia but she got over it.
get rid of eliminate It's difficult to get rid of old habits.
get together meet each other Let's get together for lunch on day.
get up rise, leave bed I usually get up at 7 o'clock.
give up stop doing something Sarah gave up smoking 5 years ago.
go through experience Pete went through a lot of pain after the accident.
grow up
spend one's childhood;
develop; become an adult
He grew up in a small village in the mountains.

H hand in submit (report, homework)
All application forms must be handed in before the
end of the month.
hand out distribute
Samples will be handed out at the end of the
demonstration.
hang out
spend time in a particular
place,
or with a group of friends
Where does he hang out these days?
Who does he hang out with?
hang up end a phone conversation "Don't hang up. I haven't finished yet."
hit at aim a blow at He hit at the wasp with the newspaper.
hit back retaliate; reply to an attack
When he was attacked by the others, the boy hit
back.
hit on/upon
find unexpectedly or by
inspiration
She hit upon an idea for her new collection.
hold on
-wait
-grip tightly
- 'Hold on please. I'll put you through to Mr.
Brown."
- She held on to the railing as she crossed the bridge.
hurry up be quick, act speedily Hurry up! We'll miss the bus.

I iron out
resolve by discussion,
eliminate differences
The meeting tomorrow will be an opportunity to
iron out difficulties.

41

J join in participate She was too shy to join in the game.
join up
-engage in, become a member
of
- meet and unite with
- John was in the Army and Tom joined up as soon
as he left school.
- The two groups of tourists joined up at the hotel.
jot down take quick notes
I jotted down the address while watching the
programme on TV.

K keep on continue doing something It told him to be quiet but he kept on making noise.
keep up with
stay at the same level as
someone or
something
Bill walks so fast it's difficult to keep up with him.
kick off begin, start The football match kicked off at 3 o'clock.

L leave out omit, not mention The child's name was left out of the report.
let down disappoint
You promised to come to the party, so don't let me
down!
look after take care of
A babysitter looks after the children when they go
out.
look ahead think of the future It's time to forget the past and look ahead.

look down
on
consider as inferior
He tends to look down on anyone who is not
successful.
look on be a spectator at an event
Billy didn't take part in the fight. He just looked
on.
look for try to find something Jane went to the shops to look for a pair of shoes.

look
forward to
await or anticipate with
pleasure
I look forward to seeing you soon.
look up to admire
He was a wonderful teacher and many students
looked up to him.

M make fun of laugh at/ make jokes about
The old lady dresses so strangely that the kids make
fun of her.
make up invent (excuse, story)
Some employees make up excuses when they
arrive late for work.
mix up
mistake one thing or person
for another
I don't know my neighbours' names yet. I keep
mixing them up.
move in
arrive in a new home or
office
You've bought a new house? When are you moving
in?.
42

move out
leave your home/office for
another one.
My neighbour is leaving. He's moving out next
Saturday.

N nod off fall asleep
My grandfather often nods off in front of the
television.
note down write something
I'll call the station and note down the departure
times.

O opt out
leave a system or decide not
to participate
I enjoy tennis but I'm so busy I had to opt out of the
tournament.
own up admit or confess something
The boy owned up. He said he kicked the ball
through the window.

P pass away die The old lady passed away peacefully.
pass out faint She passed out when she heard the bad news.
pay back reimburse
I'll lend you 20 provided you pay me back before
the end of the week.
put off postpone, arrange a later date The meeting was put off because of the strike.
put on turn on, switch on Could you put on the light please?
put out extinguish It took a long time to put out the fire.
put up
accommodate, give
somebody a bed
We can put you up if you'd like to come for a
week-end.
pick up collect somebody I'll pick you up at the station when you arrive.
point out
indicate/direct attention to
something
She pointed out the mistake.

R rely on count on, depend on, trust
Don't worry. You can rely on me. I can keep a
secret.
rule out eliminate The police ruled out political motives.
run away
escape from a place or
suddenly leave
He ran away from home at the age of fourteen.
run into
meet by accident or
unexpectedly (also: bump
into)
Sophie ran into Maria at the shopping centre.
43

run out of have no more of something. What a nuisance! We've run out of coffee.

S set off start a journey;
Early Saturday morning we set off for the ski slopes
.
set up start a business She set up her own company 10 years ago.
shop around compare prices
It's always wise to shop around before buying
anything.
show off brag or want to be admired There's David showing off in his new sports car!
show up appear/arrive We expected David to come but he didn't show up.

shut up
(impolite)

be silent, stop talking Oh shut up, you idiot!
sit down take a seat Please come in and sit down.
stand up rise from a sitting position The pupils stood up when the headmaster arrived.
stick up for defend It's important to stick up for one's principles.

T take after
resemble, in appearance or
character
Jamie really takes after his dad.
take care of look after I'll take care of your plants while you're away.
take off leave the ground The plane took off at 6 a.m.
take on hire or engage staff
Business is good so the company is taking on extra
staff.
take out remove; extract She took out a pen to note the address.
tell off reprimand/criticize severely
The teacher told her off for not doing her
homework.
think over consider I'll have to think over the proposal before I decide.
try on
wear something to see if it
suits or fits
I'm not sure about the size. Can I try it on?
turn down refuse I couldn't turn down an offer like that!

44

U use up
finish a product (so that
there's none left)
The kids have used up all the toothpaste.

V vouch for
express confidence in, or
guarantee something
You can give the keys to Andy. I can vouch for
him.

W watch out be careful Watch out! There's a car coming.
wear out
1) become unusable
2) become very tired
1) Julie wore out her shoes visiting the city.
2) At the end of the day Julie was worn out.
work out
1) do physical exercise
2) find a solution or calculate
something
1) I work out twice a week at the gym club.
2) It's expensive but I haven't worked out the exact
cost yet.
wipe off clean (board, table). The teacher asked Lee to wipe off the board.

http://www.learn-english-today.com/phrasal-verbs/phrasal-verb-list.htm

Idioms
A:
ace (verb)
all right (3)
and then some
antsy
as easy as pie
at the eleventh hour
B:
bad-mouth (verb)
be a piece of cake
be all ears
be broke
be fed up with
be in and out
be on the go
be on the road
be over
be up and running
be used to
beat (adj.)
beat around the bush
beat one's brains out
Beats me.
bent out of shape
before long
bite off more than one can
chew
blabbermouth
blow one's top
boom box
the bottom line
blow one's top
Break a leg!
break someone's heart
broke
bug (verb)
bull-headed
buck(s)
a bundle
burn the midnight oil
bushed
by one's self
by the skin of one's teeth
C:
call it a day
catch one's eye
catch some Zs
can't make heads or tails of
something
change one's mind
chicken
chow
chow down
a cinch
cool (adj.)
cost (someone) an arm and
a leg
45

couch potato
cram
crash course
Cut it out!
Cool it!
D:
dicey
ditch class
Don't count your chickens
until (before) they hatch
(they're hatched).
do a bang-up job
down in the dumps
drag one's feet
drop someone a line
E:
an eager beaver
Easy does it!
an egghead
elbow grease
every other _____
F:
far-fetched
feel blue
feel puny
fender-bender
fire someone
for ages
G:
get going
get it
get a kick out of something
get on one's nerves
get one's wires crossed
get out of hand
get up and go
give someone a hand (2)
go with the flow
grab a bite
H:
had ('d) better
have (has) got
hard feelings
hassle
have one's hands full
have something down pat
head honcho
hit the books
hit the hay
hit the sack
How come?
I:
if I had my druthers
in over one's head
inside out
in stock
in the black
in the red
in time
J:
jump all over someone
jump the gun
jump to conclusion
junk mail
K:
keep an eye on
keep an eye out for
keep one's chin up
keep one's fingers crossed
keep one's nose to the
grindstone
keep (stay) in touch
kid (2)
kind of
a klutz
a know-it-all
know something
backwards and forward
know something inside out
L:
let-down
lend someone a hand
leave well enough alone
Let sleeping dogs lie.
live from hand to mouth
Live and let live.
lose track of
a low blow
lousy
M:
macho
make a mountain out of a
mole hill
can't make heads or tails of
make up one's mind
N:
No way!
nosh
Not on your life!
now and then
nuke
nuts
O:
OK (4)
on the cutting edge
on the dot
on time
once in a while
over one's head
P:
pay the piper
plastic
pop quiz
pooped (adj.)
pretty (adv.)
pull an all-nighter
pull someone's leg
Q:
quite a few
a quick study
R:
R and R
rain or shine
46

rain cats and dogs
read someone's mind
rub someone the wrong
way
run-down (2)
S:
savvy
schmooze
sleep on it
sooner or later
shoot the breeze
a snap
so-so
Someone's made his/her
bed; now let her/him lie in
it.
sort of
state of the art
stay (keep) in touch
Step on it!
T:
take it easy
tell a white lie
There, there.
tight-fisted
a tightwad
tough
toss something
tricky
two-faced
U:
under the weather
until hell freezes over
until you're blue in the face
update
upside down
up-to-date
used to
W:
Was my face red!
wear out one's welcome
wet behind the ears
What for?
What's up?
wishy-washy
with bells on
would just as soon
Y:
a yes-man
You don't say!
You've got to be kidding!
yucky
yummy
Z:
zilch
Zip your lip!

47

Idioms with Meaning
ace: make an "A" on a test, homework assignment, project, etc.
"Somebody said you aced the test, Dave. That's great!"

all right (1): expression of reluctant agreement.
A: "Come to the party with me. Please!"
B: "Oh, all right. I don't want to, but I will."

all right (2): fair; not particularly good.
A: "How's your chemistry class?"
B: "It's all right, I guess, but it's not the best class I've ever had."

all right (3): unharmed; in satisfactory condition.
A: "You don't look normal. Are you all right?"
B: "Yes, but I have a headache."

and then some: and much more besides.
A: "I'd guess your new computer cost about $2,000. "
B: "It cost that much and then some because I also bought extra RAM and VRAM."

antsy: restless; impatient and tired of waiting.
"I hope Katy calls soon. Just sitting around and waiting is making me antsy."

as easy as pie: very easy.
"I thought you said this was a difficult problem. It isn't. In fact, it's as easy as pie."
48

at the eleventh hour: at the last minute; almost too late.
"Yes, I got the work done in time. I finished it at the eleventh hour, but I wasn't late
http://www.eslcafe.com/idoms/
http://www.eslcafe.com/idioms/id-list.html
http://www.learn-english-today.com/idioms/idioms_proverbs.html
http://www.idiomconnection.com/
http://a4esl.org/q/h/idioms.html

UNIT II LANGUAGE FOCUS
Relative clauses Imperative Infinitive structures Question Pattern Wh- Aux-Verbs
(Yes/No Questions) Contrasted time structures Adverbial clauses of time, place and manner
intensifiers Basic pattern of sentences.
Relative clauses
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that begins with a question word (e.g. who, which,
where) or the word that. You can use it to modify a noun or pronoun (i.e. to identify or give
more information about it).
Students who can develop independent learning skills often achieve good academic
results.
There is a new book that investigates the controversy over political reforms in Hong
Kong.
A university is a place where people pursue advanced knowledge in specific academic
disciplines.
The lecture theatre in which the inauguration ceremony will be held is now being
cleaned.
1. Relative pronouns
Words like who, that and when are often referred to as relative pronouns when they are used to
introduce relative clauses. You use:
who for people, which for things, and that for both people and things.
whom as the object of a relative clause (in more formal English), though it is increasingly
common to replace it with who.
whose to indicate possession, as a determiner before nouns.
49

For example:
Whats the name of the person who/that first landed on the moon?
This is Dr. Perkins, whom we met at a conference in Canada last year.
All students whose registration numbers begin with 374 should immediately go to the
library for a tour.

2. Types of relative clause
There are two types of relative clause: defining and non-defining. You use a defining (or
restrictive) relative clause to identify or restrict the reference of a noun. You do not separate it
from the rest of the sentence by commas (in text) or pauses (in speech).
The student who achieves the highest GPA score in this department will be awarded a
prize of $20,000.
Computer games that involve fighting and shooting apparently have a negative effect
on young people.
You use a non-defining (or non-restrictive) relative clause to supply additional information
about the noun, whose identity or reference is already established. You can also use it to
comment on the whole situation described in a main clause.
Albert Einstein, who put forward the theory of relativity, is considered by many as the
most intelligent person in human history.
The ELC, which provides language support to PolyU students, is located in the AG
wing.
You should not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining relative clauses.
3. Leaving relative pronouns out of relative clauses
You can sometimes omit the relative pronoun in a defining relative clause to create a more
concise style. You cannot do this in a non-defining clause.
Half of the training sessions (that are) arranged for the athletes have been cancelled due
to bad weather.
The designer (who/whom) you saw at the party last night is Giorgio Armani!
* 'The ELC, provides language support to PolyU students, is located in A core.' is not
correct.

http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/2004/u6/relativeclauses.htm

50

Imperative sentences
Definition: Imperatives are verbs used to give orders, commands, warning or instructions, and
(if you use "please") to make a request. It is one of the three moods of an English verb
(indicative, imperative and subjunctive).
For example:
Give me that tape, please.
To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb without "to"
For example:
Come here!
Sit down!
To make a negative imperative, put "do not" or "don't" before the verb:
For example:
Don't go!
Do not walk on the grass.
You can also use "let's" before the verb if you are including yourself in the imperative. The
negative of "let's" is "let's not".
For example:
Let's stop now.
Let's have some lunch.
Let's not argue
Let's not tell her about it.
Orders
Adults do not usually give each other orders, unless they are in a position of authority. However,
adults can give orders to children and to animals. The intonation of an order is important: each
word is stressed, and the tone falls at the end of the sentence:
For example:
Sit down now!
* "Sit", "down" and "now" are all stressed, and the tone falls on "now".
51

Warnings
You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the warning are
stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:
For example:
Sit down now!
* "Sit", "down" and "now" are all stressed, and the tone falls on "now".
Watch out!
Look out!
Don't cross!
Advice
When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally.
For example:
Don't tell him you're resigning now! Wait until Monday when he's in a better mood.
Don't drink alcohol
Don't eat heavy meals
Requests
You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite word before the
verb:
For example:
Please take a seat.
Please wait here.
Please hold the line.
Please don't smoke here.
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/340685/four_kinds_of_sentences_declarative.html
http://www.englishlanguageguide.com/english/grammar/imperative.asp

The Infinitive
Recognize an infinitive when you see one.
To sneeze, to smash, to cry, to shriek, to jump, to dunk, to read, to eat, to slurpall of these are
infinitives. An infinitive will almost always begin with to followed by the simple form of the
verb, like this:
52

to + verb = infinitive
Important Note: Because an infinitive is not a verb, you cannot add s, es, ed, or ing to the end.
Ever!
Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples:
To sleep is the only thing Eli wants after his double shift waiting tables at the neighborhood caf.
To sleep functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
No matter how fascinating the biology dissection is, Emanuel turns his head and refuses to look.
To look functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb refuses.
Wherever Melissa goes, she always brings a book to read in case conversation lags or she has a
long wait.
To read functions as an adjective because it modifies book.
Richard braved the icy rain to throw the smelly squid eyeball stew into the apartment dumpster.
To throw functions as an adverb because it explains why Richard braved the inclement weather.
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/infinitive.htm

WH Question Words
We use question words to ask certain types of questions (question word questions). We often
refer to them as WH words because they include the letters WH (for example WHy, HoW).
Question Word Function Example
what asking for information about something What is your name?
asking for repetition or confirmation What? I can't hear you.
You did what?
what...for asking for a reason, asking why What did you do that for?
when asking about time When did he leave?
53

where asking in or at what place or position Where do they live?
which asking about choice Which colour do you want?
who asking what or which person or people
(subject)
Who opened the door?
whom asking what or which person or people
(object)
Whom did you see?
whose asking about ownership Whose are these keys?
Whose turn is it?
why asking for reason, asking what...for Why do you say that?
why don't making a suggestion Why don't I help you?
how asking about manner How does this work?
asking about condition or quality How was your exam?
how + adj/adv asking about extent or degree see examples below
how far distance How far is Pattaya from
Bangkok?
how long length (time or space) How long will it take?
how many quantity (countable) How many cars are there?
how much quantity (uncountable) How much money do you
have?
how old Age How old are you?
how come
(informal)
asking for reason, asking why How come I can't see her?

54

Yes/No Questions
In English, there are two basic types of questions: yes/no questions and wh- questions.
Yes/no questions are asked using be, have, do, or a modal verb. Yes/no questions always begin
with one of these verbs and can be answered with a simple yes or no, or with the question
repeated as a statement.
Note: It's impossible to ask a yes/no question without one of these auxiliary verbs.
He want a car? Does he want a car?
You going to eat with us? Are you going to eat with us?

BE
Use the verb be to ask about identity, description, location, and present or past activities and
situations.
Identity / Description
You can use be plus a noun or adjective to ask about the identity or description of a person,
place, or thing.
Am I your best friend? Yes (you are).
Is this interesting? No (it is not).
Are these islands part of Greece? Yes (they are).
Was his idea good? No (it wasn't).
Were they happy? Yes (they were).

Location
Be plus a prepositional phrase asks about present or past location.
Am I near your house? No (you aren't).
Is he in Panam? Yes (he is).
Are we at the border yet? No (we're not).
Was his apartment above a bakery? Yes (it was).
Were the demonstrations downtown? No (they weren't).
55

Current activity / situation
To ask about a current activity or situation, use the present progressive: present tense of be +
present participle (verb+ing).
Am I going with you and Tom? Yes (you are).
Is England adopting the euro? No (it isn't).
Are we seeing a play tonight? Yes (we are).
Is she working today? No (she isn't).

Past activity / situation
To ask about a past activity or situation, use the past progressive: past tense of be + present
participle.
Was it raining? Yes (it was).
Was Anna cooking? No (she wasn't).
Were the prisoners rebelling? Yes (they were).
Were they singing? No (they weren't).

Past event
To ask about something that happened to someone or something, use the passive voice: past
tense of be + past participle (verb + ed or en):
Was he given a reward? Yes (he was).
Was I chosen? No (you weren't).
Were you driven home in a taxi? Yes (we were).
Were dinosaurs killed by meteors? No (they weren't).

HAVE
Use the verb have to ask if some action has taken place or whether somebody has done
something.
56

Notice that the auxiliary verb have is in the present tense* and the main verb is always a past
participle.
Has your brother left? No (he hasn't).
Have you flown before? Yes (I have).
Has the party started? Yes (it has).
Have the guests eaten? No (they haven't).
*It is possible to ask a yes/no question with had, but this is done in very specific situations and
will be explained in a future lesson.

DO
Use the verb do to obtain facts about people, places, or things.
Do is always followed by the subject and then a verb in the infinitive without to.
Do they smoke? No (they don't).
Does Bogot get cold? Yes (it does).
Did it work? No (it didn't).
Do flying fish really fly? No (they don't).
Does running hurt your knees? Yes (it does).
Did teaching challenge you? Yes (it did).

MODALS
Use modal verbs to obtain more information about possibilities or uncertainties.
Modals are always followed by verbs in the infinitive without to.
Can we stay? Yes (we can stay).
Could this be true? Yes (it could be true).
Should they stop? No (they shouldn't).
May I help you? Yes (you may).
Will it rain? No (it won't rain).
Would you go with me? Yes (I would).
57

Remember: When asking a question with do or a modal verb, the main verb remains in the
infinitive without to.
I ncorrect Correct
Do you to drink coffee? Do you drink coffee?
Does she to work here? Does she work here?
Can I to go with you? Can I go with you?
Should we to email her? Should we email her?

However, if there are two verbs in the infinitive after do, the second infinitive must use to.
I ncorrect Correct
Do you want drink coffee? Do you want to drink coffee?
Does she like work here? Does she like to work here?
Did you need go home? Did you need to go home?

Remember: It's impossible to ask a yes/no question without an auxiliary verb.
He know your phone number? Does he know your phone number?
They returning today? Are they returning today?

Note that there are several ways to answer yes/no questions, especially with contractions.
Is he busy? No.
No, he isn't.
No, he's not.
No, he is not.
No, he isn't busy.
No, he's not busy.
No, he is not busy.
http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/esl/grammar/questionsyesno.html

58

Adverbs
Adverbs can tell you where, when, how, why and to what extent something happens.
There are several different classes of adverb (see above).
They are often formed from adjectives or nouns be adding the suffix -ly.
For example: Quick becomes quickly, sudden becomes suddenly, intelligent becomes
intelligently
To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -y change the y to i before adding the -ly.
For example: angry becomes angrily, busy becomes busily . . .
To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -e drop the -e before adding the -ly.
For example: feeble becomes feebly, true becomes truly . . .
Some adjectives ending in -ly need no changes.
For example: heavenly . . .
However there are exceptions.
For example: sly becomes slyly, shy becomes shyly . . .
Some adverbs do not end in -ly.
For example: fast, hard, straight . . .
Adjective Pretty Serious Fast Quiet
Example
She was a pretty
girl.
He was a serious
boy.
It was a fast car.
They were quiet
children.
Adverb Prettily Seriously Fast Quietly
Example
The bird sang
prettily.
The policeman
spoke seriously.
Schumacher
drives fast.
The woman spoke
quietly.

59

Adverbs of Time
These adverbs answer the question when. Examples are: tomorrow, today, yesterday, now,
then, never, soon, already, ago, formerly, lately etc.
We are late.
She died two years ago.
I wrote to him yesterday.
Have you seen him before?
May I leave now?
I will soon return.
He will come tomorrow.
I have warned him already.
I havent read anything lately.
Adverbs of Place
These adverbs answer the question where.
Examples are: here, there, upstairs, downstairs, everywhere, nowhere, in, out, inside, away.
We have been living here for several years.
I searched for him everywhere.
They went upstairs.
May I come in?
She came forward.
I decided to go there.
Adverbs of Manner
These adverbs answer the question in what manner. Examples are: slowly, carefully, terribly,
seriously, well, pleasantly, really, thus etc.
The soldiers fought bravely.
Walk carefully.
I was terribly upset.
He is seriously ill.
She was pleasantly surprised.
She can speak English well.

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Intensifiers

An adverb which is used to modify adjectives and adverbs, but which is not usually used to
modify verbs, can be referred to as an intensifier. In the following examples, the intensifiers are
printed in bold type.
e.g. I am very happy.
The film was quite good.
You did that rather well.
Must you leave so soon?
In these examples, very modifies the adjective happy, quite modifies the adjective good, rather
modifies the adverb well, and so modifies the adverb soon.
Examples:
It's quite hot today.
Ms. Stress is really busy right now.
He's my very best friend.
I'm a little tired today.
That was a pretty good shot.
Sam just got a brand new car.
I know her fairly well.
It's extremely hot outside.
You're absolutely right!

The following words are commonly used as intensifiers:

fairly
quite
rather
so
too
very

In addition, the word really is often used as an intensifier in informal English.
e.g. The film was really good.
You did that really well.
http://www.fortunecity.com/bally/durrus/153/gramch24.html
http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/intensifiers.html

61

Basic Sentence Patterns
In this lesson, you will learn the elements of a sentence. There are 5 basic sentence patterns in
English. Before we start this lesson (or after class in the lab) go to these 5 websites. Click the
buttons on the screen at each site to see sentences with these patterns.
The 5 Basic Patterns
Subject + Verb
(http://www.manythings.org/rs/sv.html)
I swim. Joe swims. They swam.

Subject + Verb + Object
(http://www.manythings.org/rs/svo.html)
I drive a car. Joe plays the guitar. They ate dinner.

Subject + Verb + Complement
(http://www.manythings.org/rs/svc.html)
I am busy. Joe became a doctor. They look sick.

Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
(http://www.manythings.org/rs/sviodo.html)
I gave her a gift. She teaches us English.
The last pattern is for level 5 and grammar, and you will not see it in your level 4 classes, but
you can look at it now if you want.
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement
(http://www.manythings.org/rs/svoc.html)
I left the door open. We elected him president. They named her Jane.

Basic Sentence Structure
There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as
follows:
S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.
Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.
She loves her job.
He's eating an orange.
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S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.
The workers are lazy.
Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.
Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.
S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.
The men are doctors.
Mr. Jones is the teacher.
At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be
added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.
She sleeps. Core sentence
She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the
same.
Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may require a different form of the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.
They like rice. Core sentence
The people like rice. Specific subject
The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective
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The people in the restaurant like
rice.
Subject modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective
The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjective
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.
He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome. Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.
The teacher is here. Basic sentence
The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.
The man is a doctor. Basic sentence
The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement
64

My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural subject and complement

UNIT III READING
Intensive Reading Predicting content Interpretation inference from the text (Implication)
Inferential information implication critical interpretation reading brief notices,
advertisement and the implication-
Intensive Reading

Intensive reading refers to reading for accuracy. It involves approaching the text (passage)
under the guidance of a teacher or with a specified task which forces the learners to pay close
attention to the materials to be read.

Intensive reading aims at giving the reader a deep and detailed understanding (comprehension)
of the text and how its meaning is transmitted or carried. Intensive reading is used to develop
specific reading skills. In intensive reading the reader pays attention to the contents of the text
and also to how it is written. We expect readers in middle and upper primary classes to learn to
analyse written material in three ways.
1. Read and learn literal or stated information that is written, e.g. who, what, where, and
when .. facts and the sequence of events. When the words are taken at their face value,
we say that they are interpreted literally. The kind of comprehension is often referred to
as reading the lines.
2. Read and recognise the authors silence and interpret the writer's thoughts for the purpose
of drawing inferences or getting implied meaning. This kind of comprehension often
referred to as reading between the line.
3. Read and analyse what is written to try to gain new insights by applying what is read to
other situations:
o Drawing generalisations that are not stated explicitly (directly) by the writer.
o Deriving implications or making speculations (guesses) about facts that are not
stated by the writer.
This kind of comprehension is referred to as reading beyond the lines. This kind of reading can
help children develop the ability to generalise from the given text and apply ideas to personal and
social situations outside the text.
Intensive reading therefore is intended to train students in higher level thinking skills as they
develop reading strategies. Here is how you can present an intensive reading lesson.
STEP I: Introduce the text to the pupils using any of the strategies you
have learned before. You can:
Relate the topic to pupils experience.
Show a related object or picture to stimulate discussion on
the topic.
65

Present new vocabulary from the text.
Ask and answer general questions about the topic.
Refer to previously taught lessons in other subjects that
may relate to the topic.
Conduct a related field trip or invite a guest speaker, and
so on.
STEP II
Give guide questions to learners for purposeful reading, then
have them turn to the reading passage.
STEP
III:
Learners read as they note down answers to the questions.
STEP
IV:
Have learners meet in pairs or small groups to discuss their
answers. Then have whole class reports on answers from the
groups.
STEP V: Clarify general points not understood by learners.
STEP
VI:
Give more detailed work and practice e.g. in writing, role playing
activities, etc

http://itac.glp.net/uganda_ptc/Language%20Education/Unit%206/Topics/top4intensive.htm

UNIT IV WRITING
Paragraph /Essay writing preparation of proposal - Taking down minutes of the meeting
creative and critical thinking expressed Descriptive and persuasive writing preparation of a
report Technical reports.

Essay Writing
Writing different types of essays narrative, descriptive, persuasive Presentation
Transcript
1. Writing Different Types of Essays- Narrative, Descriptive, Persuasive

2. Essay writing is one of the crucial skills that a student needs to master throughout his/her
education.
Essay writing will develop the students writing skill, reading skill, improves
concentration and will help them possess knowledge about various things that are
happening around the world.

66

3. The types of essay writing which students are asked to write generally are
narrative, descriptive and persuasive.

4. The first two types of essay writing involve narrating and describing particular incidents
in daily life or incidents which historically, politically, scientifically are important. These
include describing those incidents.
The third type of essay writing is persuasive essay writing. This type of essay writing
involves persuading the readers to persuade them and convince and make them accept the
arguments put forth by the writer.

5. Narrative type of essay-writing: A narrative essay is very similar to writing a story.
The writer concentrates on his/her memories and writes an incident which took place
with him/her or with his/her friend. Or writing about a movie watched, a book recently
read, and or a place visited recently.
Most of the time, narrative essays come from personal experiences. The essays are
usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support and embellish the
story.

6. Descriptive type of essay-writing: Descriptive type of essay writing is also very similar to
narrative type of essay-writing.
A descriptive essay is more advanced in nature than a narrative essay.
Descriptive essays are written not only to describe the physical appearance of someone or
something but one should also describe the inner qualities of that particular person or
thing.

7. Persuasive type of essay-writing: Persuasive type of essay writing is also known as
argument essay writing.
This type of writing involves persuading the readers to believe in what the writer is
conveying.
Putting forward the arguments requires a good sense of logical thinking, analyzing facts,
etc.

8. The task involves certain things like
Choosing the position
Analyzing the audience
Researching the topic and
Structuring the essay
Persuasive type

Descriptive writing
Goal: Descriptive writing vividly portrays a person, place, or thing in such a way that
the reader can visualize the topic and enter into the writers experience.
67

Characteristics: The general characteristics of descriptive writing include:
elaborate use of sensory language
rich, vivid, and lively detail
figurative language such as simile, hyperbole, metaphor,
symbolism and personification
showing, rather than telling through the use of active verbs and
precise modifiers
Uses: Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere and is often included in other
genre, such as in a descriptive introduction of a character in a narrative.
Exercises: Observe, and then describe an event.
Think of a person or object that stands out in your memory. Write a
description of that subject.
Find an example of descriptive writing; explain the elements that make
this a good example.

Persuasive writing
Goal: Persuasive writing intends to convince the reader of a stated opinion or belief.
Characteristics: The general characteristics of persuasive writing include:
stated position or belief
factual supports
persuasive techniques
logical argument
call to action
Uses: Persuasive writing appears in and is not limited to speeches, letters to the
editor, editorials, advertisements, award nominations, pamphlets, petitions,
scholarly writing, and opinion pieces.
68

Exercises:
Write a letter to your congressman telling him why you think daylight
savings time should or should not be changed.
Write a speech to be delivered to the school board to convince them to
require or not require school uniforms.
Find an example of persuasive writing; explain the elements that make
this a good example.

http://www.slideshare.net/helpwithassignment/writing-different-types-of-essays-
narrative-descriptive-persuasive
http://www.thewritingsite.org/resources/genre/descriptive.asp
http://www.thewritingsite.org/resources/genre/persuasive.asp
http://www.kimskorner4teachertalk.com/writing/modes/definitions.html
http://free-books-online.org/mix-books/elementary-english/the-writing-styles-descriptive-
and-persuasive-writings-2/

Writing Proposals
The following checklists can be used in writing proposals

1. TECHNICAL PROPOSAL
Prepare draft outline/revise as needed.
Identify & select writers for each section.
Determine page numbers for each section.
Determine document format (font, major/minor headings, etc.).
Provide writers with written formatting guidelines/instructions.
Prepare/distribute list of nomenclature, abbreviations, acronyms.
Identify and provide writers with relevant sections from past proposals.
Prepare schedule/identify due dates for draft sections.
Determine review, feedback and editing process for written sections.
Ensure compatibility of software packages and versions.
Ensure compatibility of document transmission via e-mail.
Ensure sufficient quantities of appendix materials are available.

69

2. PERSONNEL
Prepare packet of materials for long-term candidates.
Prepare personnel checklists/tracking list for candidate documents.
Prepare commitment letter(s) for signature by candidates.
Recruit long-term staff and consultants.
Collect CVs.
Sort CVs by category/areas of expertise.
Review CVs.
Identify best candidates and alternates.
Confirm candidates' interest/availability.
Obtain additional info from candidates for CVs, if necessary.
Provide candidates with BioData Forms and instructions USAID only).
Obtain completed/signed BioData Forms from candidates (USAID only).
Review BioData Forms for completeness and signature (USAID only).
Corporate Official Sign BioData Forms (USAID only).
Obtain signed letters of commitment from candidates.
Review personnel checklists for missing items.
Determine format for re-written CVs.
Re-write CVs.
Write blurbs.
Prepare skills matrices.

3. PAST PERFORMANCE REFERENCES
Use RFP format if required.
Update and/or prepare past performance information as needed.
Review for accuracy and completeness.

4. FINISHING TOUCHES
Spell check all sections.
70

Gather appendix materials.
Prepare Table of Contents.
Prepare Transmittal Letter.
Prepare Inside Cover Sheet for Technical Proposal.
Prepare Section Tabs/Dividers for Technical Proposal.

http://www.proposalwriter.com/checklist.html

Report Writing

A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress,
or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research
problem.

It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Unlike other
scientific literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences,
technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication.
Where there is a review process, it is often limited to within the originating organization.
Similarly, there are no formal publishing procedures for such reports, except where established
locally.
It is also your responsibility as an engineer or scientist to show promptly that your results are
worthwhile and that you have reason to believe the field will be advanced by your efforts. The
only way to convey these thoughts is by writing a good report.
The five major stages of report preparation are
1. Gathering the data (or developing the theory)
2. Analyzing and sorting the results
3. Outlining the report
4. Writing the rough draft
5. Revising the rough draft
Gathering the Data
Report preparation begins with planning the research program. An orderly investigation is a
requisite for an orderly report. Report planning and program planning should be considered one
and the same. To become a successful technical writer, you should develop the ability to foresee
the general content of the report before the program begins. In most cases you should be able to
prepare a preliminary report outline at the beginning of the program. Outlining should benefit
71

both the report and the program, for obviously a well-prepared outline requires a carefully
planned program.
During the course of the program keep the future report in mind. Maintain orderly records as the
data are gathered. The little extra time required to record the results carefully can be of great
value later. Report writing is difficult enough without having to recollect misplaced or
unrecorded data. Write out your opinions as soon as the data are obtained. Comparing these
opinions with those based on hindsight will often help you to interpret the data properly.
During the data-gathering stage consider how the data should be presented in the report and
record the results in this manner. Any need for additional data will thus be revealed before the
program is completed.
Analyzing and Sorting the Results
The second stage of report preparation, data analysis and sorting, is probably the most difficult
because it requires considerable mental effort to decide what you want to tell your readers. The
beginning of this stage overlaps the data-gathering stage, for data analysis should begin as the
data are collected. But the bulk of data analysis must be done near completion of the program. At
this time reexamine the pertinent data and review your earlier opinions with respect to
subsequent results.
During this data review the program conclusions should be drawn. This is the most important
step in report preparation because the conclusions are the reason for the report and the basis for
report preparation: They dictate what to include in a report and how to organize it. Trying to
organize and write a report without knowing the conclusions is like starting an automobile trip
without knowing the destination. You will not know where you are going, and you will never
know when you get far enough to stop. Therefore choose your report destination early by
drawing and clearly defining the program conclusions before you begin to organize and write the
report. This is best done by first writing down all significant results in no particular order and
then sorting them so that the results pertaining to a common factor are grouped together. Once
the conclusions are drawn, list them in descending order of importance.
Selection of the data to be used in the report is another important part of this step. Choose only
the data necessary to help your readers reach the conclusions you are drawing. Excessive data or
data only loosely related to the conclusions will obscure them and confuse your readers. Of
course, do not hide contradictory results. When definite contradictions exist, clearly alert your
readers to this fact.
The next step in data analysis involves organizing the selected data into illustrations for the
report. Sometimes the figures and tables prepared during the program can be used with only
minor modifications. But usually these data-book illustrations contain extraneous information.
And they seldom are arranged to emphasize the significance of the data and the corresponding
results. For example, although data tabulated during a program are commonly arranged
chronologically, that is not necessarily the best way to present the data to the reader.
72

New figures and tables usually must be prepared. Their organization should be carefully
considered because illustrations are one of the best means of emphasizing and supporting
conclusions.
After the illustrations have been prepared, write the significant points about each on an attached
sheet of paper. What is the figure (table) supposed to show? How were the data obtained? Are
there any qualifications to the figure (table)? This information will be useful when you begin
writing the report.
Before beginning to outline your report you may find one additional step usefulwriting a
limiting sentence. This is a single sentence that states the subject, scope, and purpose of the
report. It is an additional tool to help define the report's direction and limit its scope. As an
example, the following limiting sentence could be written for this guide:
SUBJECT The Glenn Research Center guide Technical Report Writing
SCOPE covering the fundamentals of organizing, writing, and reviewing NASA technical
reports,
PURPOSE was written to improve the writing skills of Glenn technical authors and the overall
quality of their reports.
Preparing a limiting sentence is not simple. It takes additional time and effort. But it is a
worthwhile exercise because it forces you to focus your attention on exactly what you expect the
report to do.
Outlining the Report
Outlining is a necessary preliminary step to report writing. It involves the planning needed to
prepare a clear report that is logically organized, concise, and easy to read. Without an outline
most inexperienced authors write reports that are confusing and difficult to follow. The outlining
stage is a natural progression from the analysis and sorting stage. In the sorting stage
concentration is on what results should be presented in a report. In the outlining stage attention is
directed to how these results should be presented.
Often the preliminary outline prepared at the beginning of the program can be used as a starting
point for the report outline. But it should be revised and expanded to emphasize the conclusions
drawn in the analysis and sorting stage. The revised outline should contain descriptive headings
of each significant part of the report. This expanded outline should show the complete scope of
the report, the relation of the various parts of the work discussed, the amount of space to be given
each part, the order of treatment, the places for inclusion of illustrations, and the conclusions.
Remember, the more detailed the outline is, the more useful it will be to you. Each heading,
subheading, subheading, etc., should have as much detail as you will need to trigger your
thoughts when you later write the corresponding sentences and paragraphs.
NASA reports typically contain a number of commonly used headings:
Summary Introduction Symbols
73

Theory
Analysis
Apparatus
Test Specimens
Test Procedure
Sample Calculation
Results and
Discussion
Summary of
Results
Conclusions
Concluding
Remarks
Appendix
References
74

All these headings need not be used in any single report. And headings may be combined. For
example, Apparatus, Test Specimens, and Test Procedure can be combined into Experimental
Methods.
These commonly used headings may be replaced with more descriptive headings, particularly in
program summary reports, where details may be subordinated to broad objectives and
generalizations. In these reports the more descriptive headings provide a means of ready
reference and aid clarity. Descriptive headings usually make a report more interesting to read.
But you must exercise originality to make them brief but clear.
The final outline should show the exact form, wording, and value of the headings to be used in
the report. The headings, although brief, must serve as a reliable guide to the included material.
They should be consistent in grammatical structure and should not contain verbs. Headings are
not an integral part of the text but are provided to assist the reader in finding information.
Therefore the paragraph below a heading should begin with a topic sentence that does not
depend on the heading for clarity.
The whole text of the report should be accounted for under the headings shown in your outline,
except for short introductory or transition paragraphs included to make the presentation flow
smoothly. Because a subject cannot be subdivided into less than two parts, an outline should
have at least two subheadings under a main headingor none. Exceptions to this rule include an
occasional short remark or a single example put in to illustrate a method. In addition to headings
the outline may also contain descriptive words and key phrases to serve as reminders.
Several methods can be used to arrange the subject matter that will be represented in an outline.
One of the best ways to start is to write down all the points that you want to include without
regard to their order. You can then more easily arrange them in a logical order. Some authors use
an index card system in which each separate item of the proposed report is tabulated together
with a paragraph describing the material that must be treated under that item. Other authors
follow a similar method but use full sheets of paper for each subject and give a much fuller
description of the material under the subject headings. The latter method puts you in a good
position to complete the report in a short time: Each subject has been so fully expanded that the
problem remaining is one of combining and rewriting the information contained on the separate
sheets of paper. Others choose to do their outlining on a computer. Any of these methods permit
you to note thoughts that occur during the course of writing one report section but that should be
treated in other sections. Cultivate the habit of going to the original outline to record thoughts for
later consideration.
Another useful purpose of the outline is to indicate the relative importance of headings. This
relation can be shown by using a numbering system. (The numbers appear in the final report only
when there is extensive cross-referencing.) Headings of equal weight, or importance, must be
written in the same form. The order and form of the various headings used in NASA reports are
Main Heading
75

Subheading
Run-in heading.This heading is indented on the same line as the first line of the paragraph.
Below run-in heading: This heading is indented on the same line as the first line of the
paragraph.
Three levels of headings should be sufficient; more may disrupt your readers' concentration. The
typeface and placement of headings will vary with the type of publication.
Thorough outlining will make both writing and reading the report easier. Study your outline
carefully to be certain that each item blends into a logical plan and ordered presentation.
Writing the Rough Draft
With a logically organized outline and the necessary illustrations already prepared, writing the
rough draft should be much easier than you thought. But do not expect to write the final version
in the first attempt. The rough draft should be the last of several versions, each an improvement
of the preceding one. This final version is considered a "rough" draft because it still must go
through a series of technical and editorial reviews. But it should be as polished as you can make
it. From your point of view it should be ready for printing and distribution to a critical audience.
Try to start writing the first version of the draft immediately after completing the outline while
the ideas developed there are still fresh in your mind. Write this first version as rapidly as
possible. Concentrate on what you want to say rather than how to say it. Keep writing down the
thoughts as they flow into your mind, following your outline. Avoid going back over what you
have written until you are through writing. Then review this versionbut only for its technical
content. Are all of the ideas you wanted to express included? Have you included irrelevant ideas?
Does the report organization still seem logical? Sometimes writing the first version will reveal
some unexpected problems that require a change in the outline.
In the second version of the rough draft, writing style becomes important. With the technical
content in a well-organized form from the first version, this is the time to concentrate on how
you say it. Keep your readers in mind. Remember, your purpose in writing the report is to
transmit the information needed to support your conclusions. To make sure your readers
understand your conclusions, you must transmit your information clearly, logically, concisely,
honestly, and tactfully.
Revising the Rough Draft
The last stage of report preparation, rough-draft revision, is just as important as the previous
stages, but it is the one most scorned by inexperienced writers. Revising a draft is comparable to
painting a house: the appearance is improved without influencing the structure. But a report's
"appearance" (readability) may determine whether or not it is read.
76

Before you can revise your rough draft, you must recognize that it is not perfect. Approach it
with a critical attitude. This can best be done by setting the draft aside for a few days, or at least
overnight. This time lag should give you a fresh viewpoint and allow you to change to the role of
a reader. This change in roles is most important because you must try to see what is actually
written rather than what you think you wrote.
Successful technical writers use a wide variety of methods to review and revise. One of the best
involves three separate reviews of the report:
1. The first review is of the material in the report. In this check ask yourself these questions:
Are the conclusions valid? Is sufficient information given to support the conclusions? Is
enough background information given to explain the results? Have all irrelevant ideas
been deleted? Are the illustrations pertinent and necessary?
2. The second review is of the mechanics and organization. Are the subject and purpose
clearly stated? Does the report flow smoothly from topic to topic? Are the relations
between topics clear? Is each illustration clear and properly labeled? Are all required
parts of the report included?
3. The third review is of spelling and grammar, particularly punctuation and sentence
structure. Is each sentence written effectively? Are the sentences varied in length and
complexity to avoid monotony? Are the words specific rather than vague? Have all
unnecessary words been deleted?
Make sure you can truly answer yes to all of these questions before you consider your draft
finished. Do not try to make one review do the work of three. Trying to cover too many
categories in one review usually results in oversights and errors. Some common faults observed
in rough drafts are (1) faulty grammar; (2) clusters of nouns and adjectives modifying a noun and
conversely strings of prepositional phrases after a noun; (3) use of abstract nouns instead of
action verbs; (4) nonparallel construction of words, phrases, and sentences in enumerations; and
(5) more complicated phrasings than required. Carefully review your draft to make sure you have
avoided these common faults.
http://grcpublishing.grc.nasa.gov/editing/CHP1.CFM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_report


English 2 NOL

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