Session 2532

Understanding and Teaching Electromagnetics

in the 21st Century
Richard L. Coren*, C. John Carpenter**
*Electrical and Computer Engineering Department,
Drexel University, Phila., PA
**Electrical Engineering Department,
University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K.
Abstract
There is considerable pressure to change the undergraduate Electromagnetics course from the
way it has been taught and understood for 100 years. This arises from the changing student
body, new methods of use of E&M, and curricular pressure. Surprisingly, a modern response is
supplied by James Clerk Maxwell, some of whose original concepts were neglected by those
who interpreted his work. Not only is this reconsidered analysis pedagogically simpler and
more germane to todays usage but it responds to theoretical problems where canonical analysis
is weak.
A brief discussion is given of this material, which relegates what are now known as the
"Maxwell equations" to a secondary role, as it is now being presented in a junior level electrical
engineering course.
Introduction
The engineering electromagnetics (EM) course is under attack because:
1 - students find it to be one of the most difficult courses they take. This has been exacerbated
recently by the changing nature and interests of engineering students. Generally they are less
prepared, mathematically, than previously, and not as experienced in structural visualization.
2 - few engineers actually use EM professionally. Modern engineering is directed more to
systems and software analysis rather than to hardware and components.
3 - those who use EM employ only a small part of the subjects complexity. Despite teaching
a host of fields: D, E, B, H, P, M, , A, modern computer solution methods generally employ
only the last two of these quantities, with the others being found only for post-processing
convenience.
4 - there is real curricular pressure to make room for new courses and proposals to reduce the
engineering credit requirements. These, combined with reasons 1 and 2, make the EM course a
likely target.
A response to these issues has been proposed through an interpretation that was originally made
to enrich the professional understanding of EM and to respond to several issues where
canonical EM seems to be lacking. This method returns to Maxwells original approach by
recalling concepts that he considered primary but that were deemphasized or lost in the
happenstance of historical development
1
. Not only is it theoretically revealing but it leads to
simplified pedagogy and reduced dependence on mathematical and physical complexity. The
method has been expounded by one of us (CJC) in technical literature
2
and is presently being
taught in a junior level EM course at Drexel University. This paper will present some of its
principle features and the differences in classroom presentation that result. The emphasis here
will be on dc and slowly varying fields.
Static Sources
In electrostatics, pedagogic emphasis is placed on the potential, , rather than its derivative, the
force field E. The use of a scalar field, rather than a vector, enhances comprehension. Early
use is made of problem solutions through the Poison and Laplace equations with boundary
conditions. This change also demands a more careful consideration of potential generation
through charge separation and conservation. The charge-potential relation leads to full analysis
of the energies of very small and very large distributions, an issue that is usually neglected
because field strength, being a derivative, does not reveal the hidden assumptions in postulating
such sources. The potential datum acquires a physical significance corresponding to its role and
importance in practice. Dielectric behaviour is described in terms of polarisation, and the
usual field vectors are derived as secondary quantities. The concept of electric flux is replaced
by the treatment of D as a convenient auxiliary, constructed by mixing two different
components.
The customary introduction to magnetics is inverted by basing the treatment on charge
acceleration effects, and deriving magnetostatics. The magnetic vector potential, A, acquires a
direct physical significance as the momentum per unit charge, following on Maxwell's concept
of electrokinetic momentum. A brief account of the derivation, adapted from our class notes, is
given in the appendix. Since a change of momentum is attributable to a force, full analysis of
the changes experience by a charge moving in the A field leads to derivation of the velocity
dependent force in terms of specific derivatives of A. It is shown that these derivatives are
equal to the curl of A, a quantity that, for convenience, and in keeping with Maxwells original
work, we denote by B. Note that, in this way, the Lorentz force law is derived rather than
postulated, as in the usual course.
The relation between the potential of static charge and its electrokinetic momentum, when
moving with velocity u,
A = u/c
2
(1)
allows treatment of magnetic problems through the vector form of Poisons equation for A.
This obviates complex vector rotations to find B and the subsequent cross products for forces,
and it leads directly to the standard computer solution methods, including force determinations
directly from A. In the cases of curvilinear coordinates the vector Laplacian is considerably
more complex than the scalar Laplacian. However, because A is parallel to its generating
current, for simple problem geometries its use facilitates and reinforces the use of geometric
visualization.
Note that this difference in the presentation of magnetostatics is more radical than for
electrostatics. The magnetic "field strength" H becomes the analogue of the vector D as an
auxiliary quantity, corresponding to the treatment in modern physics texts. H is introduced as a
convenient way of distinguishing between "free" currents and the equivalent sources describing
polarisation, as illustrated by its role in boundary and interface conditions.
Time Varying Sources
The vector A is particularly convenient when presenting electromagnetic induction as it
describes emfs in terms of a local action, in contrast with the customary treatment in terms of
flux. Thus, the induced emf, V, is derived from "electromotance," , where
V = - d/dt, and = Adl (2)
This agrees with the flux linkage calculation when the circuit is closed, but is equally valid in
applications such as wire antennas, when it is not. One example illustrating the difference in
treatment is the toroidal transformer. Here an emf is induced in the secondary coil wound over
the primary coil, although it is in a region in which B is zero if there is no secondary current.
Although its curl vanishes, A does not and it provides a measure of the mutual coupling
between the windings. In general A defines what is meant by "inductance", as
L
12
=
12
/I
2
, (3)
and provides a much closer link between "field" and "circuit" models
3
than when the "field" is
defined by B.
In preparing for full treatment of time varying charge, currents, and fields, the law of charge
conservation is again invoked to derive the Lorentz equation between simultaneous potentials
4
A =- d/dt (4)
When rapid time variation occurs the fields, propagating at the velocity of light, experience
phase retardation between source and field points. In keeping with modern physical theory this
velocity is taken to be fundamental, rather than being derived thorough the theory. Equation 4
leads to the transformation of Poisons equations to the Helmholtz equations for and for A.
As in the presentation of electrostatics. all magnetic field quantities are discussed, including
magnetic materials, though with somewhat different interpretations.
At this point of the course the student has all the necessary relations to understand the full
range of electromagnetic phenomena. Note that Maxwells equations have not been
introduced. This, is due to the different emphasis in this course on Charge-Potential and on
Charge-Momentum relations. This new approach to electromagnetics might therefore be
referred to as The Charge-Potential-Momentum (CPM) method. Note, however, that the
Maxwell equations are implicit in the relations at hand. In our course their formal derivation is
performed and their structure is analyzed so that the student can deal with other engineers and
with the literature. In our subsequent treatment of dynamic behavior they are used with greater
frequency, along with the CPM analysis, so that the student leaves the course being familiar
with both approaches and their relations.
Space here does not allow full treatment of the dynamic applications of CPM theory but some
aspects should be mentioned.
* It is shown that the features of plane waves can all be derived from a single component of A.
* Wave impedance is fundamentally related to the wave generating or absorbing sources rather
than being a mysterious property of the medium.
* The TE and TM waveguide modes become A and modes, respectively, with greatly
reduced descriptive complexity.
* Dipole radiation and array patterns are described in terms of a single, retarded A
component.
More advanced treatments of CPM theory, e.g., tensor forms, are appropriate for second
courses in EM. For information on these and for more details on CPM theory and its
ramifications please contact <John.Carpenter@bristol.ac.uk>. For information on the
preparation of class notes for the course described above contact <corenr@coe.drexel.edu>.
* Partial support of RLC for this work was provided by the National Science Foundations Division of
Undergraduate Education through grant DUE #9752215
Bibliography
1. B. J. Hunt, The Maxwellians, Cornell University Press, 1991
2. C. J. Carpenter, "Digital-Pulse Approach to Electromagnetism," IEE Proc., Vol. 135, pp. 477- 486 (1988);
"Electromagnetic Energy and Power in Terms of Charges and Potentials Instead of Fields," IEE Proc., Vol. 136,
pp. 55-65 (1989); "Comparison of the Practical Advantages of Alternative Descriptions of Electromagnetic
Momentum," IEE Proc., Vol. 136, pp. 101-114 (1989); "Electromagnetic theory without electric flux," IEE
Proc.A 139 (4) pp189-209 (1992); "Understanding Electromagnetism I, II, III," IEE Engineering Science and
Education Journal: vol.2 (6) pp 273-280 (1993), vol.4 (5) pp 231-240 (1995), vol 4 (6) pp 269-274 (1995);
Teaching Electromagnetism in Terms of The Potentials Instead of The MaxwellEquations (1992 IEEE Conf.
on EM Field Computation), IEEE Trans, Educ. 36,223-226 (1993).
3. C. J. Carpenter "Electromagnetic induction in terms of the Maxwell force instead of magnetic flux", IEE
Proc.- Sci. Meas.Technol. (in press)
4. D. R. Corson and P. Lorraine, Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields ad Waves, W. H. Freeman and Co.,
1962; R. L. Coren, Basic Engineering Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall Publishers, 1989.
Appendix: The Electrokinetic Momentum
Let us examine the dynamics of establishing a current. For this we consider two parallel wires
that have been charged to q
c
per meter length; the wires are at equal potentials
o
with
respect to their central reference. The capacitance per unit length of this arrangement is
C

= q
c
/=q
c
/2
o
(F/m), and the stored energy per meter is q
c
2
/2C = q
c

o
. Figure 1 shows
the lines immediately after we close the switch connecting the wires, showing the capacitor
discharge as a result of current that flows along the lines.
Since the velocity of electrical change propagates with the speed of light, c, the discharge surge
moves with this speed. It therefore removes capacitive charge at the rate I = q
c
c.
Figure 1. Capacitive, moving charge relations
The discharge results in a loss of capacitive potential energy. Ignoring radiation this must be
transformed to kinetic because the current consists of conduction electrons, of density q
+
,
moving at a mean drift velocity, u, so that I=q
+
u. As these currents describe the same
discharge we have
I = q
c
c = q
+
u (5)
Using Eq. 5 the energy conversion is q
c
2
/2C = I
2
/2c
2
C = L I
2
/2, so that
LC=1/c
2
. From this, the reason for the similarities between the inductances and capacitances
are evident. This is often a source of mystery when L is derived from magnetostatics in terms
of the vector B.
Figure 2 shows the surge as a potential step that changes the local line voltage. As the potential
surge moves through an element, dz, the charge on that length, dq=q
+
dz, experiences an
instantaneous force/length:

f=q
+
(d/dz). This discharge surge passes very quickly; at each
point of the line it produces an impulsive force. Recall from the study of mechanics that the
effect of an impulse is found by equating the impulse: fdt, to the change of momentum.
Figure 2 Potential discharge transient
Since the discharge transient passes through a length dz in time dt=dz/c the momentum change
of that infinitesimal length is
p
+
= q
+
(d/dz) dz/c = (q
+
/c)
o

d = q
+

o
/c.
Maxwell defined the electrokinetic momentum per unit of conduction charge as
A = p
+
/q
+
=
o
/c (6)
Equation 6 is somewhat awkward as it expresses the momentum of the transport charge q
+
, in
terms of the potential due to the stationary capacitive charge q
c
. This is easily rectified by
imagining a situation where q
c
is replaced by a static charge with density q
+
. This will change
the potential from the original
o
to a new
+
. Since a potential is proportional to its
generating charge we have, with Eq. 5,

o
/
+
=q
c
/q
+
=u/c.
so that
A =
+
u/c
2 (1)
where the vector properties have been restored.
Equation 1 indicates that, in general, the analytic form of A and are the same, for
corresponding geometries of charge and current. Thus, for a volume distribution of charge, :
=dv/4
o
r . (7)
Multiplying by u/c
2
and, as the volume current density J=u, we have
A = Jdv/4c
2

o
r =
o
Jdv/4r (8)
where J and u are the local values and

o
=1/
o
c
2
defines
o,
the magnetic permittivity of free space,
In traditional treatments of EM the permittivity is defined to be exactly

o
=4 (10)
-7
Farads/m
and
o
is determined experimentally from force measurements. The above relation then gives
c, in terms of these defined and experimentally determined quantities. Historically it was a
great conceptual accomplishment to predict the speed of light in this way and the fact that it
could be done molded the formulation of electromagnetics. Today, however, our acceptance of
the theory of relativity makes it more meaningful to take c as a fundamental parameter of nature
and the value of
o
is therefore derived from measurement of c.
RICHARD L. COREN
Prof. Coren (Ph.D. 60 from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.) was founder and first Chairman of The
Drexel University Faculty Governance Council, and served as ECE Assistant Dep't. Head. He originated and was
director of Drexels Off-Campus Graduate Program. His research deals with cybernetics and electromagnetics; he
was director of The University-Industry Microwave Affiliates Program . He was Faculty Director of the
Philadelphia Free University, an experimental program of nontraditional education. He has authored textbook on
electromagnetics and one on evolution.
C. JOHN CARPENTER
Dr. Carpenter received his D. Sc. from London University in 1978. His work on the CPM theory has won
him the Science, Education and Technology Division Premium Award of the British Institute of Electrical
Engineers. His research includes machinery, magnetic design, electromagnetic propulsion, transformers, induction
heating, etc. He is presently Honorary (Emeritus) Visiting Fellow in the EE Department of the Universities of
Bristol and of Bath, UK.