Coals Source Rocks and Hydrocarbons in The South Palembang Sub-B

University of Wollongong
Research Online
University of Wollongong Tesis Collection University of Wollongong Tesis Collections
1991
Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South
Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia
Rubianto Indrayudha Amier
University of Wollongong
Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the
University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW
Library: research-pubs@uow.edu.au
Recommended Citation
Amier, Rubianto Indrayudha, Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia,
Master of Science (Hons.) thesis, Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, 1991. htp://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2828
COALS, SOURCE ROCKS AND HYDROCARBONS
IN THE SOUTH PALEMBANG SUB-BASIN, SOUTH SUMATRA,
INDONESIA
A thesis submitted in (partial) fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
(HONS.)
from
THE UNIVERSITY OF
WOLLONGONG
by
RUBIANTO INDRAYUDHA AMIER
(B.Sc. AGP BANDUNG)
Department of Geology
1991
013657
I certify that the substance of this thesis is
original and has not already been submitted for any
degree and is not being currently submitted for any
other degree.
Rubianto Indrayudha Amier
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF PLATES
PAGE
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM OF THE STUDY
1.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN
1.4 LOCATION AND ACCESS
1.5 . MORPHOLOGY
CHAPTER TWO - TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
2.1 TERMINOLOGY
2.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS
2.2.1 Sampling
2.2.2 Sample Preparation
2.2.3 Microscopy
2.2.3.1 Reflected white light microscopy
and determination of vitrinite
reflectance
2.2.3.2 Fluorescence-mode microscopy
2.2.3.3 Maceral analysis
1
* 2
3
4
7
8
10
10
14
14
15
15
15
17
18
CHAPTER THREE - REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC 19
SETTING
3.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY 19
3.2 STRATIGRAPHY
21
3.2.1 The pre-Tertiary rocks 22
3.2.2 Lahat Formation (LAF) 23
3.2.3 Talang Akar Formation (TAF) 24
3.2.4 Baturaja Formation (BRF) 26
3.2.5 Gumai Formation (GUF) 28
3.2.6 Air Benakat Formation (ABF) 29
3.2.7 Muara Enim Formation (MEF) 30
3.2.8 Kasai Formation (KAF) 32
3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS 33
CHAPTER FOUR - ORGANIC MATTER TYPE OF TERTIARY 38
SEQUENCES
4.1 INTRODUCTION 38
4.2 TYPE AND ABUNDANCE 39
4.2.1 Lahat Formation 39
4.2.2 Talang Akar Formation 41
4.2.2.1 DOM 41
4.2.2.2 Coal and shaly coal 42
4.2.3 Baturaja Formation 43
4,2.4 Gumai Formation 44
4.2.5 Air Benakat Formation 45
4.2.6 Muara Enim Formation 46
4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES 5 0
AND FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY
CHAPTER FIVE - ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY 54
5.1 INTRODUCTION 54
5.2 RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION 55
5.3 THERMAL HISTORY 61
5.4 SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS 66
5.4.1 Source rocks for hydrocarbons 66
5.4.2 Hydrocarbon generation 74
5.4.2.1 Timing of hydrocarbon generation 77
using Lopatin Method
5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS 82
CHAPTER SIX - CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCKS GEOCHEMISTRY 85
6.1 INTRODUCTION 85
6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY 86
6.2.1 Experimental Methods 86
6.2.2 Sample fractionation 86
6.2.3 Gas chromatography analysis 86
6.2.4 Preparation of b/c fraction 87
6.2.5 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 88
analysis
6.2.6 Results 88
6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography 89
6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography-mass 92
spectrometry
6.3 SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY
6.3.1 Experimental Section 9 5
6.3.1.1 Sample extraction 96
6.3.2 Results 96
CHAPTER SEVEN - COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG 100
SUB-BASIN
7.1 INTRODUCTION 100
7.2 COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION 101
7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS 103
7.3.1 Enim Prospect Areas 104
7.3.2 Pendopo Areas 105
7.4 COAL QUALITY 106
7.5 ASH COMPOSITION 108
7.6 STRUCTURES 109
7.7 COAL RESERVES HI
7.8 BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES 112
7.8.1 Stratigraphy 113
7.8.1.1 Quarternary succession 113
7.8.1.2 Tertiary succession 113
7.8.1.2.1- Coal seams 113
7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and 114
Intercalations
7.8.2 Coal Quality
115
7.8.3 Coal Reserves 116
7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS
117
7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS
CHAPTER EIGHT - COAL UTILIZATION 120
8.1 INTRODUCTION 120
8.2 COMBUSTION 121
8.3 GASIFICATION 124
8.4 CARBONISATION 125
CHAPTER NINE - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 128
9.1 SUMMARY 128
9.1.1 Type 128
9.1.2 Rank 131
9.1.3 Thermal History 132
9.1.4 Source rock and hydrocarbon generation 133
potential
9.1.5 Coal potential and utilization 136
9.2 CONCLUSIONS 137
REFERENCES 143
APPENDIX 1 Short descriptions of lithologies and
organic matter type, abundance and
maceral composition from wells studied.
APPENDIX 2 Summary of the composition of maceral groups
in the Tertiary sequences from wells studied.
ABSTRACT
The South Palembang Sub-basin, in the southern part of
the South Sumatra Basin, is an important area for coal and
oil production. In order to develop the economy of this
region, an understanding of the coal and source rock
potential of the Tertiary sequences within the South
Palembang Sub-basin is essential.
Collisions between the Indo-Australian and the Eurasian
Plates formed the South Sumatra Basin and particularly
influenced the development of the South Palembang Sub-basin
since the Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene.
The Tertiary sequences comprise from oldest to youngest
unit; the Lahat, Talang Akar, Baturaja, Gumai, Air Benakat,
Muara Enim and Kasai Formations. These sequences were
developed on the pre-Tertiary rocks which consist of a
complex of Mesozoic igneous rocks and of Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic metamorphics and carbonates.
Coals occur in the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and Lahat
Formations. The main workable coal measures are
concentrated in the Muara Enim Formation. The Muara Enim
coals are brown coal to sub-bituminous coal in rank, while
the Lahat and Talang Akar coals are sub-bituminous to high
volatile bituminous coals in rank. From the viewpoint of
economically mineable coal reserves, the M2 Subdivision is
locally the most important coal unit. Thicknesses of the M2
coals range from 2 to 20 metres. The coals can be utilized
for electric power generation, gasification but are
generally unsuitable as blends for coke manufacture. They
have some potential for the manufacture of activated
carbons.
In general, coals and DOM of the Tertiary sequences are
dominated by vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite
as the main macerals. Liptinite is the second most abundant
maceral group of the coals and DOM and comprises mainly
liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite.
The Lahat, Talang Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim
Formations have good to very good hydrocarbon generation
potential. The Baturaja and Gumai Formations have less
significant source potential as this unit contains little
organic matter but in some places these formations are
considered to have good potential to generate gas.
The vitrinite reflectance data and studies using the
Lopatin model indicate that the onset of oil generation in
the South Palembang Sub-basin occurs below 1500 metres. In
general the Gumai Formation lies within the onset of oil
generation zone, but in some places, the lower part of Air
Benakat and Muara Enim Formations occur within this zone.
Crude oil geochemistry shows that the oils are
characterized ' by high ratios of pristane to phytane
indicating a source from land-derived organic matter. The
presence of bicadinane-type resin and oleanane in the oils
is further evidence of a terrestrial source. The biomarker
and thermal maturity of the source rocks and coals from the
Talang Akar Formation are similar to those of the oils
studied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was carried out at the Department of
Geology, University of Wollongong under the tenure of a
Colombo Plan funded by the Australian International
Development Assistance Bureau (A.I.D.A.B). I am thankful to
Associate Professor A.J. Wright, the Chairman of the
Department for his support and for allowing me to use the
Department facilities during my study. This study was
carried out under the supervision of Professor A.C. Cook and
Associate Professor B.G. Jones. I would like to thank to
Associate Professor B.G Jones for his suggestion and
guidance during the finishing of this thesis. I am also
grateful especially to Professor A.C. Cook for introducing
me to the field of organic petrology and also for his
assistance, patience guidance and suggestions throughout
this study. I wish to record my deep appreciation to Dr.
A.C. Hutton for his suggestion, encouragement, help and
general assistance during the finishing of this thesis. I
also wish to thank all members of the staff of the Geology
Department, University of Wollongong, for their help,
including Mrs R. Varga, Mr Aivars Depers and Mrs B.R.
McGoldrick who gave general assistance and helped in
numerous ways.
I thank the Government of Indonesia, particularly the
Ministry of Mines and Energy for selecting me to accept the
Colombo Plan Award. The author also wishes to specially
thank the management and staff of PERTAMINA, particularly Ir
M. Anwar, Ir L. Samuel, Ir L. Gultom, Ir. H.Hatuwe and Ir A.
Pribadi for allowing me to collect and to use the samples
and technical data from various wells of the South Palembang
Sub-basin. I am also grateful to Ir Busono SE, Director of
Directorate of Coal and to his predecessor, Drs Johannas for
permitting me to study in the Geology Department, University
of Wollongong. I would like also to thank the staff of the
Directorate of Coal who helped and supported me in this
study.
Special appreciation is given to Dr R.E. Summons, Mrs
J.M. Hope and P. Fletcher from the Bureau of Mineral
Resources in Canberra, for carrying out oil analyses and
Rock-Eval pyrolysis of the source rocks samples. The
assistance and guidance of Dr R.E. Summons particularly, is
gratefully acknowledged.
The author wishes to express his. gratitude to the
A.I.D.A.B staff particularly to the Training Liaison
Officers such as Mr B. Rush, Mrs G. Ward, Dr D. Engel and Mr
B. O'Brien, and I would like also to thank Mr K. Passmore,
Ms N. Lim and Ms Lisa Huff, for the assistances given
during this study.
I am thankful to all my colleagues particularly H.
Panggabean, S.M. Tobing, N. Ningrum, T. Ratkolo, B. Daulay,
Susilohadi, Y. Kusumabrata, K. Sutisna, R. Heryanto, B.
Hartoyo, Herudiyanto, A. Sutrisman and A. Perwira K. for
their help, support and suggestions during this study.
These contributions of all these people are gratefully
appreciated.
Finally, I am forever grateful to my wife Ida and
daughters, Indri and Emil who gave me endless support, love
and encouragement during this study.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated
coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984).
Location map of Suraatran back-arc basins.
Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after
Purnomo, 1984).
Oil well locations and their relationship with
major tectonic elements of the South Palembang
Sub-basin (after Pulunggono, 1983).
Geological features of the Bukit Asam and
-surrounding areas, and locations of boreholes
studied (after Kendarsi, 1984).
Flow diagram showing the method for polishing
and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984).
Alteration of the macerals during coalification
stage (after Smith and Cook, 1980).
Diagram showing optical configuration for
reflected white light and fluorescence-mode
observation used in this study (from AS. 2856,
1986).
Visual aid to assist in the assessment of
volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic
matter in sediments.
Lineaments of subduction zones in western
Indonesia (after Katili, 1984).
Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in
the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974).
Distribution of Talang Akar Formation within the
South Palembang Sub-basin (after Pulunggono,
1983).
Abundance range and average abundance by volume
and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal
and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well
locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
and maceral group composition of DON, shaly coal
and coal in the Talang Akar Formation at ten
well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
and maceral group composition of DOM in the
Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the
South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 4.4 Abundance range and average abundance by volume
Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the
and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air
Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the
and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in
the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations
in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 5.1 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the MBU-2 well.
from the PMN-2 well.
from the GM-14 well.
from the KG-10 well.
from the KD-01 well.
from the BRG-3 well.
from the TMT-3 well.
from the L5A-22 well.
from the BL-2 well.
from the BN-10 well.
Figure 5.11 Schematic cross-section A-B through the Muara
Enim area showing isoreflectance surfaces.
Figure 5.12 Schematic cross-section C-D through
Limau-Pendopo area showing isoreflectance
surfaces.
f
rom South Palembang Sub-basin.
Figure 5.14 Pre-tectonic
coalification
Figure 5.15 Syn-tectonic
coalification
Figure 5.16 Post-tectonic
coalification
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
Figure 5.24
The relationship between coalification and
tectonicsm as proposed by Teichrauller and
Teichrauller (1967).
Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time
(Ma), temperature ( C) and rank scales (after
Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for
calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and
5.12.
Hydrocarbon generation model for oil and
condensate from source rocks containing
terrestrial organic matter (after Snowdon and
Powell, 1982).
Pyrolisis data S2/Org.C Index, which is
indicative of the amounts of already generated
hydrocarbons, show the contribution of
inertinites to generation of hydrocarbons. The
Tmax data showing the maximum decomposition of
inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher
activation energies compared to inertinite-poor
kerogens (after Khorasani, 1989).
The relationship between S1+S2 values and the
Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim
Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after
Struckroeyer (1988).
Generalized zones of petroleum generation and
approximate correlation with maxi mum
palaeotemperatures and reflectance of
vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith
and Cook, 1984).
Maturation model for the main organic matter
groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook,
1984).
Lopatin-type model for the coalification
history of the Muara Enim area. Assumptions:
no compaction effect, present geothermal
gradient assumed to have operated since the
Eocene, erosion approximately 250 metres.
Lopatin-type reconstruction of coalification
for the Pendopo area. Assumptions: no
compaction effect, present geothermal gradient
assuramed to have operated since the Eocene,
erosion approximately 623 metres.
Figure 6.11 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated
fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim
Formation (sample 5383).
fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim
fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar
fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar
Figure 6.15 The determination of petroleum formation zones
by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985).
Figure 6.16 Modified Van Krevelen diagram using
conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after
Katz et al., 1990).
Figure 7.1 General stratigraphy of the Bukit Asam mining
area (after Von Schwartzenberg, 1986).
Figure 8.1 The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal,
South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984).
Figure 8.2 Generalized relationship of coke strength and
coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance
and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant
type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972).
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 5.4
Table 5.5
Table 5.6
Table 5.7
Table 5.8
Oil fields in South Sumatra and their
cummulative production until 1966 (after
Koesoeraadinata, 1978).
Generalized classification of coal rank (from
Cook, 1982).
Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from
I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1963).
Maceral Groups (Stopes-Heerlen system of
nomenclature).
Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from
Proposed coal maceral classification system for
coals (Smith, 1981).
Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin according to
some authors.
Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the
present study based on Spruyt's Nomenclature
(1956).
Stratigraphic column of Muara Enim Formation
according to Shell Mijnbouw, 1978.
Reflectance values and temperature data
against depth in the MBU-2 well.
against depth in the PMN-2 well.
against depth in the GM-14 well.
against depth in the KG-10 well.
against depth in the KD-01 well.
against depth in the BRG-3 well.
against depth in the TMT-3 well.
against depth in the L5A-22 well.
Table 5.9 Reflectance values and temperature data
against depth in the BL-2 well.
against depth in the BN-10 well.
Table 5.10A Vitrinite reflectance values of Muara Enim coals
measured from core samples.
Table 5.11 Thermal history data from selected wells in the
Muara Enim area.
Pendopo-Limau area.
Table 5.13 Summary of petrographic features and their
significance in relation to oil generation and
migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986).
Table 6.1 Locations of crude oil and cutting samples.
Table 6.2 The composition of the oils in terras of the
polarity classes of saturated, aromatic
hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphaltene
fraction.
Table 6.2A Peak assignments for triterpanes present in
Figure 6.6.
Table 6.3 The composition of saturated normal hydrocarbons
determined by GC analysis. The data is presented
quantitatively and this is related to the peak of
the internal standard 3-raethylheneicosane
(anteiso C22) giving quantities in ug/mg.
Table 6.4 The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane
hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data
is also presented quantitatively in relation to
the peak of the internal standard
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving
quantities in ug/mg(ppt).
Table 6.5 The composition of the triterpenoid hydrocarbons
determined by GCMS.
Table 6.6 The composition of the steroid hydrocarbons and
four of the bicadinanes determined by GCMS.
Table 6.7 The composition of the steroid and triterpenoid
hydrocarbons and four of the bicadinanes of whole
oil determined by GCMS.
Table 6.8 The total organic carbon (TOO, rock eval data
and the bulk composition of the South Sumatran
shales/coals extract.
Table 5.9
Table 6.10
Table 6.11
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 7.4
Table 7.5
Table 7.6
Table 7.7
Table 7.8
Table 7.9
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
The composition of saturated hydrocarbons of
South Sumatran shales/coals determined by gas
chromatography analysis.
South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:
isoprenoids.
South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:
Isoprenoids ug/mg Saturates.
Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG,
1987).
Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after
Shell, 1978).
Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after
Shell, 1978).
Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area
(after Shell, 1978).
Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area (after
Shell, 1978).
Coal qualities of the Prabumulih Area (after
Shell, 1978).
Sodium oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals
(after KOG, 1987).
Summary of coal resources in the Enim area
(maximum overburden thickness 100 metres to top
of the uppermost mineable seam; after KOG,
1987).
Coal qualities of the Kabau Seam from the Bukit
Kendi Area {after Shell, 1978).
The differences in calorific value among the
three main maceral groups for four German coals
determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin
et al., 1983).
Comparison of the chemical composition between
Lurgi semi cokes and Bukit Asam semi-anthracite
coals (after Tobing, 1980).,
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In the South Sumatra Basin, coal occurs in the Muara
Enim Formation, Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation.
The main workable coal measures are concentrated at two
horizons within the Muara Enim Formation. Ziegler (1918)
recognized that the lower horizon comprised (from top to
bottom), the Mangus, Suban, Petai, Merapi and Keladi seams,
and the upper horizon comprized a composite set of coal
.seams called the Hanging seam. The seams are in the range
of some metres to more than 10 metres in thickness.
The South Sumatra Basin also plays a role as an
important: oil producing area. Recently there has been
considerable discussion on the oil generation potential of
coals. The Talang Akar Formation has been postulated as a
source rock for oil because of the close association of coal
measures and many of the oil pools in areas such as South
Palembang Sub-basin.
Oil production in South Sumatra was established in the
late 19th century from the Air Benakat Formation. In 1922,
he petroleum company Stanvac established production from
the Talang Akar Formation. The South Palembang Sub-basin is
one of the oil and gas producing areas in South Sumatra.
In the present study, organic petrography was used to
determine the coal type and rank, and to define the poten-
tial of source rocks and maturation level of the organic
2
matter in the Tertiary sequences of the South Palembang
Sub-basin.
1.1 AIM OF THE STUDY
In general, the aim of the present study is to assess
the rank and abundance of coal and dispersed organic matter
in the Tertiary sequences of the South Palembang Sub-basin.
The study is based on petrological research both on macerals
in the coals and the relatively abundant dispersed organic
matter in the clastic sedimentary sequences. The scope of
this study is to :
1. describe and interpret coal type and rank trends in
the South Palembang Sub-basin;
2. assess the abundance and composition of organic
matter contained in the stratigraphic sequences;
3. determine the maturity of the organic matter and to
evaluate the lateral and vertical rank variations
within the South Palembang Sub-basin;
4. relate coal rank variation to coalification
histories;
5 define hydrocarbon source potential of the various
stratigraphic units and lithologies;
6. attempt correlations of potential source rocks with
reservoired hydrocarbons; and
7. draw inferences concerning the future economic
potential of coal and hydrocarbons in the South
âlembang "5ub-basin.
1,2 PREVIOUS STUDIES
The geology of the South Sumatra Basin is relatively
well known from numerous publications (Wenneckers, 1958;
Jackson, 1960; Pulunggono, 1969; Todd and Pulunggono, 1971;
De Coster, 1974; Harsa, 1975; Pulunggono, 1983), especially
the general geology of this area, primarily in connection
with the search for oil and gas.
Many authors have also described the potential of the
coal measures of South Sumatra including Ziegler (1918),
Koesoemadinata (1978) and Kendarsi (1984). Furthermore, a
large exploration campaign was run from 1973 to 1979 by
Shell Mijnbouw N.V covering an area of 71,450 sq km in South
Sumatra (Fig.1.1).
In general, the earliest attempts to examine the
organic matter in sedimentary rocks were made by oil
companies to define the maturation level of the source
rocks (Shell, 1978a; Total Indonesie, 1988; Sarjono and
Sardjito, 1989. Daulay (1985) in his Masters thesis,
studied the petrology of South Sumatra coals, especially the
Muara Enim coals from the Bukit Asam coal mines and from
other places surrounding the mine area.
In the framework of the execution of REPELITA III (Five
Year Development Plan) 1979-1984, the Lahat Geological
Quadrangle (1012) was mapped by the Geological Research and
Development Center in co-operation with PERTAMINA, an
Indonesian state-owned oil company. The geological map is
at a scale of 1:250,000 and covers an area of about 18,700
sq km.
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN
South Sumatra Basin is one of the most important oil
and coal producing areas on the island of Sumatra. South
Sumatra's oil production started as early as 1898 from the
regressive sands of the Air Benakat Formation. The first
fields were small and shallow and close to surface seeps on
exposed anticlines. Surface structure has for many years
guided most of the exploration.
In 1922, Stanvac established production from the
transgressive sands of the Talang Akar Formation, which have
subsequently been the main exploration objective in South
Sumatra. Between 1938-1941, Kuang-1, Ogan-3 and Musi-1
wells were drilled by BPM. In these wells, gas had been
encountered in the Baturaja Formation. Moreover, in 1959,
BPM completed well Limau-5A.144 as the first oil producer
from the Baturaja Limestone reservoir in South Sumatra.
In the South Sumatra Basin, many oil companies are
operating at the present time under production sharing
agreements with PERTAMINA. They include Jarobi Oil, Jambi
Shell, Trend Sumatra Ltd, Caltex, British Petroleum, Asamera
and Stanvac. PERTAMINA also operates in its own right.
In general, the oil fields are clustered into three
structural sub-basins; the Jambi Sub-basin, the Central
Palembang Sub-basin and the South Palembang Sub-basin
(Fig.1.3). According to PERTAMINA (1986), there are 57 oil
fields within the South Sumatra Basin.
The maximum oil production capacity from the basin was
62,200 BOPD and the cumulative production was 1,680 MMBO, on
1-1-1985. The occurrences of oil and gas in the South
Sumatra Basin, largely occur in the Talang Akar Formation
(93%) with 3% in the Air Benakat Formation and a few
occurrences in reefs of the Baturaja Formation, the Gumai
Formation and from sandstones in the Muara Enim Formation
(Anwar Suseno, 1988).
The Talang Akar Formation generally produces a paraffin
based oil ranging from 35 to 37 API (Koesoemadinata, 1978),
but the gravity ranges between 21 and 51 API. The Baturaja
Formation typically produces oil which has an API gravity of
37.3 . Oil is also produced from the Air Benakat Formation
and this is a low to medium paraffin-based oil, 45-54 API.
However, from the same producing formation, an
asphaltic-based oil, 22-25 API, is produced in Jambi and
these low gravity oils are biodegraded. Table 1 shows some
of oil fields in South Sumatra and their cumulative
production until 1966 (Koesoemadinata, 1978).
About 6 billion tons of coal reserves have been
demonstrated in the South Sumatra Basin. These consist
6
mainly of hard brown coal and are clustered into several
areas. Figure 1.1 also shows the coal potential of South
Sumatra Basin.
In Tanjung Enim area, coal has been mined since 1919 in
underground as well as open pit mines; the underground
workings were abandoned in 1942. These coal mines are
situated in Muaraenim Regency, about 180 kilometres west of
Palembang and production comes mainly from the Mangus, Suban
and Petai seams of the Muara Enim Formation. These coals
are mainly hard brown coals, but in the immediate vicinity
of some andesite intrusions, the coals reach anthracitic
rank. According to Schwartzenberg (1986), the Bukit Asam
Coal Mine has potential reserves of about 112 million tons
which comprise about 1 million tons of anthracite, 45
million tons of bituminous coals and 66 million tons of
subbituminous coal.
The open pit was restricted to small areas with very
favorable stripping ratios and draglines were used to remove
part of the overburden until the late fifties. From 1940 to
1982 the open pit mine was operated by means of power
shovels and trucks and a small belt conveyor system for coal
haulage. Development of the Bukit Asam Coal Mine began in
1985 when a modern system of bucket wheel excavator
operations with belt conveyors and spreaders was installed.
The mine is operated by the state-owned Indonesian company
PT. Persero Batubara Bukit Asam.
7
1.4 LOCATION AND ACCESS
Geologically, the study area is located in the South
Palembang Sub-basin which lies in the southern part of the
South Sumatra Basin (Figure 1.2). This sub-basin is bounded
to the south by the Lampung High and to the north by the
Pendopo High. Eastward, the South Palembang Sub-basin is
bounded by the Iliran High and to the west by the Barisan
Mountains (Figure 1.3). The Palembang Sub-basin covers
approximately 125 x 150 kilometres (Pulunggono, 1983).
The samples studied were collected from oil exploration
wells and coal exploration boreholes which are situated in
various oil and coal fields within the South Palembang
Sub-basin. The oil fields are as follows; Prabumenang,
Meraksa, Kuang, Kedatoh, Beringin, Tanjung Miring,
Limau and Belimbing (Figure 1.4). Mostly, the oil
exploration wells were drilled by PERTAMINA but some old
exploration wells were drilled by Stanvac/BPM.
In general, the oil exploration wells used in this
study penetrated a high proportion of the Tertiary sequences
and some reached basement. The initials, depth and year of
drilling of exploration wells drilled by PERTAMINA are as
follows; GM-14, 1398 m, 1969; KG-10, 1575.8 m, 1970; PMN-2,
1959.6 m, 1972; KD-1, 1858.5 m, 1976; BN-10, 2565 m, 1977;
BRG-3, 2300 m, 1987; MBU-2, 2200 m, 1988. The three wells
drilled by Stanvac/BPM are L-5A.22, 2287 m, 1954; ETM-3,
1633 m, 1959; and BL-2, 1675 m, 1965.
8
Coal core samples were collected from seven
exploration boreholes, drilled between 1986-1988 by the
Directorate of Coal, in several coal fields such as Suban
Jerigi, Banko, Tanjung Enim, Muara Tiga, Arahan and
Kungkilan (Figure 1.5). The maximum depths reached by these
coal exploration boreholes range from 100 to 200 metres and
all were drilled within the Muara Enim Formation section.
These boreholes are annotated as KLB-03, AU-04, AS-12,
BT-01, KL-03, MTS-0 6, and SN-04.
Administratively, the study area falls under Lematang
Ilir Ogan Tengah Regency and Lahat Regency which are
situated in the western part of the South Sumatra Province.
The study area includes the Lahat Quadrangle which is
bounded by the longitudes 103 30'-105 00'E and latitudes
03 00'-04 00'S (Gafoer et al., 1986).
The population of this area is sparse with 40.4
inhabitants per square kilometres (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 1978). Principally, the population is
concentrated in various towns such as Prabumulih, Muaraenim
and Lahat.
In general, the area is covered by dense vegetation,
particularly the hills and swamps. Irregular clearings are
also found in some places for agriculture and cash-crop
cultivation, such as rubber, coffee and pineapples.
Wildlife such as tigers, bears, crocodiles, elephants and
monkey roam the jungle in this area but their numbers are
dwindling. In order to save these species, they are now
9
protected by law.
Transport to other areas is by car, rail and boat.
Pendopo, especially, can be also reached by air transport
with regular services run by PT. Stanvac Indonesia. A
railroad connects Palembang with Prabumulih, Baturaja,
Muaraenim, Lahat and Tanjung Enim. The roads in this area
are partly unsurfaced and therefore are muddy when wet at
which time they are passable only by four-wheel drive
vehicles.
1.5 MORPHOLOGY
Morphologically, this area can be divided into three
units; the mountainous area, the rolling country and the
plain. The mountainous area occupies the western corner of
the Quadrangle with summits such as Bukit Besar (735 m) and
Bukit Serelo (670 m). The slopes in this area are generally
steep, the valleys narrow and locally cascades occur in the
rivers. Braided streams develop in the foothill areas.
The rolling country occupies half of the western
portion of the quadrangle with summits reaching heights of
some 250 metres. The slopes are generally gentle. The
rivers have wide valleys, are meandering, and have deeps on
many bends. The drainage pattern is dendritic.
The low-lying plain area occupies the eastern portion
of the quadrangle and is characterized by meandering streams
and dendritic drainage patterns. Elevations on the plain
range from 0 to about 50 meters.
10
CHAPTER TWO
TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
2.1 TERMINOLOGY
According to the International Committee for Coal
Petrology (1963), coal can be defined as "a combustible
sedimentary rock formed from plant remains in various stages
of preservation by processes which involved the compaction
.of the material buried in the basins, initially at moderate
depth. These basins are broadly divided into limnic (or
intra-continental) basins, and paralic basins which were
open to marine incursions. As the underlying strata
subsided progressively, and more or less regularly but
sometimes to great depths, the vegetable debris was
subjected to the classical factors of general metamorphism,
in particular those of temperature and pressure".
Based on this definition, generally it can be concluded
that there are two basic factors involved in the formation
of coal; firstly the type of peat-forming flora and
depositional environment, and secondly the degree of
alteration which is a function of time, temperature and
pressure. In coal petrology, these factors determine the
variables termed type and rank.
According to Cook (1982), these variables can
essentially be considered as independent because the type of
a coal has no influence upon its rank and the reverse is
11
also true. Cook (1982) also considered that in coal
petrography or more broadly in organic petrography, the term
type is related to the nature of the organic matter found in
a coal or sedimentary rock.
In addition, Hutton (1984) stated that type is a
function of both the type of precursor organic matter that
was deposited as peat and the nature and degree of
alteration that peat components underwent during the early
stages of diagenesis which is a response to the first
(biochemical) stage of coalification (Stach, 1968; Cook,
1982).
Rank generally refers to the stage of coalification
that has been reached by organic matter. In coal
particularly, rank can be defined as the relative position
of a coal in the coalification series of peat through the
stages of the different brown coals (lignite),
sub-bituminous and bituminous coals to anthracites and
finally meta-anthracites, semi-graphite and graphite.
The term "rank" has been accepted as an international
scientific term. The International Committee for Coal
Petrology (ICCP), in the second edition of the International
Handbook of Coal Petrography (1963) suggested "degree of
coalification" as a synonym for rank. In coal petrology,
the rank of coal is measured by the reflectance of
vitrinite. The reflectance of vitrinite increases as the
rank of coal increases (Table 2.1).
Petrographic variation of coal can be assessed in tei
jrms
12
y maceral groups (Stopes, 1935), microlithotypes (Seyler,
1954), or lithotypes (Stopes, 1919; Seyler, 1954). Macerals
are the microscopically recognizable components of coal and
are predominantly defined by morphology, color and
reflectance in reflected light. Macerals are analogous with
the minerals of rocks. The ICCP (1963) concepts for
macerals are most closely applicable to Carboniferous black
coals because they were based on these coals (Table 2.2).
However, Smith (1981) showed that the basic concepts of
macerals can be also applied to coals of Tertiary age.
The term microlithotype was proposed by Seyler (1954)
to describe typical maceral associations as seen under the
microscope (minimum band width 0.05 mm). Lithotypes are
macroscopically recognizable bands visible within a coal
seam.
On the basis of morphology, optical properties and
origin, macerals can be divided into three main maceral
groups; vitrinite, inertinite and liptinite. The origin,
properties and subdivision of these three groups are shown
in Table 2.3.
Brown et al. (1964) divided vitrinite into two groups;
vitrinite A and vitrinite B. Furthermore, Hutton (1981) and
Cook et al. (1981) proposed additional terms for alginite
within the liptinite group.
The International Committee for Coal Petrology in the
International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1971, 1975) has
classified macerals of brown coal as shown in Table 2.4.
^3
This classification has been modified by Smith (1981) as
shown in Table 2.5. He recognized that the huminite maceral
group of the ICCP classification represents the same
material as the vitrinite maceral group, but at an earlier
stage of maturation. The system proposed by Smith (1981)
has been adapted in its basic form as the system used in the
Australian Standard for Coal-Maceral Analysis (AS
2856-1986).
In addition, Cook (1982) also discussed the term
bitumen which was termed eubitumen by Potonie (1950). In
the International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1963, 1971),
bitumen is still described as resinite which has a very low
melting point. Bitumen can be mainly recognized at the
sub-bituminous/bituminous coal boundary (Teichmuller, 1982).
Teichmuller (1982) also noted that bitumen develops from
lipid constituents of liptinites and huminites and generally
occurs in vein-form or as fillings of bedding plane joints
but sometimes it fills in empty cell lumens. Furthermore
Cook (1982) stated that "bitumen is the term applied to all
natural substances of variable color, hardness and
volatility which are composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons
substantially free from oxygenated bodies". He added that
bitumens are generally formed from the degradation of
natural crudes by processes such as microbial attack,
inspissation or water-washing. Asphalts, natural mineral
waxes, asphaltines and petroleum are all considered to be
bitumens. Cook (1990, pers.coram) also
14
considered that some bitumens. (including the maceral
exsudatinite) represent primary generation products.
Impsonitic bitumens generally result from the alteration of
reservoired oil, probably dominantly, but not exclusively,
during the process of deasphalting.
The coal petrographic terms used in the present study
follow those described by the Australian Standard for Coal
Maceral Analysis (1986).
2.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS
2.2.1 SAMPLING
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the core and
cuttings samples studied were cbllected from various coal
fields and oil fields in the South Palembang Subbasin area
(Table 2.5). Sampling has mainly focused on the Muara Enim
Formation, the Talang Akar Formation and the Lahat
Formation.
Samples were taken to give as wide a lateral and
vertical coverage of the sequences which are rich in organic
matter (coal-rich or coal) as possible. However, samples
i
were also collected from other formations to examine the
degree of coalification and the origin of organic matter
occurring in these sequences. Composite samples which were
taken through the entire thickness of a coal seam have been
obtained from cores from shallow boreholes. Cuttings
samples were collected from oil exploration wells over
intervals ranging between 20 to 50 metres for coal-bearing
sequences and 50 to 200 metres for non coal-bearing
sequences. Sampling was based on the procedure of the
Standards Association of Australia (1975). In addition,
four oil samples were also collected from BRG-3 well (2
samples) and MBU-2 well (2 samples). These samples were
recovered from the Baturaja Formation ( both MBU-2 samples),
Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation (BRG-3 samples).
2.2.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION
The method of preparation of polished particulate coal
mounts for microscopic analysis is shown in Figure 2.1. All
samples examined are listed in the University of Wollongong
grain mount catalogue and where blocks are cited in this
study, the catalogue numbers are used.
2.2.3 MICROSCOPY
2.2.3.1 Reflected white light microscopy and determination
of vitrinite reflectance
Vitrinite reflectance measurements on the samples were
made under normal incident white light using a Leitz
Ortholux microscope fitted with a Leitz MPV-1
microphotometer. All measurements were taken using
monochromatic light of 546 nm wavelength, in immersion oil
16
(DIN 58884) having a refractive index of 1.518 at 23 - lc.
In order to calibrate the microphotometer, synthetic
garnet standards of 0.917%, and 1.726% reflectance and a
synthetic spinel standard of reflectance 0.413% were used.
The maximum vitrinite reflectance was obtained by rotating
the stage of the microscope to yield a maximum reading and
then the stage was rotated again through approximately 180
for the second maximum reading. The results of these
measurements were averaged and the mean calculated to give
the mean maximum vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion
(R
v
max).
ICCP (1971, 1975) and Stach et al. (1982) recommended
that one hundred measurements should be taken to obtain a
precise mean value. Determination of R max standard
deviations for a number coals showed that the standard error
of the mean approaches the precision of the measurement
standards, where twenty readings have been taken.
Therefore, in the present study thirty to forty readings
were taken on the coal.
Brown et al. (1964) also recommended that the most
accurate method of reflectance measurement is achieved by
measuring vitrinite A (Telinite + Telocollinite). However,
selective measurement of one vitrinite type is generally not
possible with dispersed organic matter. In general,
vitrinite macerals give the best measurements in relation to-
rank assessment because they undergo changes
consistenly with rank (Smith and Cook, 1980) and show less
17
inherent variability in reflectance according to type (Brown
et al. 1964) (Figure 2.2) compared to liptinite and
inertinite.
2.2.3.2 Fluorescence-mode Microscopy
In order to provide information on organic matter type,
liptinite abundance and maturity, fluorescence-mode
examination was carried out on all samples by using a Leitz
Orthoplan microscope with a TK40 0 dichroic beam splitting
mirror fitted in an Opak vertical illuminator. The
fluorescence-mode filter system comprised BG3 and BG38
excitation filters and a K490 suppression filter. Figure
2.3 shows the optical system for reflected and fluorescence
microscopy used in this study (modified from AS2856, 1986).
A Leitz Vario-Orthomat automatic camera system which is
fitted to the Leitz Orthoplan microscope, was used to take
photographs of the samples. The camera system has a 5 to
12.5X zoom which provided a wide range of magnification.
Kodak Ektachrome 400ASA/21DIN reversal film was used for all
color photographs. Fluorescence-mode photographs were taken
in oil immersion using the BG3/BG38/TK400/K490 filter
system. Photographs were also taken in normal incident
white light with the same type of film used for fluorescence
mode.
18
2.2.3.3 Maceral Analysis
Conventional point count techniques for maceral
analysis in coal and coal-rich block samples were carried
out using an automatic point counter and stage The traverses
were made on the surface of the samples. The total surface
area of the block sample traversed was 2 cm x 2 cm and the
yrain density was about 50%. Approximately 300 points were
counted for each maceral analysis under reflected white
light and fluorescence mode. The volumetric abundance of
various maceral groups was expressed as a percentage of the
total points recorded.
Visual approximations of the abundance of dispersed
organic matter in each grain mount sample were also made by
assessing volumetric abundances as illustrated in Figure
2.4. The total dispersed organic matter (DOM) abundance was
visually estimated in approximately 50 grains from several
traverses across each block. This method was first
described by Padmasiri (1984) and later modified by
Struckmeyer (1988). The method used in this study is based
on the Struckmeyer modification (1988). The total dispersed
organic matter abundance is calculated using the equation :
2 (y x a)
V = , where V = volume of a specific maceral
n occurring as dispersed organic matter,
y = number of grains containing the maceral in a given
abundance category; n = number of grains counted.
> n
CHAPTER THREE
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING
3,1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY
South Sumatra Basin is one of the Sumatran back-arc
basins located along the island of Sumatra. These basins
came into existence as a consequence of the interaction
between the Sunda Shield as part of the Eurasian plate and
the Indo-Australian plate (Katili, 1973; 1980; De Coster,
1974; Koesoemadinata and Pulunggono, 1975; Pulunggono, 1976;
Hamilton, 1979; Pulunggono, 1983). Oblique collision and
subduction has occurred along this margin since the Late
Cretaceous (Figure 3.1).
The South Sumatra Basin is an asymmetric basin bounded
to the west and south by faults and uplifted exposures of
pre-Tertiary rocks along the Barisan Mountains, to the north
east by the sedimentary or depositional boundaries of the
Sunda Shelf. The south-east boundary is represented by the
Lampung High; the northern boundary, however, is poorly
defined as the South Sumatra Basin is connected to the
Central Sumatra Basin by a series of Tertiary grabens,
although the Tiga Puluh Mountains are generally taken to be
the boundary between the two basins (Figure 1.2). The South
Sumatra Basin occupies an area of roughly 250 by 400 km (De
Coster, 1974).
The tectonic features present in the South Sumatra
20
Basin are the result of Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene
orogenic activity (Katili, 1973, 1980; De Coster, 1974;
Koesoemadinata and Pulunggono, 1975; Pulunggono, 1976;
Hamilton, 1979; Pulunggono, 1983). These orogenic
activities were primarily related to the collision and
subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the
Sumatra portion of the Eurasian plate.
The Middle Mesozoic orogeny was the main cause of the
metamorphism affecting Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata.
These strata were faulted and folded into large structural
blocks and subsequently intruded by granite batholiths, with
postulated extensions in the subsurface parts of the basins.
Pre-Tertiary features combine to form the basic northwest to
southeast structural grain of Sumatra.
In Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary time, the second
significant tectonic event occurred when major tensional
structures, including grabens and fault blocks, were formed
in Sumatra and the adjoining Sunda Basin. The general trend
of these faults and grabens is north to south and
north-northwest to south-southeast.
The last tectonic phase was the Plio-Pleistocene
orogeny which caused the uplift of the Barisan Mountains and
the development of major right lateral wrenching through the
length of these mountains. The most prominent structural
features within this Tertiary sedimentary basin are
northwest trending folds and faults.
Structurally, the South Sumatra Basin is subdivided
21
into four sub-basins, as seen in Fig.1.2;
- Jambi Sub-basin;
- North Palembang Sub-basin;
- Central Palembang Sub-basin; and
- South Palembang Sub-basin.
3.2 STRATIGRAPHY
Regional stratigraphic terminologies for the South
Sumatra Basin have been proposed by several authors such as
Musper (1937), Marks (1956), Spruyt (1956), De Coster
(1974), Pulunggono (1983) and Gafoer et al. (1986), as shown
in Table 3.1. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in this
thesis is based primarily on that of Spruyt (1956), because
Spruyt's nomenclature has been widely accepted as the basis
for rock stratigraphic subdivisions, but alternative
nomenclature has also been developed (Table 3.2).
All these authors considered that two phases of
sedimentation took place in the South Sumatra Basin; they
were the Paleogene and Neogene cycles. With the onset of
clastic deposition in the Paleogene, basement depressions
and fault grabens became filled. Harsa (1975) pointed out
that the whole sequence of basin fill represents one major
transgressive-regressive sedimentary cycle which was
accompanied by periodic volcanic activity and periodic
movement along lines of basement faults.
The Tertiary sequences were developed on the
22
pre-Tertiary surface of eroded igneous and metamorphic
rocks. The pre-Tertiary rocks are generally considered as
economic basement for the basin in terms of oil exploration.
3.2.1 THE PRE-TERTIARY ROCKS
Pre-Tertiary rocks crop out extensively both on the
Sunda Shield and in the Barisan Range. Minor outcrops also
occur in uplifts within the Tertiary retro-arc basins.
These rocks generally consist of a complex of Mesozoic
igneous rocks and of Paleozoic and Mesozoic metamorphic
rocks and carbonates (Adiwidjaja and De Coster, 197 3).
Adiwidjaya and De Coster (197 3) have also distinguished
the basement rocks in the South Sumatra Basin as shown in
Figure 3.2. They mapped the subcrop of the pre-Tertiary
rocks in broad zones termed Zone A, B, C, D and E.
Zone A consists of Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic
rocks including phyllites, slates, argillites, quartzites
and gneisses and occasional limestones. These rocks were
intruded by diorite and granite batholiths.
Zone B consists of Mesozoic metamorphic rocks including
phyllites, quartzite, slates. These rocks are locally
intruded by granite. In Bangka Island and other islands
northeast of Sumatra, Triassic metamorphic rocks crop out
extensively and they are intruded by granite batholiths of
possible Jurassic age.
Zone C consists of Mesozoic metasedimentary rocks and
23
limestones associated with mafic igneous rocks such as
diabase, serpentine, andesite and tuffs. The limestones
have been dated as Early Cretaceous or possibly Late
Jurassic age.
Zone D consists of micritic limestone which is
interpreted as possibly Cretaceous age.
Zone E consists of a band of irregular width of
granite, syenite and diorite.
The main structural trends shown in the basement rocks
are NW-SE and NE-SW. According to Adiwidjaja and De Coster
(1973), the structural features of the pre-Tertiary roctes
probably formed during the folding of the Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic strata by the Mesozoic orogeny.
3.2.2 LAHAT FORMATION (LAF)
The name Lahat Series was proposed firstly by Musper
(1937) for a sequence of andesitic tuffs and andesitic
breccias which crop out upstream of Air Kikim. The type
locality is situated in the western part of the town of
Lahat, about 150 kilometres southwest of Palembang City. At
this location, the Lahat Formation lies unconformably upon
the pre-Tertiary basement rocks which are indicated as
Cretaceous.
Sediments of the Lahat Formation show angular grains of
coarse sand to pebble size, mainly comprising volcanic
fragments and unstable minerals. In the central part of the
24
basin, the Lahat Formation comprises grey-brown to dark grey
shales interbedded with light green-grey to light blue-grey
tuffaceous shales, siltstones and some tuffaceous sandstones
and coals. Thin limestone and dolomite stringers and
glauconite are occasionally present (De Coster, 1974).
Based on the lithology of this formation, it is thought
to represent a continental phase of deposition in fresh
water to brackish limnic environments. This interpretation
has also been supported by the discovery of fish remains,
fresh water molluscs and pyrite from the Kepayang-1 well
(Pulunggono, 1983).
The thickness of the Lahat Formation is strongly
controlled by the palaeotopography and fault blocks. In the
south part of the basin, the thickness of the Lahat
Formation is typically more than 765 metres, whereas about
1070 metres was found in the central part of the basin
(Adiwijaya and De Coster, 1973). At the type locality, the
formation reaches about 800 metres in thickness (Pulunggono,
1983).
The age of the Lahat Formation is interpreted to be
Eocene to Early Oligocene based on the spore-pollen analysis
and K/Ar radiometric dating methods (De Coster, 1974).
3.2.3 TALANG AKAR FORMATION (TAF)
The Talang Akar Formation represents the second phase
of Tertiary deposition in the South Sumatra Basin and
25
contains a continental fluviatile sequence composed of
thickly bedded, very coarse to coarse sandstones,
alternating with thin shales and some coals. The grit-sand
facies was firstly recognized by Martin (19 52) from the
borehole data of the Limau 5A-3 well and was also named the
Talang Akar Stage.
The lower part of the sequence generally consists of
coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone alternating with
thin layers of brown to dark grey shale and coal. Fossils
are not found in this lower sequence. The upper part is
dominated by alternations of sandstone and non-marine shale
with some coal seams. The shales are grey to dark grey in
colour and the sequence becomes more marine upwards as
indicated by the presence of glauconite and carbonate and
the absence of coal layers.
Some fossils of molluscs, crustaceans, fish remains and
Foraminifera are found in the upper part of the sequence;
unfortunately they are not diagnostic fossils in terms of
stratigraphic age.
Based on these features, the Talang Akar Stage was
further divided by Spruyt (1956) into two members; the
Gritsand Member (the lower part) and the Transition Member
(the upper part). Jackson (1960) reported that the
"Gritsand Member" varies considerably in thickness from zero
to at least 610 metres, whereas the "Transition Member"
ranges between 61 to 360 metres. Figure 3.3 shows the
distribution of the Talang Akar Formation in the South
2fi
Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of thickness.
Lithologys and fauna of the Talang Akar Formation
indicate a fluvio-deltaic environments passing upwards into
paralic then into a marine environments (De Coster, 1974;
Pulunggono, 1983).
On the basis of some palaeontological and palynological
studies, and also by stratigraphic position, the Talang Akar
Formation has been dated as Late Oligocene to Early Miocene
(De Coster, 1974). Pulunggono (1983) reported that the age
of the Talang Akar Formation can be dated using the
Planktonic Foraminiferal Zones of Blow (1969) as N3 to lower
N5 (Late Oligocene to lower part of Early Miocene).
3.2.4 BATURAJA FORMATION (BRF)
The Baturaja Formation was formerly known as Baturaja
Stage. This term was introduced by Van Bemmelen (1932) to
distinguish the carbonate facies of the lower part of Telisa
Layer as proposed by Tobler (1912). He recognized firstly
the Baturaja sequence at Air Ogan, near Baturaja town, about
180 kilometres south of Palembang City.
In most areas of the basin, the Baturaja Formation lies
conformably upon the Talang Akar Formation. In general, the
Baturaja Formation is a platform carbonate, including some
coral reefs which were developed on palaeo-highs especially
at the edge of the basin. Towards the basin margins, the
limestones grade into calcareous clays and fine to medium
sands.
According to Simbolon (1974), in Air Ogan the Baturaja
Formation can be subdivided into two divisions; a lower
bedded and an upper massive unit separated by calcareous
shales. The bedded unit consists of lime mudstones and lime
wackestones intercalated with marls, while the massive unit
consists of mudstones, wackestones/packstones and
boundstones with abundant large Foraminifera in the upper
part.
The Baturaja Formation occurs only on the broad shelf
and platform areas of the basin. In some areas, this
formation was not deposited. In structural high areas, the
Baturaja Formation was deposited directly upon the*
pre-Tertiary basement rocks.
The thickness of the Baturaja Formation is strongly
variable, depending on the palaeotopography, from about 60
to as much as 200 metres thick. In the Limau Anticlinorium
area, the Baturaja Formation reaches 60 to 75 metres in
thickness, while well data from Benuang, Raja, Pagardewa and
Prabumenang show the maximum thickness reached is about 200
metres (Pulunggono, 1983).
Based on the presence of Spiroclypeus, especially
Spiroclypeus orbitoideus and Spiroclypeus tidoenganensis,
the lower part of the Baturaja Formation is dated as
Aquitanian (lower part of Early Miocene), while the upper
part is dated as Burdigalian (middle to upper part of the
Early Miocene) to Lower Langhian (lower part of Middle
Miocene) on the basis of the presence of Eulepidina and the
28
absence of Spiroclypeus fauna (Adiwidjaya and De Coster,
1973). Pulunggono (1983) inferred that on the basis of the
Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation (Blow, 1969), the age of
the Baturaja Formation is probably N5-N8 (lower part of
Early Miocene-lower part of Middle Miocene).
3.2.5 GUMAI FORMATION (GUF)
The most widespread rock sequence occurring in the
Tertiary is the Gumai Formation which was deposited during
the maximum phase of the marine transgression. Formerly,
this formation was named by Tobler (1906) as Gumai Schiefer
for the shale sequence which crops out at Gumai Mountain,
near Lahat town. During the fifties, oil companies termed
this sequence the Upper Telisa, but then the name was
changed to Gumai Formation.
In general, the Gumai Formation is characterized by
fossiliferous, typically globigerinal marine shale,
including minor intercalations of limestones and sandstones
(De Coster, 1974). At the type locality, it comprises
tuffaceous marl layers alternating with some marly limestone
layers (Pulunggono, 1983). In Limau area, a dark grey
shale, bituminous and containing thin layers of marl and
marly sandstone from the Gumai Formation was penetrated by
some boreholes.
Faunas such Bolivina and Uvigerina are common in the
Gumai Formation. De Coster (1974) believed the Gumai
29
Formation was deposited in warm neritic conditions which
were indicated by the presence of these faunas, combined
with the widespread occurrence of glauconitic foraminiferal
limestone.
The thickness of the Gumai Formation varies greatly
with basin position. In the Palembang Sub-basin, the
thickness of the Gumai Formation varies from about 15 0 to
500 metres, but in the Lematang Depression it reaches about
2500 metres (Pulunggono, 1983).
The age of the Gumai Formation can be dated by using
the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow (1969) as -N9
to N12 ( lower part of Middle Miocene to middle part of
Middle Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983).
3.2.6 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION (ABF)
The Air Benakat Formation corresponds with the onset of
the regional regressive phase. In general, this formation
comprises- shale with glauconitic sandstones and some
limestones deposited in a neritic to shallow marine
environment.
Formerly, the Air Benakat Formation was named by Tobler
(1906) as the Onder Palembang but this name was changed by
Spruyt (1956) to the Air Benakat Formation. The upper part
of this formation is dominated by tuffaceous sandstones
alternating with marl or glauconitic sandstones. Tuffaceous
claystones and sandstones are dominant in the middle part,
3
n
while the lower part consists mostly of claystone.
According to Pulunggono (1983), the thickness of Air
Benakat Formation ranges from 100 to 1100 metres. In the
Limau area, about 600 metres of Air Benakat Formation was
penetrated by Limau 5A-156 well (Pulunggono, 1983).
The age of the Air Benakat Formation can be interpreted
using the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow as
Nll/12 to N16 (middle part of Middle Miocene to lower part
of Late Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983). In most reports, it has
been interpreted to be mostly Late Miocene in age (De
Coster, 1974).
3.2.7 MUARA ENIM FORMATION (MEF)
The Muara Enim Formation was first described as the
Midden Palembang Series by Tobler in 1906 at the type
locality, Kampung Minyak near Muara Enim town. At this type
locality, the formation comprises three lithological
sequences; coal units, claystone units and sandstone units.
This formation lies conformably upon the Air Benakat
Formation. Haan (1976) further divided the Muara Enim
Formation into two members; Member A and Member B. During
the Shell Mijnbouw Coal exploration program in 1978, the
stratigraphic column of the Muara Enim Formation was further
modified and the members have been divided into four
divisions;
- M4 comprises an upper coal division corresponding to
31
the Hanging Coals.
- M3 comprises the middle clay, sand and coal division.
- M2 comprises the middle coal division corresponding
to the Mangus/Pangadang coals.
- Ml comprises the lower clastic and coal division.
Table 3.3 shows the stratigraphic column of the Muara
Enim Formation. These divisions can be recognized
throughout most of the South Sumatra Basin, with apparent
wedging out of the upper and middle coal divisions on the
basin margins. Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) reported that the coal
seams of the middle and lower divisions are more widespread
and thinner than the seams of the upper division due to a
shallow marine influence during sedimentation.
The lower boundary of the Muara Enim Formation was
first defined by Tobler(1906) at the base of the lowest coal
band in the South Palembang area (the Kladi coal) but this
definition could not be applied to the North Palembang and
Jambi areas where the coals are less well developed.
Another criterion used by oil industry geologists to define
the boundary is the top of the continuous marine beds or the
base of the first non-marine beds; the base of the
non-marine beds can be recognized by the presence of
arenaceous units, displaying coal lenses and a lack of
glauconite.
The Mangus seams of the M2 division have good marker
features, especially a clay marker horizon which can be
recognized over a wide area. This clay marker contains
32
discoloured biotite which was deposited over a wide area
during a short interval of volcanic activity and it can be
used to correlate the coal seams over most of the South
Sumatra Basin.
Fossils are rare in the Muara Enim Formation.
Therefore, the determination of the Muara Enim Formation age
is mainly based on its regional stratigraphic position
rather than palaeontological data. Baumann et al. (197 3)
determined the age of the formation as Late Miocene to
Pliocene on the evidence of its regional stratigraphic
position and the palaeontological data, admittedly rather
poor, of lamellibranchs and arenaceous Foraminifera. On the
basis of Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow,
Pulunggono (1983) determined the age of the formation as
N16-N17 (lower part of Late Miocene - upper part of Late
Miocene).
The thickness of this formation is about 45 0 to 750
metres (De Coster, 1974).
3.2.8 KASAI FORMATION (KAF)
Conformably overlying the Muara Enim Formation is the
Kasai Formation. This formation is often marked by a
distinct pumice or lapilli horizon containing rounded pumice
fragments of about 1 cm diameter. Light coloured, poorly
bedded tuffaceous sands and gravels, often containing clear
grains of crystalline quartz, are interlayered with light
33
olo-red or bluish-green clays (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978).
Rare, thin coal seams are also present.
The Kasai Formation is interpreted to be
Plio-Pleistocene in age based on its association with the
orogeny and associated vulcanicity of that age.
3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS
In general, deposition of the Tertiary sediments in the
South Sumatra Basin occurred during a period of relative
tectonic quiescence which happened between the periods of
tectonic upheaval in the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary and
the Plio-Pleistocene (De Coster, 1974). De Coster (1974)
stated that the tectonic quiescence probably resulted from a
reduction in the rate of sea-floor spreading activity during
that time. Consequently, sedimentation of the Tertiary
sequences was mainly controlled by basin subsidence,
differential erosion of the source areas and eustatic
sea-level changes.
The initial deposition of Tertiary sediments in the
basin occurred in the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene in a
continental environment. These deposits are represented by
the Lahat Formation filling a terrain of substantial
topographic relief which developed as a result of the
orogenic activity during the mid-Mesozoic, the faulting of
the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary and differential
erosion of the exposed pre-Tertiary basement rocks. The
3 4
Lahat Formation formed as a set of alluvial fan, braided
stream, valley fill and piedmont deposits and is
characterized by a feldspathic basal unit. Probably, this
unit is an erosional product of nearby granitic hills.
The tuffs occurring in the Lahat Formation were derived
from the intermittent vulcanism and probably from erosion of
earlier-deposited tuffs. Indications of local swamp
conditions can be recognized from the presence of thin coal
layers. In the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene a fresh water to
brackish, lacustrine environment developed in parts of the
South Sumatra Basin and a shale sequence was deposited in
this environment. During this time, the lakes may have had
intermittent connections with the adjacent seas giving rise
to some limestone, dolomite and glauconite-rich beds.
According to De Coster (1974), probably in the Middle
Oligocene, sedimentation of the Lahat Formation was
interrupted by regional uplift which occurred in the late
Early and Middle Oligocene. This interruption is
represented by the unconformable contact between the Lahat
Formation and the Talang Akar Formation.
Deposition of the Talang Akar Formation began, in the
Late Oligocene in the form of alluvial fan and braided
stream environments filling topographic lows and
depressions. Therefore, the Talang Akar Formation locally
occurs overlying the pre-Tertiary rocks. This sedimentation
continued in Early Miocene in a fluviatile, deltaic and
marginal-shallow marine environment. During this time, the
connection to open
3 5
marine conditions became more significant and the sea
gradually encroached into the basin. Topographic relief
became less pronounced as sedimentation continued.
Subsequently, delta plain sediments developed over broad
areas consisting primarily of point bar and braided stream
deposits. These graded into delta front and marginal marine
sands which in turn graded into prodelta shales laid down in
the more distal parts of the basin. As the progradation
continued, delta plain facies such as channel,
crevasse-splay, flood-plain or marsh deposits were formed.
The Talang Akar Formation has its type area in the/
South Sumatra Basin but the term is also used for similar
sequences in the Sunda Basin and Northwest Java Basin as far
east as Cirebon in Java. The Talang Akar sequence is also
recognized in the Bengkulu Trough, a fore-arc basin to the
southwest of the South Sumatra Basin.
As the sea level rose in the Early Miocene, the sea
started to encroach upon the basement highs and the sediment
input declined leading to deposition of the Baturaja
platform carbonates in reef, back-reef and intertidal
environments. In the early stages, the Baturaja Formation
was deposited on shelfal and platform portions of the basin
as platform or bank limestone deposits. In the later
stages, further buildups of detrital, reefal and bank
36
limestones were formed on top of these banks in restricted
localities. In the central part of the basin the Baturaja
Formation grades laterally into argillaceous limestones or
marl and vertically into shales of the Gumai Formation.
Deep marine conditions became more widespread in the
early part of the Middle Miocene as basin subsidence
exceeded sedimentation and the deposition of Gumai shale
continued. In some areas, the deposition of Gumai Formation
was directly after the Talang Akar Formation. During this
time, the basin experienced the maximum marine incursion and
the most widespread phase of deposition. According to De
Coster (1974), the South Sumatra Basin was probably
connected with the Sunda Basin when sea covered most of the
remaining topographic highs in the basin.
In the Middle Miocene, the sea became shallower and
environments of deposition gradually changed from neritic to
continental. This event may be related to the regional
uplift accompanied by vulcanism and by intrusion of diapiric
masses and batholiths (De Coster, 1974). The Air Benakat
and Muara Enim Formations were deposited during this time in
shallow-inner neritic to paludal-delta plain environments.
During the deposition of the Muara Enim Formation,
widespread areas of swampland and marsh were present
throughout the basin and extensive, thick coals were formed
at this time.
The last of the major tectonic events in the South
17
Sumatra Basin was the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny. This
orogeny was probably the direct result of renewed collision
betwween the Indo-Australian Plate against the Sumatra
part of the Eurasian plate. Sedimentation occurred in the
basin during that time resulting in deposition of the Kasai
Formation. The Kasai Formation consists mostly of erosional
products derived from the uplifted Barisan and Tigapuluh
Mountains and from the uplifted folds being formed in the
basin during the orogeny.
33
CHAPTER FOUR
ORGANIC MATTER IN THE TERTIARY SEQUENCES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Cuttings samples from ten oil exploration wells drilled
in the South Palembang Sub-basin were studied with an
emphasis on the organic petrology and maturation level of
the organic material. Selection of well sections to be
examined was determined by availability of sample material
and drilling data, as well as preferences given by
PERTAMINA. The samples were taken from the PERTAMINA core
shed at Plaju, Palembang, and were examined for maceral
content at the University of Wollongong. The results of the
analyses are expressed on a 100% maceral basis. Cuttings
samples were selected by the author for study, on the basis
of their content of coal and carbonaceous or dark shale
particles. All samples are from Tertiary sedimentary
sequences.
Because of poor initial sample collection methods at
the well site, some of the cuttings samples from the older
oil exploration wells (L5A-22, TMT-3, BL-2, BN-10), contain
vitrinite having oxidation rims ("frypanned" rims).
The well locations are given in Figure 1.4. Some coal
samples from the Muara Enim Formation were also collected
from shallow boreholes located around the Bukit Asam coal
mine as shown in Figure 1.5. Table 4.1 shows wells sampled
39
and the total number of samples from each formation. Bar
diagrams and pie diagrams of organic matter type, abundance
and maceral composition are shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.6.
Short descriptions of lithologies and organic matter type,
abundance and maceral composition from each well, are
presented in Appendix 1.
4.2 TYPE
4.2.1 LAHAT FORMATION
The Lahat Formation is largely confined to the deeper
parts of oil well sections studied, such as in the BRG-3,
GM-14, BN-10, MBU-2, L5A-22 and PMN-2 wells. The Lahat
Formation consists mainly of sandstone, shale, siltstone and
thin coal, but in the MBU-2 well, it consists of volcanic
breccia.
Organic matter is predominantly terrestrial in origin.
DOM content in the samples ranges from 0.09%-16.99% (average
= 8.5%) by volume. DOM on mineral matter free basis
comprises 21% to 99% (average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 9%
(average = 2%) inertinite and trace to 55% (average = 14%)
liptinite.
Several thin coal seams occur in the Lahat Formation.
The coal content of the samples from this formation ranges
from 2% to 34% (average = 18%) by volume. The coal
comprises (m.m.f. basis) 73%-99% (average = 86%) vitrinite,
40
0.14%-7% (average = 4%) inertinite and 0.3-20% (average =
10%) liptinite (Figure 4.1).
Vitrinite is the dominant maceral present in this
formation, both in DOM and coal. It occurs as well
preserved stringers, laminae, lenses and disseminated
particles. Detrovitrinite and telovitrinite occur in
approximately equal amounts. Vitrinite is commonly
associated with sporinite, cutinite, resinite and
liptodetrinite.
Sporinite and liptodetrinite are common in this
formation. In general, the macerals of the liptinite group
have a weak to very weak fluorescence intensity and
fluorescence colours are dark orange to brown. In some
samples it is very difficult to detect liptinite occurrences
in fluorescence mode.
Inertinite is rare in the samples and occurs mainly as
inertodetrinite. Semifusinite and sclerotinite occur in the
samples from GM-14 and BRG-3 but are present only in minor
amounts. Fusinite occurs as thin layers and rarely as
isolated lenses in a detrovitrinite matrix. Inertodetrinite
is present in most of the samples but as a minor component.
Bitumens occur associated with quartz or clay grains
and they are characterized by yellowish green fluorescence.
Oil cuts and haze are also present in the samples from the
L5A-22 well, typically where oil is seen to be expelled
during examination in fluorescence-mode from fractures in
telovitrinite. Some oil stains were also found in
41
detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as shown in Plate 1.
Pyrite commonly occurs throughout the samples and is
typically framboidal in form.
4.2.2 TALANG AKAR FORMATION
The Talang Akar Formation was penetrated by all of the
petroleum exploration wells used in the present study.
Samples collected from this formation are mainly cuttings
samples but some core samples were also obtained. Organic
matter abundance of the Talang Akar Formation was determined
from forty eight cutting samples. Sandstone, siltstone and
shale are the dominant lithologies of the Talang Akar
Formation. Coal layers are commonly present in this
formation, varying in thickness from thin stringers to 2
metre seams.
4.2.2.1 DOM
DOM content of siltstones, sandstones and shales, by
volume, of the samples taken from the formation, varies
between 1.82% to 37.91% (average = 13.63%). The highest
proportion of DOM occurs in coaly shales. Vitrinite is the
dominant maceral in DOM (m.m.f. basis) ranging from 41%-99%
of the DOM (average = 90%). Liptinite ranges (m.m.f. basis)
from sparse to 55% (average = 7%). Inertinite occurs only
in minor amounts ranging (m.m.f. basis) from rare to 19%
(average = 3%) . Vitrinite occurs in all lithologies as
12
fragments, laminae, lenses and thin stringers (Plate 2).
Vitrinite layers commonly contain inclusions of liptinite
macerals such as sporinite, resinite and liptodetrinite.
Sporinite is the most common liptinite maceral in this
formation. In general, liptinite has a weak to very weak
fluorescence intensity and is dark orange to brown in
colour. Sporinite occurs mostly as miospores and pollen
grains and is disseminated throughout the coals and shales.
Oil drops also occur in the samples and have yellow
fluorescence. Framboidal pyrite is commonly present in this
formation (Plate 3).
4
1
4.2.2.2 Coal and Shaly Coal
In general, Talang Akar coals are well developed in the
Pendopo-Limau area. The samples from the Talang Akar
Formation comprise 24%-82% (average = 39.47%) coal and
12%-30% (average = 23.14%) shaly coal by volume (Figure
4.2). The coals (m.m.f. basis) comprise 48%-99% (average =
87%) vitrinite, 0.1%-19% (average = 3%) inertinite, and
0.53%-49% (average = 10%) liptinite. These coals vary from
sub-bituminous to high-volatile bituminous in rank and are
characterized by a high vitrinite and a moderate liptinite
content. Shaly coals comprise (m.m.f basis) 48%-97%
(average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 22% (average = 4%)
inertinite and 2%-30% (average = 12%) liptinite.
The microlithotypes present in these coals are vitrite
with lesser amounts of clarite. Vitrite layers consist of
i
43
celovitrinite and detrovitrinite and are associated with
sporinite and minor resinite. Oil staining of polished
surfaces of vitrinite is commonly present. Sporinite is the
dominant liptinite maceral. It is dark orange in
fluorescence mode.
Bitumens are common in the Talang Akar Formation and
show yellow to orange fluorescence as shown in Plates 4 to
9, and 12 to 13. They occur mainly in coals and are
associated with oil cuts. Some exsudatinite occurs in the
coals and is yellow to dark orange in fluorescence mode
(Plates 8 to 11). Sclerotinite is also present and occurs
as teleutospores. In some samples, sclerotinite was filled
by bitumen as shown in Plates 10 and 11. During examination
using fluorescence mode, oil was expelled from sclerotinite
(Plates 14 and 15) and telovitrinite (Plates 16 and 17) in
some samples.
4.2.3 BATURAJA FORMATION
The Baturaja Formation consists of platform carbonate
deposits which comprise limestones grading to calcareous
clays and fine to medium grained sandstones. A thick
section of this formation was intersected by KD-01 well from
1363 metres to 1572 metres. In general, DOM in the samples
from the Baturaja Formation is rare to abundant (<0.1% to
2.95% with average = 0.87% by volume). DOM (m.m.f. basis)
in this formation comprises rare to 99% (average = 97%)
vitrinite, barren to 1% (average = 0.2%) inertinite and 0%
44
to 8% (average = 2.8%) liptinite (Figure 4.4).
Vitrinite is mainly present as detrovitrinite.
Inertinite is rare and occurs as inertodetrinite. Minor
sporinite also occur in the samples and has orange
fluorescence. Fluorinite is present in the samples from
BN-10 well and has a yellow flourescence. Pyrite is
commonly present throughout the lithologies.
4.2.4 GUMAI FORMATION
The Gumai Formation consists of deep water marine
shales and limestones. DOM content of the samples from this
unit ranges from 0.05%-7.33% (average = 1.87%) by volume and
comprises (m.m.f. basis) 24%-92% (average = 63%) vitrinite,
2%-37% (average = 22%) inertinite and 0%-57% (average = 15%)
liptinite.
Vitrinite is common in the lithologies and occurs as
detrovitrinite. Inertinite is commonly present and occurs
as inertodetrinite and micrinite, but sclerotinite and
semifusinite are commonly present in the samples from the
KG-10 well. Liptinite is represented by cutinite,
sporinite, liptodetrinite, fluorinite and resinite.
Sporinite is common and has orange to dark orange
fluorescence. Cutinite is orange to dark orange in
fluorescence mode and is thin-walled.
Bitumens are sparse in the samples from the Gumai
Formation, except those from the KG-10 well where they are
45
common to abundant with greenish yellow fluorescence. Oil
drops are also present and show a yellow colour in
fluorescence mode. Some phytoplankton are also present in
the samples and occur as very small tests which in some
cases are very difficult to recognize from the matrix. They
have a green fluorescence colour. Euhedral pyrite is
commonly present in the lithologies.
4.2.5 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION
The Air Benakat Formation consists of neritic to
shallow marine deposits in which DOM ranges from 0.15% to
15.4% (average = 3.66%) by volume. High proportions occur
in carbonaceous shale or claystone whereas low proportions,
occur in limestone and marine sandstone.
On a mineral matter free basis, DOM comprises 54% to
91% (average = 78%) vitrinite, rare to 7% (average = 3%)
inertinite, and 7% to 39% (average = 19%) liptinite. Figure
4.5 shows the abundance of DOM in the Air Benakat Formation.
Vitrinite is the most common organic matter in all
lithologies with detrovitrinite the main maceral. This
maceral is assocciated with the liptinite macerals
suberinite, cutinite, resinite, sporinite and
liptodetrinite.
Liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite are commonly
present in the Air Benakat Formation. They are orange in
fluorescence mode. Minor greenish yellow fluorescing
46
fluorinite and orange fluorescing resinite are also present.
Inertinite is rare and occurs as sclerotinite and
inertodetrinite.
In general, bitumens are abundant in the samples and
they occur commonly in sandstone, siltstone and claystone.
They have a yellowish-green to green colour in fluorescence
mode. Desiccation cracks in the bitumens are commonly
present and some of bitumens have a cauliflower shape. Oil
drops are common in the samples from KG-10 well and show a
yellowish-green colour in fluorescence mode. Framboidal
pyrite is more common than euhedral pyrite.
4.2.6 MUARA ENIM FORMATION
The Muara Enim Formation includes the main workable
coal measures of the South Sumatra Basin and contains the
large brown coal (lignite) resources of the South Sumatra
region. The Muara Enim Formation comprises three
lithological sequences; they are coal units, claystone units
and sandstone units as shown in Table 3.3. The coal beds in
the basin range from a few centimetres to about 40 metres in
thickness. The coals vary from brown coal to sub-bituminous
in rank but locally reach anthracitic rank in zones of
contact alteration.
Organic matter in this coal-bearing sequence occurs as
dispersed organic matter and as discrete coal seams.
According to Cook and Struckmeyer (1986), DOM associated
47
with coals is generally similar in its origin, maceral
composition and chemical properties to the organic matter in
the coals, but can also show some systematic differences.
The Muara Enim Formation occurs in nine oil wells
studied and fifty seven cutting samples were taken from this
formation. Twenty eight coal samples were also collected
from seven cored coal exploration boreholes. In addition,
maceral analysis data of the Muara Enim coals are also
available from Daulay (1985) who studied the petrology of
the Muara Enim coals.
In the cuttings samples studied, coal occurs as layers,
lenses or streaks and contributes between 35.6% to 100%
(average = 66%) by volume. Based on the results of maceral
analyses of these samples on a mineral matter free basis,
the Muara Enim coals comprise 74% to 88% (average = 81%)
vitrinite, 3% to 12% (average = 6%) inertinite, and 8% to
17% (average = 13%) liptinite (Fig.4.6).
The core samples (m.m.f. basis) have 75% to 97%
(average = 86%) vitrinite, 1.75% to 8% (average = 5%)
inertinite, and 2.25% to 16% (average = 9%) liptinite
(Fig.4.6). Within the limits of sampling precision, the
results for coals from cores and from cuttings are very
similar.
DOM contents of the Muara Enim Formation range from
1.87% to 7.98% (average = 4.37%) by volume. High
proportions of DOM occur in coaly claystone or carbonaceous
mudstone but in sandstone and siltstone the DOM content is
48
low. In the samples studied, DOM (m.m.f. basis) comprises
39% to 96% (average = 65 %) vitrinite, 0.2% to 7% (average =
3%) inertinite and 12% to 57% (average = 32%) liptinite.
Telovitrinite is the main vitrinite maceral and occurs
both in DOM and coal. Telovitrinite is commonly present in
the coal as thin layers or small lenses which occur in the
detrovitrinite matrix. Some of the telovitrinite cell
lumens are infilled by fluorinite or resinite (Plates 18 to
21). In some cases they are filled by clay. Corpovitrinite
and porigelinite (gelovitrinite) are scattered throughout
the coals. ,
f
In general, inertinite is rarely present in the Muara
Enim coals. Semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite are the
main types of inertinite. Semifusinite and fusinite occur
as layers or lenses as shown in Plates 22 and 23. Cell
walls of the fusinite and semifusinite vary in thickness and
degree of preservation. Scelerotinite includes
teleutospores and scelerotia (Plate 24). Some cell lumens
in sclerotinite are filled by resinite and mineral matter.
In some samples, well preserved of mycorrhyzomes can also be
found (Plates 25 to 27).
The liptinite in the coal mainly comprises resinite,
cutinite, liptodetrinite, sporinite, suberinite with minor
fluorinite and exsudatinite. Liptodetrinite is a
significant component of Muara Enim coals and comprises fine
degradation products of other liptinite macerals. It has
bright yellow to orange fluorescence. Resinite has yellow
49
to orange fluorescence (Plates 21 and 28 to 31). Cutinite
is commonly present as tenuicutinite and has yellowish
orange fluorescence, but some crassicutinites can be also
found as shown in Plates 32 and 33. Sporinite is also
commonly present in the coals and is yellow to dark orange
in fluorescence-mode (Plates 34 to 37). It occurs mostly as
miospores and pollen grains and is disseminated throughout
the coals. Suberinite shows orange to dark orange
fluorescence and it is also commonly present in the coals
(Plates 38 to 41). Exsudatinite occurs in few samples and
has a very bright yellow to orange fluorescence (Plates 40
to 43).
In general the Muara Enim coals are rich in bitumens,
hence an attempt has been made to estimate the abundance of
bitumen by using the point counting method. Bitumen content
of the coals (m.m.f. basis) varies from 0.75% to 5.5%
(average = 3.1%). Bitumens occur mostly as medium to
large discrete bodies which are commonly globular in shape
(Plates 44 to 47). Flow structures occur and oil cuts are
common from bitumens and indicate that the bitumens have
been soft and mobile when entering the open spaces or during
the development of fracture porosity (Cook, 1987).
Teichmuller (1982) noted that this stage represents the very
beginning of bituminization and can be related to the
genesis of fluid petroleum. During this stage, bitumen
fills the cavities, bedding planes and joints. Cook (1985)
added that the abundance of bitumen may be related more to
50
the migration characteristics of fluids from the organic
matter system than to any sharp threshold in the rate of
generation of soluble bitumens. The occurrence of bitumens
in veins may be due to fissuring caused by hydrocarbon
generation pressures, rather than to passive emplacement
into pre-existing cavities (Cook, 19 87). An interesting
feature of the bitumen under microscope is the presence of
desiccation cracks (Plates 48 to 51). In some samples,
bitumens also appear as cauliflower-shaped aggregates. The
bitumens have bright green to greenish yellow fluorescence,
but commonly they show dark yellow fluorescence in their
centre and gradually change to bright yellow fluorescence
toward the outer margins.
Mineral matter is commonly present in the Muara Enim
coals and is represented by clay occurring as pods and
infilling cell lumens. Framboidal pyrite is also commonly
found infilling cell lumens. Quartz and siderite occur
sparsely in the coals.
The main microlithotypes of the Muara Enim coals are
vitrite and clarite.
4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES AND
FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY
Parallel with the increasing level of coalification,
some physical and chemical properties of coal will be
gradually or progressively changed. Peat and soft brown
51
coals have high bulk porosities and high water contents.
With progressive coalification, moisture content decreases
and calorific value and carbon content increase.
Furthermore the pore volume of vitrinite also decreases
during the coalification process. Stach et al. (1982)
reported that the pore volume of vitrinite varies with rank
from 0.05 cm
3
/g for vitrinite with 71% carbon content to
0.03 cm
3
/g for vitrinite with 94% carbon content, apparently
3
passing through a minimum of 0.025 cm /g at a carbon content
of about 89%. Because of increasing carbon content and
aromacity the three maceral groups, liptinite, inertinite
and vitrinite, become more highly reflecting and
increasingly opaque.
Cell structures and plant tissues, readily discernible
in low rank coals, become increasingly difficult to
recognize at higher rank. Texture becomes more compact with
coalification. In comparison with other macerals, vitrinite
textures are sensitive to increasing temperature and
pressure but they alter in a uniform manner during
coalification. Telovitrinite textures are more sensitive to
increasing rank than those of detrovitrinite (Smith, 1981).
Smith (1981) further reported that in the Gippsland Basin,
telovitrinite shows remnants of open cell lumens and cell
walls and cell contents aligned parallel to bedding to about
1250 metres depth where Fornax is 0.30%. He also indicated
that with increased depth, the major process of
telovitrinite metamorphism appears to be conversion of
52
textinite and well preserved texto-ulminite into
eu-ulminite. At 1742 metres (R max 0.50%), almost all cell
lumens of telovitrinite are completely closed.
In the samples studied, Muara Enim coals occur at
present depths between 40 metres to 1200 metres. Vitrinite
textures of the coals from the BT-01 well taken at depths of
46 to 54 metres, R max 0.36%, still show cellular structures
derived from vegetable material (Plates 52 and 53). Some of
the telovitrinite cell lumens are infilled with fluorinite
or resinite but in some samples they are filled by clay. At
this rank, the vitrinite is texturally immature . retaining
well preserved botanical structures and voids as shown in
Plate 54. In other wells, telovitrinite becomes dense and
compact and all cell lumens become closed with increasing
depth. The telovitrinite is texturally mature (i.e. it has
been through a gelification state which has largely obscured
botanical features). These features can be seen in samples
from BRG-3 which were taken from a depth of 1200 metres with
R max of 0.50% (Plates 16, 17 and 55). The cell lumens are
completely closed in samples with a vitrinite reflectance of
0.80% or greater. This occurs at depths of more than 2000
metres in the Talang Akar Formation in the MBU-2 well.
Under ultra-violet light excitation, liptinite shows a
progressive increase in the maximum of spectral fluorescence
wavelengths with increasing maturation, and the total
fluorescence intensity progressively decreases. At low
rank, the liptinite macerals typically yield up to 80%
53
volatile matter and contain more than 9% hydrogen (Cook,
1982). With increased rank, the liptinite group macerals
suffer a major loss of volatile matter and of hydrogen
content. Associated with these chemical changes, the
fluorescence colours of liptinite change from
greenish-yellow in the peat stage to orange-brown in high
volatile A bituminous coals (Bustin et al., 1983). The
fluorescence intensities and fluorescence colours are
related to presence of hydrogen in unsaturated bonds (Cook,
1980).
Most liptinite macerals from the Muara Enim coals
(Fornax 0.30% to 0.50%) have fluorescence colours ranging
from yellow to orange and greenish yellow in the bitumens
(Plates 46 to 50). The fluorescence colours of the
liptinite parallel increasing rank and become dark orange or
brown which are shown in the Talang Akar coals. Bitumens
also become orange in this latter formation (Plates 56 to
61).
54
CHAPTER FIVE
ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The maturity of organic matter is an expression of the
level of coalification reached. The level of coalification
of organic matter can be also defined as the transformation
of organic matter from peat through the stages of different
brown coals, sub-bituminous and bituminous coals to
anthracites and meta-anthracites (Stach, 1982).
The metamorphism of organic matter is a product of two
variables; time and temperature (Teichmuller and
Teichmuller, 1982; Murchison et al., 1985; Waples, 1980,
1985). Cook (1982) and Kantsler (1985) added a third
suggesting that at least three variables (pressure, heat due
to burial of sedimentary sequences and the geological age of
the sequences) are involved in the coalification process.
The role of pressure is only involved in the early stage of
biochemical coalification, resulting in compaction and
expulsion of water (Bustin et al., 1983). Pressure is
thought to have only a minor negative effect upon rank
increase (Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1968; Lopatin and
Bostick, 1973). Huck and Patteisky (1964) claimed that high
static pressure can have retarding effects on coalification.
However, Bustin et al. (1983) pointed out that high tectonic
pressure can lead to abnormal increases in vitrinite
55
reflectance.
In most stratigraphic sequences increased temperatures
accompany burial and thus more deeply buried coals are
exposed to higher temperatures for longer time and are
generally of higher rank. This relationship was first
documented by Hilt (1873) who observed a progressive
decrease in volatile matter in coals with depth (Hilt's
Law). The level of coalification or rank of organic matter
can be assessed by using a variety of chemical and physical
methods. Some of the more commonly used of these indices
are volatile matter yield, carbon content, moisture content
and calorific value. Unfortunately these properties do not
change uniformly with rank and consequently are not always
suitable indicators. Vitrinite reflectance is one of the
most commonly used methods for evaluation of the organic
maturation. The optical properties of vitrinite macerals
alter more uniformly during metamorphism than those of other
macerals (Smith and Cook, 1980). Additionally, vitrinite is
present in many types of sedimentary rocks.
In the present study, measurements of maximum
reflectance of vitrinite were made to determine the rank of
coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin and also to assess
the maturation level of the dispersed organic matter in the
associated non-coal rock types. The assessment of organic
maturation is an important parameter for evaluation of the
coal quality and the hydrocarbon source potential of the
sedimentary sequence. Measurements of maximum reflectance
56
of vitrinite were made on coal and DOM from cuttings
samples. The results for cuttings samples may include some
values for caved materials from overlying sequences but
these can generally be recognized from their lithological
characteristics. In addition, unpublished reflectance data,
particularly of the Muara Enim coals, are available from
Daulay (1985).
The maturation profile for a sedimentary sequence at a
given location is obtained by plotting vitrinite reflectance
against depth for each sample from a well section. By
comparing these maturation data with those at other
locations in the basin, the pattern of maturity distribution
within the basin can be used for locating hydrocarbon source
rocks lying within the zone of oil generation.
Vitrinite reflectance values from ten oil wells are
given in Tables 5.1 to 5.10. The reflectance gradients of
these wells range from R
v
max 0.20 to 0.35% per kilometre.
The vitrinite reflectance profiles with depth are presented
in Figures 5.1 to 5.10. Isoreflectance surfaces have been
constructed along section lines A-B and C-D (Figure 1.4) and
these are presented in Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.12. The six
oil wells illustrated in Figure 5.11 are located in the
Muara Enim area, whereas the four oil wells in Figure 5.12
are situated in the Limau-Pendopo area. In addition,
vitrinite reflectance values from seven coal exploration
boreholes are given in Table 5.10A.
57
5.2 RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION
The mean maximum vitrinite reflectances obtained from
samples examined for this study are plotted against depth in
Figure 5.13. The most obvious trend shown in this figure is
the increase in vitrinite reflectances with depth and this
is more marked from a depth of below about 1500 metres
(R
v
max generally about 0.5%) to 2500 metres (R
;/
max generally
about 0.9%). Some reflectance values plot below the trend.
These values may relate to the presence of cavings but
generally values from the Baturaja Formation plot below the
trend whereas those from the Lahat Formation plot on or
above trend.
Several reasons have been given for suppressed
vitrinite reflectance. Hutton and Cook (1980) found lower
reflectance values where Botryococcus-derived alginite is
present. Titheridge (1989) found lowered reflectance where
sulphur content is high and it has been reported that
reflectance is lower in some specific lithologies.
The Baturaja Formation is a marine unit (containing
limestone). Many marine oil shales have lower than expected
reflectance values (Hutton pers. comm., 1991) and the
lowered reflectance for the Baturaja Formation is possibly
attributable to its marine origin.
In the Muara Enim area, the increase in vitrinite
reflectance with depth is associated with a high temperature
gradient as well as being due to depth of burial (Figure
58
5.11). High temperature gradients in the Muara Enim area
may relate to the effects of thermal metamorphism or
volcanic intrusions adjacent to the Bukit Barisan Mountains.
KG-10 well is an exception in that samples from it show low
reflectance values (R max 0.44% and 0.48%) at depths of 1524
metres and 1546 metres. However, these low reflectance
values probably correlate with the presence of cavings
(Figure 5.11). Figure 5.12 suggests that the increases in
vitrinite reflectance are probably related primarily to
depth of burial in the Limau-Pendopo area. In this area,
the thickness of the Tertiary, particularly of Talang Akar
and Lahat Formations, is greater than in the Muara Enim
area. The highest vitrinite reflectance values (R max
0.95%) occur in the Lahat Formation in the BN-10 well at a
depth of 2542 metres. BN-10 is the deepest well used in
this study and is situated in the Limau-Pendopo area.
Relationship between coalification and tectonism has
long been known (Patteisky and Teichmuller, I9 60;
Teichmuller, 1962; Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1966;
Hacquebard and Donaldson, 1970; Diessel, 1975). Most
authors suggest that the relationship between timing of
coalification and that of tectonic deformation in a
particular area may be investigated in two ways based on
coal rank data. Firstly by comparison of the shape of the
iso-rank surfaces and structural contours, and secondly, by
comparison of the rate of rank increase with depth in a
particular seam compared with the rate within a vertical
59
profile, such as a borehole.
Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1966) divided the
relationships between coalification and tectonism into three
types; pre-tectonic coalification, post-tectonic
coalification and syn-tectonic coalification. In
pre-tectonic coalification, coalification is completed
before tectonic deformation. Iso-rank surfaces would
parallel structural surfaces (Figure 5.14). Complete
post-tectonic coalification applies to an area in which
little or no coalification took place during initial
subsidence or during tectonic movements. Early and rapid
deposition and folding under low geothermal gradients are
commonly associated with post-tectonic coalification.
Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1966) suggested that
exclusively, post-tectonic coalification is probably never
realized in real systems. With post-tectonic coalification,
iso-rank contours are horizontal regardless of the degree of
deformation (Figure 5.15). Syn-tectonic coalification
patterns are produced in areas where coalification and
tectonic movements occur contemporaneously. In areas where
syn-tectonic coalification occurs the iso-rank surfaces are
oblique to the structural contours (Figure 5.16).
In the area studied, the iso-reflectance line of R
v
max
0.3% is generally semi-parallel with the orientation of the
Muara Enim Formation. This pattern is consistent with major
pre-tectonic coalification but minor syn-tectonic
coalification also may be present (Teichmuller and
60
Teichmuller, 1966). In the Muara Enim area (Figure 5.11),
the iso-reflectance lines R max 0.4% to 0.9% generally
intersect the formation boundaries at low angles. However
the iso-reflectance lines are more regular and parallel with
the orientation of the formation boundaries in the
Limau-Pendopo area where partial syn-tectonic coalification
patterns are evident (Figure 5.12). According to
Teichmuller and Teichmuller (19 66) , this situation may
arise in younger strata of a coal basin where folding
movements are active during or very shortly after deposition
and prior to maximum burial.
The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are intersected by
the 0.5% to 0.9% R max surfaces. In terms of coal rank, the
coals from these formations can be classified as high
volatile bituminous coals.
In general, vitrinite reflectances in the Muara Enim
coals range from 0.30% to 0.50% R max with an average of
0.37%. The coals, therefore, range from brown coal to
almost sub-bituminous coal in rank. The M2 coals,
particularly the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams, are mined at
the Bukit Asam coal mines. Vitrinite reflectance of
dispersed organic matter of the Muara Enim Formation shows
similar patterns to those of coals not affected by
intrusions. In general, it ranges from 0.3% to 0.4% R max.
Daulay (1985) divided the M2 coals in the Bukit Asam
area into two categories related to the effects of thermal
alteration by an andesite intrusion; coal not affected by
61
contact thermal alteration and thermally altered coals.
Vitrinite reflectance of coal not affected by thermal
alteration ranges from 0.30% to 0.59% R
v
max and from ,0.69%
to 2.60% for thermally altered coals. Furthermore, Daulay
noted that reflectances between 0.40% to 0.50% are dominant
at Bukit Asam. By contrast, vitrinite reflectance decreases
gradually from 0.35 % to 0.40% towards the north (Banko
Area) and west of Bukit Asam.
Coals from the boreholes BT-01 (South of Banko) and
SN-04 (West Suban Jerigi) have vitrinite reflectances
ranging from 0.31% to 0.41%. In the Kl-03 and KLB boreholes
(Kungkilan area, southwest of Bukit Asam), vitrinite
reflectance is relatively constant being in the range 0.41%
to 0.44%. Vitrinite reflectance decreases again at the
AU-04 and AS-12 boreholes (North Arahan and South Arahan,
farther west of the Kungkilan area) ranging from 0.35% to
0.37%. The differences in vitrinite reflectance between
coals from the Bukit Asam area and other areas are probably
due to heating effects from igneous intrusions beneath the
Bukit Asam and adjacent areas. Thus, it appears that even
the coals referred by Daulay to the "not affected by thermal
alteration" category show some evidence of localized
heating.
5.3 THERMAL HISTORY
Thermal history of the basin can be estimated by
62
comparing data on sediment age and the level of
coalification (Kantsler et al., 1978). The current thermal
regime can be ascertained by reference to present downhole
temperature data estimated from borehole logs. The
relationship between maximum palaeotemperature and vitrinite
reflectance has long been studied and documented by authors
(such as Teichmuller, 1971; Dow, 1977; Bostick, 1973, 1979;
Kantsler et al., 1978; Kantsler and Cook, 1979; Cook and
Kantsler, 1980; Smith and Cook, 1980, 1984). Models for the
prediction of palaeotemperatures, organic maturity and the
timing of hydrocarbon generation have been developed by a
number of authors.
The first attempt to define mathematically the relation
of time, temperature and rank was introduced by Huck and
Karweil (1955). Later Karweil (1956) developed a nomogram
for the three variables and it is known as the Karweil
nomogram. The Karweil model is based on first-order
reaction rates and appears to assume that a formation has
been exposed to present downhole temperatures for all its
subsidence history. Some modifications have been made by
Bostick (1973) with the addition of an empirically derived
reflectance relationship. The Bostick version of the
Karweil nomogram is shown in Figure 5.17. Further
developments on the prediction of palaeotemperature and
thermal history from the Karweil nomogram were made by
Kantsler et al. (1978).
j 3
In the present study, estimations of palaeotemperature
and thermal history in the South Palembang Sub-basin were
made using the Karweil diagram as suggested by Kantsler et
al. (1978). The palaeothermal history of the basin has been
assessed using the age data for the sedimentary units, the
corresponding R
v
max data and the time (t), temperature (T)
and vitrinite reflectance (R
Q
max) nomogram of Karweil as
modified by Bostick (1973). In the modification used,
temperatures derived directly from the Karweil nomogram were
named Isothermal Model Temperatures (Tiso). The isothermal
model (Tiso) assumes that temperatures have remained
constant since burial whilst the gradthermal model (Tgrad)
assumes a history of constantly rising temperatures
(Kantsler et al., 1978a; Smith, 1981; Smith and Cook, 1984).
From these comparisons an assessment can be made of whether
present day temperature (Tpres) is higher, the same or lower
than the maximum palaeotemperature.
The present geothermal gradient was obtained by using
the formula:
T = To + T*X (Smith, 1981).
where T is borehole temperature, To the surface temperature,
X is depth and T = dT/dX, the geothermal gradient.
The surface temperature of the Muara Enim-Pendopo/Limau
area (onshore) used in the calculations is assumed to be
26 "C. The borehole temperature data were obtained from the
geophysical well logs of the oil wells studied. The results
of the calculations show that the present geothermal
64
gradient in these areas varies from 37C/km to 40C/km
(average = 39 C/km) in the Muara Enim area and 36C/km to
40C/km (average = 38C/km) in the Pendopo-Limau area.
These geothermal gradients are lower than those reported by
Thamrin et al. (1979). According to those authors the
average gradient geothermal gradient and heat flow in South
Palembang Sub-basin are 52.5C/km and 2.55 HFU (Heat Flow
Units). Furthermore, Thamrin et al. (1979) reported that in
the Beringin field (Muara Enim area), the geothermal
gradient and the heat flow are 56.5C/km and 2.66 HFU while
the values from the Tanjung Miring Timur field (Pendopo
area) are 55 /km and 2.66 HFU respectively. The Benuang*
field (Pendopo area) also has a high reported geothermal
gradient having a value of 55 C/km. Based on these data the
top of the oil window can be expected to be encountered at
shallow depths of approximately 1300 metres. This position
for the top the oil window is also suggested by the
reflectance data which show that the 0.5% reflectance values
lie at approximately 1300 metres depth.
Thamrin et al. (1980, 1982, 1984) stated that the high
geothermal gradients occurring in the Sumatran basinal areas
are influenced by high palaeoheat flows which accompanied
Tertiary tectonism. Further, they concluded that the high
geothermal gradients in these areas reflect rapid burial
followed by uplift and erosion. The high heat flow in the
basin results from magmatic intrusions and associated mantle
waters penetrating the shallow pre-Tertiary basement to
65
within a few kilometres of the surface, exposing the
Tertiary sedimentary cover to high temperatures (Eubank and
Makki, 1981).
Tectonically, the Sumatran basinal areas are situated
between an inner (volcanic) arc and the stable Sunda Shelf.
The volcanic inner arc is represented in Sumatra by the
Bukit Barisan Range which is mainly composed of folded
pre-Tertiary rocks. Eubank and Makki (1981) suggested that
in a continental back-arc basin where the sialic crust is
thinned but rifting is not complete, the crust is not an
effective thermal blanket. Where the crust is thin and
highly fractured, simatic heat will be rapidly conducted
upward by magmatic diapirism and convective circulation of
water in the fractures. In a continental setting, sediments
quickly fill the incipient rifts and are subjected to high
heat flow.
Scale "H" of Karweil's diagram was used in the present
study to calculate isothermal model temperatures. Cook
(1982a) suggested that Tgrad can be obtained from Tiso
values by multiplying with a conversion factor of 1.6.
Smith and Cook (1984) suggested testing isothermal and
gradthermal models against present temperatures to establish
the relative palaeothermal history of a formation.
According to Smith (1981) and Smith and Cook (1984) a
quantitative estimate can be obtained by defining the
following ratio:
Grad : Iso = (Tpres - Tiso) / (Tgrad - Tiso).
ee
If the ratio is lower than 1, the present geothermal
gradients are probably lower than in the past and the
formation history approaches the isothermal model. If the
ratio is close to one the formation history approaches the
gradthermal model. If the ratio is greater than one,
present temperatures are greater than the effective
coalification temperature.
Thermal history data from selected wells in the South
Palembang Sub-basin are listed in Table 5.11 and Table 5.12.
From data given in these tables, it can be seen that, in
general, the present temperatures are lower than isothermal
temperatures. These indicate that the palaeotemperatures
were higher than the present temperature. Probably the
sediments of the South Palembang Sub-basin underwent a
period of rapid burial prior to a period of uplift and
erosion. Pulunggono (1983) stated that a tensional movement
during Paleocene?/Eocene to Early Miocene times enhanced
block faulting with consequent subsidence of faulted block
areas along existing faults (NE-SW and NW-SE). Maximum
rates of subsidence of the faulted blocks were indicated
inferred in uppermost Oligocene to earliest Miocene times.
During this phase, the rate of sedimentation began to exceed
the rate of subsidence and the faulted blocks were rapidly
infilled.
67
5,4 SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS
5.4.1 SOURCE ROCKS FOR HYDROCARBONS
Potential hydrocarbon source rocks are rocks containing
preserved organic matter which includes the remains of
marine and fresh water animals and plants and terrestrial
plants. For many years, marine rocks were regarded as the
only prolific source for oil (e.g. Tissot and Welte, 1978)
but over the past 30 years it has become clear that
terrestrial and fresh water organic matter can also generate
commercial quantities of petroleum. A number of authors
have recently suggested that coal has played a significant
role in sourcing hydrocarbons in important oilfields such as
in Australia (Gippsland Basin), and in Indonesia (Mahakam
Delta). Oils derived from terrestrial organic matter are
generaly waxy in character as identified by Hedberg (1968)
and Powell and McKirdy (1975) and are believed to be
associated with coals or terrestrial organic material which
is particularly rich in liptinite.
Authors (such as Smith and Cook (1980); Smyth (1983);
Tissot and Welte (1984); Cook (1987) have agreed that the
liptinite group is considered to be most significant
producer of hydrocarbons per unit volume organic matter.
Vitrinite-rich source rocks are thought to be producers of
both gas and some oil (Cook, 1982; Smyth, 1983). Cook
(1987) pointed out that the difference in specific
generation capacity between liptinite and inertinite are,
68
for most coals, balanced by the much greater abundance of
vitrinite. The generative potential of vitrinite is put at
one tenth of that of liptinite (Smyth et al., 1984; Cook et
al., 1985). Moreover, Tissot (1984) concluded that the
source potential of Type III kerogen is three or four times
less than that of Type I or II kerogen. According to
Snowdon and Powell (1982), the maceral vitrinite is
generally associated with the generation of methane during
catagenesis. In addition, Khorasani (1987) demonstrated
that vitrinites formed under dysaerobic conditions can
*
become perhydrous and partially oil prone. These vitrinites
are considerably more hydrogen rich than the classical
orthohydrous vitrinites.
Inertinite may have some generative potential (Smith
and Cook, 1980; Smyth, 1983). According to Struckmeyer
(1988), the generating potential of inertinite is considered
to be approximately one twentieth that of liptinite.
Khorasani (1989), however, stated that inertinite has
virtually no genetic potential for generating liquid
hydrocarbons. Her statement has been supported by pyrolysis
the data index (S2/Org.C) which is indicative of the
amounts of hydrocarbon already generated (Figure 5.18).
These data show that the contribution of inertinite to
generation of hydrocarbons, prior and within the oil window
as defined by Khorasani (1989), is negligible. Moreover,
the Tmax data (Figure 5.18) suggest that maximum
decomposition of inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher
69
activation energies compared to inertinite-poor kerogen.
However Smith and Cook (1980) suggested that inertinite
maturation may occur at much lower levels of rank than
assumed by Khorasani.
According to Rigby et al. (1986) and Kim and Cook
(1986), extracts from liptinite-rich coals are dominated by
branched and cyclic alkanes. In comparison vitrinite yields
a high proportion of long chain n-alknes. At a vitrinite
reflectance of 0.3-0.4%, vitrinite-rich coals can yield
significant amounts of n-alkanes (Rigby et al., 1986).
Marked n-alkane generation occurs over the range 0.4 to 0.8%
vitrinite reflectance.
A model for the generation of oil and condensate from
terrestrial organic matter has been made by Snowdon and
Powell (1982) as shown in Figure 5.19. They recognized that
the proportions of organic matter type in terrestrial source
rocks strongly controls both the level of thermal alteration
necessary for the section to function as an effective
source rock, and the ultimate product (gas, oil or
condensate) which will be generated.
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, coal measures
sequences occur within the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and the
Lahat Formations. As described in Chapter Four, in general,
these coals are rich in vitrinite, contain significant
amounts of liptinite and generally contain sparse
inertinite. Detrovitrinite and telovitrinite mainly occur
in approximately equal amounts in these coal measures.
70
Detrovitrinite generally has a higher specific generation
capacity which may be significant in relation to oil
generation (Cook, 1987). Gore (1983) suggested that
detrovitrinite may be markedly perhydrous and incorporate
sub-microscopic or finely comminuted liptinite, algae,
resins and the remains of a prolific animal and microbial
life including bacteria, rotifers, rhizopods, nematodes,
worms, insects, molluscs, copepods, larvae, sponges, fish,
vertebrates, zooplankton and phytoplankton. Telovitrinite
however tends to be orthohydrous and may incorporate lipids,
including fatty acids and proteins derived from the cell
contents, secondary cell walls, suberinized cell walls,
bacteria, resin ducts, cuticles and spores (Shortland, 1963;
Benson, 1966).
Liptinite macerals occurring in the Lahat and Talang
Akar Formations are mainly represented by sporinite and
liptodetrinite, while the liptinite macerals in the Muara
Enim coals occur mainly as resinite, sporinite, cutinite and
liptodetrinite with significant amounts of suberinite also
present. Cook (1987) suggested that the high percentage of
resinite and suberinite in some coals may be a significant
factor in relation to the timing of oil generation. He also
added that most Indonesian crude oils appear to have a low
naphthenic content suggesting that the contribution from
resinite is typically low.
A study of liquid hydrocarbon potential of resinite
taken from M2 coals of the Muara Enim Formation, was
71
undertaken by Teerman et al. (1987) using hydrous pyrolysis
methods. From this study, Teerman et al. (1987) indicated
that a large percentage of resinite can be converted into
hydrocarbons. Oil-pyrolysates are light, non-paraffinic
products consisting predominantly of cyclic isoprenoids and
their aromatic derivatives. The composition of these
hydrocarbons, however, are very distinct and different from
the composition of naturally occuring oils. Teerman et al.
(1987) concluded that resinite is probably not a significant
source for liquid hydrocarbons due to the lack of similarity
between these light non-paraffinic pyrolysates and naturally
occuring oils. Lewan and Williams (1987) also suggested
that resinites have not been a significant source for
petroleum.
In the Muara Enim Formation, bitumens and oil cuts
generally are more abundant than in other Tertiary rock
sequences from the South Palembang Sub-basin. The secondary
liptinite maceral exsudatinite is present in all of the coal
measures sequences and commonly occurs within vitrinites
having a reflectance between 0.4 and 0.8%. It is directly
related to the formation of hydrocarbons (Cook and
Struckmeyer, 1986). Fluorinite is abundant in the Muara
Enim coals which have vitrinite reflectances between 0.35
and 0.50%. Teichmuller (1974) regarded fluorinite to be
primarily derived from essential plant oils but some
fluorinite may be high pour-point crude oil trapped within
the coals. Small amounts of fluorinite have also been found
71
within the Talang Akar coals. Oil droplets and oil hazes
occur mainly in the Talang Akar Formation and some in the
Lahat Formation. Oil hazes are mainly associated with
telovitrinite where the oil comes from cracks or veins in
the telovitrinite and flows out during fluorescence
examination mode. Most of the features described above are
related to oil generation. Cook and Struckmeyer (1986)
summarized the occurrence of petrographic features related
to oil generation as shown in Table 5.13.
Assessment of the hydrocarbon generating potential of
source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin was made by
calculating the volume of liptinite to vitrinite in DOM and
coal. This calculation was introduced by Smyth et al.
(1984) and later modified by Struckmeyer (1988):
Score A = Liptinite +0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite
(all values in volume % of sample)
Score A is based on the volume and composition of organic
matter in a sample. An example for this calculation is
shown below;
Sample A contains approximately 6% (by volume)
organic matter consisting of 3% vitrinite, 2%
inertinite and 1% liptinite. Based on the
calculation above, sample A has a score of 2.
For quantification of Score A, the data set is compared
to values of S1+S2 from Rock-Eval pyrolysis (Struckmeyer,
73
1988). According to Cook and Ranasinghe (1989), SI is
considered to represent free bitumen-like compounds within
the rock and is taken as a measure of the amount of oil
generated, whereas S2 represents the main phase of loss of
hydrocarbons due to destructive distillation. S1+S2 is
measured in kilograms of hydrocarbons per tonne of rock. A
classification for source rock quality based on values of
S1+S2 was introduced by Tissot and Welte (1984) as shown
below;
< 2kg/tonne poor oil source potential
2 to 6kg/tonne moderate source potential
> 6kg/tonne good source potential
> lOOkg/tonne excellent source potential
Figure 5.20 shows a plot of S1+S2 values and Score A
for four samples from the Muara Enim and Talang Akar
Formations of the South Palembang Sub-basin. SI and S2
values have been produced by Rock-Eval analysis (Chapter
Six). Scores of hydrocarbon generation potential of 5.9 and
19.2 have been calculated from two Muara Enim samples (5383
and 5384) and correspond to values of 5.2 and 126.9 for
S1+S2. The highest score and S1+S2 value occur in a coal
sample (5384). These figures indicate that the samples have
good to very good source potential. Also score A values for
the Muara Enim Formation have been calculated from thirty
samples collected from wells studied. The results of these
calculations indicate that the Muara Enim Formation has very
good source rock potential with an average value about 23.2
1 \
[see Table 5.15),
Similar values were also obtained for the Talang Akar
samples (5385 and 5386). Hydrocarbon generation scores for
the samples range from 8.2 to 16.5 and correspond to S1+S2
values of 5.5 and 78.6. The data indicate that the samples
can be classified as good to very good source rocks. Again
these figures are supported by data calculated for forty
five samples collected from the Talang Akar Formation
showing very good hydrocarbon generation potential.
Score A values for samples from other formations have
also been calculated. The Lahat Formation is categorized as
having a good source rock potential with a score of 8.96/
Reports from several sources, such as Shell (1978), Purnomo
(1984), Suseno (1988) and Total Indonesie (1988), also
suggested that the Lahat can be considered as potential
source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Lacustrine
shale deposits of the Lahat Formation are expected to be
good quality source rocks and equivalent sequences are known
as a good source in the Central Sumatra Basin having high
TOC values. Good source rocks are also present in the Air
Benakat Formation which has a score of 6.96. The highest
scores for the Air Benakat samples occur within the upper
part of the Air Benakat Formation although results may be
slightly affected by cavings from the Muara Enim Formation.
Poor score values were found for the samples from the
Baturaja and Gumai Formations. The scores range from 0.2 to
0.7.
75
5.4.2 HYDROCARBON GENERATION
The principal zone of significant oil generation is
generally considered to occur between vitrinite reflectances
of 0.50% and 1.35% (Heroux et al., 1979; Cook, 1982; Smith
and Cook, 1984; Cook, 1986). Initial napthenic oil
generation from some resinite-rich source rocks may occur,
however, at maturation levels as low as a vitrinite
reflectance of 0.4% (Snowdon and Powell, 1982).
Cook (1982, 1987) considered that oil generation from
coals occurs at a much lower level of coal rank and is
largely complete by 0.75% R max. Gordon (1985) suggested a
threshold for oil generation from coals from the Ardjuna
Sub-basin of about 0.45% vitrinite reflectance.
Humic organic matter becomes post-mature for oil
generation between vitrinite reflectances of 1.2 and 1.4%,
at which time the source rocks become mature for gas
generation (Kantsler et al., 1983). Oil is generated from
organic matter at temperatures ranging from 60C to 140 C.
At higher temperatures, the humic organic matter becomes
post-mature for oil generation but mature for gas generation
as shown in Figure 5.21 and 5.22 (Kantsler and Cook, 1979).
Organic matter type strongly influences the range of
maturity over which organic matter generates oil (Tissot and
"7 6
Welte, 1978; Hunt, 1979; and Cook, 1982). Smith and Cook
(1980) suggested that the effect of organic matter type
variation on oil generation is complex because different
types of organic matter undergo breakdown over different
temperature ranges and yield a variety of hydrocarbon
compositions. According to Leythauser et al. (1980), oil
generation occurs firstly from Type I Kerogen (alginite),
then from Type II Kerogen and finally from Type III Kerogen
(vitrinite). In contrast Smith and Cook (1980, 1984)
reported that this order is reversed and the inertinite is
the first to generate hydrocarbons during burial
metamorphism, then vitrinite with liptinite being the least*
responsive maceral group at low temperature.
Based on the isoreflectance surfaces (shown in Figure
5.11) in the Muara Enim area, the lower parts of Muara Enim
and Air Benakat Formations are early mature in the BRG-3 and
KD-01 wells, while the middle part of the Gumai Formation is
mature in the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells. The upper part and
lower part of the Talang Akar Formation are also mature in
the PMN-2 and GM-14 wells.
In the Pendopo area, the Gumai Formation is generally
mature in almost all wells studied except in BN-10 where the
lower part of the Air Benakat Formation entered the mature
stage, as shown in Figure 5.12.
It can be concluded that the Gumai Formation is in the
mature stage throughout the well sections studied.
Furthermore, with an exception for the BRG-3 well, the Muara
77
Enim Formation is immature for oil generation throughout the
well sections in the South Palembang Sub-basin. However
some indications of oil generation are present within this
formation.
The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are relatively
mature to late mature for oil generation. Locally these
formations occur within the peak zone of oil generation
(R max 0.75%). If coal is accepted as a source for oil
(Durand and Paratte, 1983; Kim and Cook, 1986; Cook and
Struckmeyer, 1986), thermal maturation has probably already
generated hydrocarbons from the organic matter of these
formations. This conclusion is supported by the presence of
abundant oil drops, oil cuts, exudatinites and bitumens in
the samples from the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations.
5.4.2.1 Timing of Hydrocarbon Generation using Lopatin
Method
In order to asses the timing of hydrocarbon generation,
the method of Lopatin (1971), as modified by Waples (1980,
1985), has been used in the present study. Lopatin (1971)
assumed that the rate of organic maturation increases by a
factor r for every 10C increase in reaction temperature.
The factor r was taken to be close to a value of 2. For any
given 10 C temperature interval the temperature factor (x)
is given by
x = 2 where n is an index value Lopatin
73
assigned to each temperature interval.
The Lopatin model is based on an assumption that the
dependence of coalification on time is linear (i.e. doubling
the reaction time at a constant temperature doubles the
rank). The sum of the time factors (dtn), which describe
the length of time (in Ma) spent by each layer in each
temperature interval, and the appropriate x-factors was
defined by Lopatin as the Time-Temperature-Index (TTI);
n
max
TTI = s (dt
n
) (x),
n
min
where n . and n . are the values for n of the highest and
max m m
3
lowest temperature intervals encountered.
Lopatin (1971) suggested that specific TTI values
correspond to various values of vitrinite reflectance.
Waples (1980) has modified Lopatin's (1971) original
calibration but Katz et al. (1982) showed that Waples
correlations are likely to be incorrect for reflectance
values higher than approximately 1.3%. Furthermore Waples
(1985) reported that the threshold for oil generation at an
R max value of 0.65%, which was proposed in his previous
work, was almost certainly too high. He further stated that
different kerogen types have different oil-generation
thresholds. Therefore, a new correlation between TTI and
oil generation was proposed by Waples (1985). In this
79
correlation the onset of oil generation is shown to vary
from about TTI = 1 for resinite to TTI = 3 for high-sulphur
kerogens to TTI = 10 for other Type II kerogens to TTI = 15
for Type III kerogens.
In the present study, subsidence curves for selected
well sequences were constructed employing simple
backstripping methods and assuming no compaction effects,
and the TTI's were calculated assuming constant geothermal
gradients. The subsidence plots are based on
time-stratigraphic data in well completion reports and by
correlating between wells in the studied area.
The amount of sediment cover removed from the sequence
was estimated using the method suggested by Dow (1977) . The
loss of cover was estimated from linear extrapolation of the
reflectance profile, plotted on a semilog scale, to the
0.20% reflectance intercept. The result indicates that the
average thickness of cover lost in the Muara Enim area was
about 250 metres, whereas in the Pendopo area approximately
625 metres of cover lost was lost.
The maturation modelling and burial history for these
areas are given in Figure 5.23 and Figure 5.24. Top of the
oil window has been plotted at TTI=3 while bottom of the oil
window has been plotted at TTI=180.
For the Muara Enim area, the subsidence curve shows
that burial during Early-Middle Eocene was probably slow to
moderate and mostly continuous. During the Early Oligocene,
the rate of sedimentation began to exceed the rate of
sn
subsidence and the palaeotopography was rapidly filled in.
During this period the sea level began to rise as the major
Tertiary transgressive-regressive cycle commenced.
The peak of the transgressive phase occurred in about
the Early Miocene when the Gumai Formation was
accummulating. In the Middle Miocene, the rate of
subsidence progressively increased resulting in the
deposition of the Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations.
During this phase of subsidence, oil source rocks of the
Lahat and Talang Akar Formations entered the generative
window at about 7-8 Ma BP. Probably during Late Miocene,
these formations would have been generating oil and some
gas. The sediments were uplifted by a Plio-Pleistocene
orogeny probably in Late Pliocene.
Total Indonesie (1988) also reported that the onset of
oil generation in the Muara Enim area probably occurred 5 to
8 Ma BP which corresponds to the end of the Miocene
or beginning of the Pliocene. Based on the Lopatin model,
in the Muara Enim area, the oil window zone can be expected
at about 1300 metres depth. Average reflectance values of
0.54% occurred at this depth.
In general, sedimentation history of the Pendopo-Limau
area is similar to that in the Muara Enim area. The
thickness of section suggests that the Pendopo area was the
depocentre of the basin. An exception is the Baturaja
Formation which is thickest along margins of the basin and
-\ 1
Ji
on palaeotopographic highs. Therefore, the Baturaja
Formation is relatively thinner in the Muara Enim area.
The significant accumulation of sediments has played an
important role in the maturation of the oil source rocks
(the Lahat and Talang Akar Formationss). In the Pendopo
area, oil generation from the Talang Akar and Lahat
Formations probably started earlier (11-9 Ma BP) than in the
Muara Enim area. Shell (1978) suggested that Middle Miocene
can be considered as the timing for generation of oil in the
Pendopo area.
The initiation of the oil window is at 1200 metres
depth corresponding with a vitrinite reflectance value of
0.53%. However Shell (1978) reported that the South Sumatra
crudes indicate that their generation and expulsion
commenced at an equivalent vitrinite reflectance value of
0.68%, and a vitrinite reflectance value of 1.20 is
considered to be the onset of the gas expulsion.
Following the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny, the structural
features of the South Palembang Sub-basin were affected.
The Tertiary sediments were folded and the faults were also
rejuveneted by this orogeny. As discussed above, in the
Pendopo area, the onset of oil generation probably started
in the Middle Miocene while in the Muara Enim area the
generation of oil may have started at the end of the
Miocene-beginning of Pliocene and prior to the final pulse
of the Barisan orogeny.
32
T
n relation to this event, trapping can be expected in
older structures in the Pendopo area. In the Muara Enim
area, however, the picture become more chaotic. In this
areas, the zones which are modelled in the oil window would
be faulted down into the gas window, or they would be
faulted up above the oil window. Another possibility is the
zones which are modelled above the oil window would be
pulled down into the oil window or the gas window.
5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, a number of potential-*
reservoir rocks occur within two main parts of the
stratigraphic sequence, firstly within the regressive and
secondly within the transgressive sequence. The regressive
sequence is represented by the Muara Enim and Air Benakat
Formations, whereas the transgressive sequence is
represented by Baturaja and Talang Akar Formations.
The Muara Enim Formation is a major reservoir in the
Muara Enim Anticlinorium. It has been reported that minor
oil production was obtained from the Muara Enim Formation in
the Muara Enim field. The sandstones of this formation are
medium- to coarse-grained, moderately rounded and have fair
to medium porosity (37 to 39.5% porosity; Pertamina, 1988).
The sandstones of the Air Benakat Formation are fine-
to medium-grained and have a fair to medium porosity.
33
Hydrocarbon accumulations in the Air Benakat Formation have
been found in the Muara Enim Anticlinorium. According to
Purnomo (1984), about 20 m3 oil per day have been produced
in this area and after twenty eight years the production
rate declined to about 5 m3. The oil is of paraffinic type
with 35 to 45 API.
In 1959, oil was produced by the L5A-144 well for the
first time from the Baturaja Formation of the transgressive
sequence. In general, the contribution of the Baturaja
Formation as a reservoir for oil in the studied area is
minor. Kalan et al. (1984) reported that three major
depositional facies have been recognized in the Baturaja
Formation; basal argillaceous bank carbonates, main reefal
build-up carbonate and transgressive marine clastic rocks.
Within these facies, good porosity is restricted to the main
reefal build-up carbonate facies. This porosity is
secondary and developed as a result of fresh water influx
leaching the reefal carbonate and producing chalky, moldic
and vugular porosity. According to the drill completion
reports of the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells, porosity of Baturaja
reefal facies varies between 7.6 and 25.4% in the MBU-2 well
to 59 to 89% in the KG-10 well.
The most important reservoir rocks within the South
Palembang Sub-basin are sands from the Gritsand Member of
the transgressive Talang Akar sequence. The reservoirs are
multiple and the seals intraformational. Sandstones of the
Talang Akar Formation are commonly coarse-grained to
34
conglomeratic and fairly clean as the result of high energy
during their deposition. The porosity ranges from 15 to 25%
(Hutapea, 1981; Purnomo, 1984). API gravity of the oil
ranges from 15 to 40.2 .
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the majority of the
oil is trapped in anticlinal traps but some oils are found
in traps related to basement features such as drapes and
stratigraphic traps. The most common setting for an oil
trap is a faulted basement high with onlapping/wedging-out
Talang Akar sandstones on the flanks and Baturaja Formation
on the crest as the reservoirs.
35
CHAPTER SIX
CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present study, four crude oils and four rock
samples recovered from Tertiary sequences in the study area
were analysed. The details of the sample locations are given
in Table 6.1. The analyses included Gas Chromatography (GC)
analysis and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectometry (GC-MS)
analysis. In addition, four rock samples were crushed and
analysed for TOC content and also for their pyrolysis yield/
The analyses were carried out by R.E. Summons and J.M. Hope
at the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra.
The results of the oil analyses show that the oils have
hydrocarbon distributions derived from proportionally
different contributions from plant waxes, plant resins and
bacterial biomass. The oils were characterized by high
concentrations of cadinane and bicadinane hydrocarbons. In
general, the oils are mature.
The four rock samples contained 3.7 to 51.2 wt % TOC
(Table 6.8), thus the samples can be classified as ranging
from shale to coal. Based on the Rock-Eval Tmax values,
three samples were categorized as immature, and one sample,
recovered from the deepest part of the BRG-3 well, was
approaching the mature stage. The GC traces show bimodal
distributions of n-alkanes and Pr/Ph ratios in the
86
intermediate range of 4 to 5. Two samples contained high
concentrations of bicadinanes and oleanane.
6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY
6.2.1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
6.2.2 SAMPLE FRACTIONATION
From four oil samples, approximately 100 mg of each
whole oil was placed on a 12 g silica gel column. Three
fractions (i.e. saturates, aromatics and polars) were
collected (in 100 ml round bottom flask) by eluting the
column with 40 ml petroleum spirit, 50 ml petroleum
spirit/dichloromethane (1:1), and 40 ml chloroform/methanol
(1:1). Each fraction was reduced in volume on a rotary
evaporator to approximately 1 ml and then transferred to a
preweighed vial with dichloromethane (0.5 ml). The solvent
was carefully removed by gentle exposure to a stream of dry
nitrogen. Each fraction was weighed and labelled. Percent
compositions were calculated on the basis of the original
weights.
6.2.3 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS
A Varian 3400 GC equipped with a fused silica capillary
87
column (25m x 0.2mm) coated with cross-linked
methylsilicone (HP Ultra-1) was used for GC analysis. The
GC analysis was carried out on the saturated hydrocarbon
fractions. The samples, in hexane, were injected on column
at 60C and held isothermal for 2 minutes. The oven was
programmed to 300 C at 4 C/min with a hold period of 30
minutes. The carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of
30 cm/sec. Data were collected, integrated and manipulated
using DAPA GC software. An internal standard,
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso-C
22
), was added at the rate of
25ug per mg of saturates to enable absolute quantitation of
the major peaks.
6.2.4 PREPARATION OF B/C FRACTION
The full saturated hydrocarbon fraction proved to be
unsuitable for GC-MS owing to generally high proportions of
waxy n-alkanes. An aliquot of each of the saturated
fractions was converted to a B/C fraction by filtration
through a column of silicate. The sample (l.Omg) in pentane
(2ml) was filtered through the silicate and the column
washed with a further 5ml pentane. The non-adduct (B/C
fraction) was recovered by evaporation of the solvent and
the n-alkanes by dissolution of the silicate in 20% HF and
extraction of the residue with hexane. This method has the
advantage of being rapid and clean but a small proportion of
the low MW n-alkanes remains in the B/C fraction.
88
6.2.5 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTOMETRY ANALYSIS
GC-MS analysis was carried out using a VG 70E
instrument fitted with an HP 5790 GC and controlled by a VG
11-25 0 data system. The GC was equipped with an HP Ultra-1
capillary column (50m x 0.2mm) and a retention gap of
uncoated fused silica (1.0m x 0.3 3mm). The samples, in
hexane were injected on-column (SGE OCI-3 injector) at 50 C
and the oven programmed to 150C at 10C/minute then to
300C at 3C/minute with a hold period of 30 minutes. The
carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of 30cm/sec. The
mass spectrometer was operated with a source temperature of
240 C, ionisation energy of 7 0eV and interface line and
re-entrant at 310C. In the full scan mode, the mass
spectrometer was scanned from m/z 650 to m/z 50 at 1.8
sec/decade and interscan delay of 0.2 sec. In the multiple
reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, the magnet current and ESA
voltage were switched to sequentially sample 26 selected
parent-daughter pairs including one pair (m/z 404> 221)
for the deuterated sterane internal standard. The sampling
time was 40ms per reaction with 10ms delay giving a total
cycle time of 1.3s. Peaks were integrated manually and
annotated to the chromatograms.
6.2.6 RESULTS
The general nature of the crude oils from reservoirs in
^q
the MBU-2 and BRG-3 wells is summarized in Table 6.2 in
terms of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphalthene fraction.
The oils are generally dominated by saturated hydrocarbons
ranging from 63.7% to 77.4%. Therefore, the oils can be
classified as paraffinic (naphthenic) oils.
Aromatic hydrocarbon content of the oils ranges from
20.7 to 27%. The 540 and 541 oils are relatively higher in
aromatic hydrocarbon content (25.6 and 27%) respectively
than those from the 542 and 543 oils (24 and 20.7%). The
saturated and aromatic ratios from the oil samples range
from 2.1 to 3.3.
The amount of polar compounds of the oils is below 10%
(1.8% to 9.3%). The highest amount of this compound (9.3%)
occurs in the oil 541, while the lowest (1.8%) occurs in the
oil 543. Figure 6.1 shows the bulk composition of the crude
oils.
6.2.6.1 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
The GC profiles shown in Figures 6.2 to 6.5 have been
annotated to provide peak identification. The carbon number
of the n-alkanes are identified by numbers. Isoprenoids are
denoted "i" whereas the cyclohexanes are denoted "C" with
the carbon number. The alkane distribution profiles of the
total saturated fration of the crude oils examined are given
in Figures 6.2 to 6.5. The abundances of n-alkane,
isoprenoids and bicadinanes are listed in Tables 6.3 and
90
5.4,
The GC analysis of saturated hydrocarbon fractions
(C12+) of the oils revealed bimodal patterns of n-alkane
distributions in all oil samples. These compounds are
probably derived from contributions of bacteria (low MW) and
terrestrial vascular plant waxes (high MW). The waxy
n-alkanes, with a slight odd over even predominance, were
present in all oil samples and were most abundant in oil
sample 540 from the BRG-3 well. Low molecular weight
alkanes predominated in oil samples 541, 542 and 543.
Snowdon and Powell (1982) pointed out that the waxy oils are
believed to be associated with coals or terrestrial organic
material which is particularly rich in dispersed liptinite
such as spores and cuticles.
Isoprenoid alkanes were generally abundant relative to
the n-alkanes. Oil samples 540 and 541 have higher Pr/n-C17
ratios (2.08 and 2.77) respectively than those of the oil
samples 542 and 543 which have ratios of 0.7 and 0.9 (see
Table 6.4). Ph/n-C18 ratios of the whole oil samples range
from 0.25 to 0.47. The highest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.47) and
Pr/n-Cl7 ratio (2.77) occur in the oil 541 which also
contains relatively high waxes. The highest wax content
occurs in oil 540 and this sample also has a relatively high
Pr/n-C17 ratio (2=08) but the lowest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.25).
According to Palacas et al. (1984) and Waples (1985),
oils which are derived from land plant sources have a
relatively high ratio of pristane to n-C17 (>1) and a low
91
ratio of phytane to n-C18 (<1). These two properties are
characteristics of predominantly land-derived source organic
matter deposited under moderately oxidizing conditions.
On the basis of the Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios, two
groups of oil can be distinguished, Group 1 and Group 2.
Group 1 includes oils from the BRG-3 well (540 and 541)
whereas Group 2 contains oils 542 and 543 from the MBU-2
well. High Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios present in the oils of
Group 1 clearly show that these oils were derived from
terrestrial plant matter. The Group 2 however shows lower
Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios. This suggests the Group 2 oils
may have originated from a different non-marine source
compared with the Group 1 oils or may have an additional
contribution from a marine source.
Pristane to phytane ratios of the oils are relatively
high ranging from 2.11 to 8.0. The highest ratios are for
the oils 540 and 541 (with 6.5 and 8.0), whereas the oils
542 and 543 have a lower ratio (with 2.11 and 3.42).
High pristane to phytane ratios (greater than 3.0)
characterize high wax crude oils which primarily originated
in fluviatile and deltaic environment containing a
significant amount of terrestrial organic matter (Brook et
al., 1969; Powel and Mc Kirdy, 1975; Connan, 1974; Didyk et
al., 1978; Connan and Cassou, 1980). Padmasiri (1984)
pointed out that a high pristane to phytane ratio is
probably due to the presence of less reducing conditions
during early diagenesis where phytanic acid was mainly
92
converted into pristane through decarboxylation rather than
direct reduction to phytane.
Pristane and phytane were accompanied by high
abundances of 1-14, 1-15, 1-16, 1-18 and 1-21. Higher
isoprenoids such as 1-25 and 1-30 (squalane) were in very
low abundance or undetected (Figures 6.2 to 6.5).
The other series of compounds evident in the GC traces
were a series of triterpenoids. This series occurs as extra
peaks in the low molecular weight end of the GC traces (see
Figures 6.2 to 6.5). According to Summons and Janet Hope
(pers. comm., 1990), these are monomeric (sesquiterpene)
analogues of the bicadinanes and constitute the building
blocks for the polycadinane resin compounds. These
bicadinanes were assigned as W, T and R
1
with the addition
of another compound eluting after T and denoted T'.
6.2.6.2 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY
Metastable reaction monitoring (MRM) chromatograms for
m/z 191 reaction of the oils studied (Figure 6.6) show the
series of C27, C29+ pentacyclic triterpanes. Tissot and
Welte (1984) noted that these series are considered to have
originated from the membranes of bacteria and cyanobacteria.
The stereoisometric ratios of 22S/22S+22R for C32 and C31
r hopanes, (Ja/[3a+a(3 for C30 hopane and 20S/20S+20R for C29
norhopane can be used as maturity parameters. The
22S/22S+22R ratios of the oil studied are considered to be
high, ranging from 51 to 61% (Table 6.5.). They are
93
close to the end-point value of 60% which occurs once oils
are generated from mid-mature source rocks (Seifert and
Moldowan, 1978; Mckenzie et al., 1980). The maturity of the
oils is also indicated by a high ratio for 20S/20S+20R with
C29 norhopane, ranging from 40 to 56%. Furthermore, the
Ba/Ba+afl ratios for C30 hopane are generally < 0.1, evidence
of a mature signature of the oils.
From Figure 6.6, it can be seen that the most abundant
class of compounds detected were the bicadinanes. They were
present in high concentration in many traces. The strongest
response of the bicadinanes are shown in the m/z 191
reaction trace (Figure 6.7). In other oils, they also'
co-eluted with or eluted very close to the trisnohopanes (Ts
and Tm) as shown in the m/z 217 responses (Figure 6.8).
The occurrence of bicadinanes has been reported in
oils from Indonesia, Brunei, Sabah, and Bangladesh by
authors such as Grantham et al., (1983), Van Aarsen and de
Leeuw, (1989), Alam and Pearson, (1990), and Van Aarsen et
al., (1990). Van Aarsen et al., (1990) pointed out that
bicadinanes are cyclisation products of dimeric cadinanes
released during maturation of polycadinane a component of
damar tropical tree resin of the Dipterocarpaceae family.
Many species of Dipterocarpaceae grow at the present
time in most of the South Sumatra forest areas. The present
and previously reported occurrences of bicadinanes show
strong links to terrigenous organic input. Table 6.6 shows
the composition of four of the bicadinanes and the steroid
94
hydrocarbons determined by GC MS.
All samples contain C27-C29 steranes. In some cases
the relative abundance of C27-C29 steranes can be used as
indicators of the nature of the photosynthetic biota, both
terrestrial and aquatic, while triterpanes are usually
indicators of depositional and diagenetic conditions (Huang
and Meinschein, 1979). Land plant inputs are usually
inferred from a dominance of the C29 steranes. However
algae also possess a wide range of desmethyl sterols
(C26-C29) and may produce an oil with a major C29 component.
The distribution of steranes and methyl steranes from the
samples is shown in Figure 6.8 and listed in Table 6.5 and
Table 6.6.
In the present study, organic facies of the oil samples
were identified using a triangular diagram which shows
C27-C29 sterane distribution (Figure 6.9). This triangular
diagram was adapted from Waples and Machihara (1990). This
diagram shows that the origin of most of oil samples may be
higher plants which have a strong predominance of the C29
sterane. The distribution of hopanes, steranes and
bicadinanes from all the samples is shown in Table 6.7.
Biodegradation of a crude oil can be indicated by the
removal of n-alkanes, isoprenoids and other branched
alkanes, and even some cyclic alkanes (Bailey et al., 1973;
Goodwin et al., 1983; Cook and Ranasinghe, 1989). In the
early stages of biodegradation, low molecular weight
n-alkanes are removed, whereas the isoprenoids are
95
residualized. Therefore, degraded oils contain fewer normal
paraffins or waxes than non-degraded ones. In extensively
biodegraded oils, all C14-C16 bicyclic alkanes are removed,
followed by steranes. In very heavily biodegraded oils, up
to 50% of the 50a(H),14a(H),17a(H)20R isomers from the
C27-C29 steranes are removed and finally regular steranes
are also removed and changed into diasterane (Cook and
Ranasinghe, 1989). Therefore, in severely biodegraded oils,
a high concentration of diasteranes is present.
Figures 6.2 to 6.5 show that for the oils studied,
abundant n-alkanes (C9 to C34) are present. Volkman et al.
(1983) noted that non-degraded oils show low values for the
pristane/n-C17 and phytane/n-C18 ratios.
6.3 SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY
6.3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Four rock samples comprising shales and coals were
collected from different rock formations, that is, the Muara
Enim and Talang Akar Formations. In general, the samples
were treated by similar methods using GC analysis,
preparation of B/C fractions and GC-MS analysis. Because
the samples were rock, sample extraction was carried out as
described below.
96
6.3.1.1 SAMPLE EXTRACTION
The samples were crushed and analysed for TOC content
using a Leco carbon analyser. The samples were also
analysed for their pyrolysis yield using a Girdel Rock-Eval
II instrument. The crushed sediments were extracted using
pre-washed soxhlets and thimbles, using 87:13 CHCL3:MeOH as
solvent and continuing the process for 48 hours. The
extracts were filtered using micrometre filters and then
evaporated to near dryness. These extracts were then
treated as oil and separated into the different polarity
fractions by column chromatography.
6.3.2 RESULTS
The results of the total organic carbon (TOC),
Rock-Eval data and the composition of the extracts in terms
of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons and combined SO-asphaltene fraction are shown
in Table 6.8 and Figure 6.10. Linear alkane distribution
profiles of the saturated fractions of the extracts are
given in Figures 6.11 to 6.14. Table 6.9 shows the
composition of saturated hydrocarbons determined by GC
analysis of this fraction. Pristane and phytane ratios are
given in Table 6.11.
Table 6.8 shows that all the samples exceed the minimum
critical limit accepted for hydrocarbon generation from
37
clastic rocks (0.5 wt% TOC) as mentioned by Welte (1965) and
Phillipi (1969). The two shale samples contained a lower
percentage TOC (3.7 and 4.1 wt%) than the two "coal" samples
which contained 26.9 and 51.2 wt% TOC, although only one
sample can be classified as true coal. The two coal samples
also had relatively high HI values of 230 and both could
possibly represent source rock intervals, although only the
deepest sample which has R
y
max 0.83%, is considered to be
mature.
A source rock potential study of the Tertiary sequences
from the South Palembang Sub-basin has also been carried out
by Sarjono and Sardjito (1989) as summarized below;
Formation Total Organic Carbon Tmax
Lahat
Talang Akar
Baturaja
Gumai
Air Benakat
Muara Enim
1.7
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
to
to
to
to
to
to
8.5
8.0
1.5
11.5
1.7
52.7
436-441
425-450
425-450
400-440
>430
>430
In the present study, the Rock-Eval Tmax data show that
the samples from Talang Akar Formation were approaching the
appropriate maturity of 433 to 446C. Espitalie et al.,
(1985) suggested that the beginning of the oil-formation
zone is at Tmax of 430 to 435C, whereas the beginning of
the gas zone starts with Tmax of 465 to 470C for Type III
98
and 450 to 455C for Type II kerogen (Figure 6.15). However
Tmax is infuenced by organic matter type with liptinites
generally giving higher Tmax values compared with vitrinite
(Cook and Ranasinghe, 1990).
The production index (PI) of the samples varies from
0.06 to 0.20. Espitalie et al. (1985) also noted that the
PI can be used as another criterion of maturity. They
suggested the oil-formation zone begins at PI values between
0.05 and 0.10. The maximum oil formation is reached at Pis
of 0.30 to 0.40. Beyond this the PI values tend to remain
stationary or even decrease (gas formed).
A plot of the hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index (01)
is given in Figure 6.16. It is clearly seen that the samples
are categorized as Type III kerogen which would be largely
derived from the woody portions of higher plants.
The GC traces of the four samples all show bimodal
distribution of n-alkanes and Pr/Ph ratios in the
intermediate range of 4 to 5. The coal sample from the
Muara Enim Formation (5384) shows a predominance of odd
carbon number waxy n-alkanes which implies a high
terrestrial plant input (Figure 6.12). Shale sample (5385),
which was taken from the Talang Akar Formation, shows a
predominance of low carbon number n-alkanes without
significant odd/even predominance (Figure 6.13). The
shallow (5383) and deep (5386) samples both show about equal
abundances of short and long-chain n-alkanes, but
additionally, sample 5386 has only a weak odd/even
99
predominance (Figures 6.11 and 6.14).
Based on the distribution of C31 aB hopanes (22R>>22S),
it is clearly shown that the shallow samples (5383 and 5384)
are very immature (R
v
max 0.41 and 0.47%). The Talang Akar
samples (5385 and 5386) having reflectance values of 0.71
and 0.83%, however, show some mixed characteristics with an
immature distribution of C31 aB hopanes (22R>>22S), an
immature C29 sterane 20S/20R pattern, a mature aB
(hopane)/Ba (moretane) ratio and a mature C27 sterane
distribution. The 20S/20R ratio of C28 sterane is
intermediate. Based on these characteristics, it may be
concluded that the deepest sample (5386) is only just
approaching oil generation maturity but the sterane 20R/20S
ratio of the oil sample 541 was similar to the sample 5386.
A high concentration of bicadinanes and oleanane was
also shown in the Talang Akar samples (5385 and 5386) .
These characteristics are also found in the two oil samples
which were taken from the same well. However, due to the
limitations of the data, these similarities could not be
used to determine whether the Talang Akar samples represent
a source rock for the oils. The biomarker signature and
thermal maturity of the deepest sample (5386) shows similar
patterns with those from the oil sample (541).
100
CHAPTER SEVEN
COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG SUBBASIN
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The regional stratigraphy of the South Sumatra Basin
shows that coal seams occur more or less continuously over a
number of the Tertiary formations such as the Lahat, Talang
Akar and Muara Enim Formations. The coals with economic
potential are largely within the Muara Enim Formation.
An assessment of coal potential in the South Sumatra
Basin was made by Shell Mijnbouw during a major coal
exploration program from 1974 to 1978. The area for coal
exploration included the South Palembang Sub-basin. In the
South Palembang Sub-basin, several government institutions
such as the Directorate of Mineral Resources (DMR), the
Mineral Technology Development Centre (MTDC) and the
Directorate of Coal (DOC) have also been involved in
exploration for, and development of, the Muara Enim coals.
The volume of coal available in the South Palembang
Sub-basin was assessed by Shell Mijnbouw (1978) at
approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to a depth of 100
metres below the ground surface. These reserves are
clustered into two areas; the Enim and Pendopo areas.
Two thirds of the volume of the coal is found in the seams
of the M4 unit but the coals are low in rank.
101
7.2 COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION
As mentioned in Chapter Three, the Muara Enim Formation
can be divided into four subdivisions (from top to bottom);
M4, M3, M2, Ml subdivisions (See Table 3.3).
The oldest unit, the Ml subdivision consists of two
coal seams, the irregularly developed Merapi seam and the
5-10 metres thick Kladi seam at the base of the unit.
Neither of these seams generally offer a resource potential
within the range of economic surface mining. The interseam
sequence between the Kladi and Merapi seams is characterized
by brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and claystone with
minor glauconitic sandstone.
The M2 subdivision comprises three coal units (from top
to bottom); Mangus, Suban and Petai. Haan (1976) recognized
that most of these units locally split into two seams which
are designated as follows;
Mangus unit : Al and A2 seams
Suban unit : BI and B2 seams
Petai Unit : CI and C2 seams
These seams can be found in the area around Bukit Asam.
From the viewpoint of economically mineable coal reserves,
the M2 subdivision is locally the most important coal unit,
particularly in the Enim area. The coals are mainly hard
brown coal in rank, but high rank anthracitic coals can be
also found in the immediate vicinity of some andesite
intrusions.
102
The interseam rocks in the M2 subdivision are limnic
(perhaps in places, lagoonal/brackish) and mainly consist of
brown to grey claystone and brown-grey fine-grained to
medium-grained sandstone and some green-grey sandstones.
The coal seams of the M2 subdivision have several good
marker features which can be used to identify the seams
convincingly. A clay marker horizon within the Mangus seam
is used to correlate the interval over most of the area. A
well known tuffaceous horizon that separates the Al and A2
seams of the Mangus unit also can be used as a marker bed.
This horizon was probably deposited over a wide area during
a short interval of volcanic activity.
The M3 subdivision contains two main coal layers, the
Burung in the lower part and the Benuang in the upper part,
both of which are only of minor economic significance.
These coal layers have several characteristic sandstone
horizons and they can be recognized in most areas. The
thickness of the M3 division varies from 40 to 120 metres.
The uppermost and stratigraphically youngest part of
the Muara Enim Formation is the M4 subdivision (120-200
metres thick). The M4 subdivision contains the Kebon, Enim,
Jelawatan and Niru seams. The coals of this subdivision
were formerly called the Hanging layers in the Bukit Asam
area. Jelawatan and Enim seams contain coal of a lower
rank, with a lower calorific value and higher moisture
content than those of the M2 Subdivision. In some areas the
M4 seams offer an interesting resource potential.
103
The predominant rocks of the M4 Subdivision are
blue-green tuffaceous claystone and sandy claystone, some
dark brown coaly claystone, some white and grey fine-grained
to coarse-grained sandstone, with sparse glauconite
indicating marine-deltaic to fluvial conditions.
7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the Muara Enim coals
are clustered in two areas; Enim and Pendopo area. During
the major coal exploration program from 1974-1978, Shell
Mijnbouw divided the Enim area into two prospect areas; West
Enim area (includes Arahan-Air Serelo-Air Lawai area) and
East Enim area (includes Banko-Suban Jerigi area). In these
areas, a detailed coal exploration program was also
undertaken by DMR (1983-1985) and DOC (1985-1988). Data
from these institutions and from Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) have
been used in the present study. The Pendopo area is divided
into three prospect areas; Muara Lakitan-Talang Langaran,
Talang Akar-Sigoyang Benuang, and Prabumulih areas. In
addition, one particular aspect .of the Muara Enim coals is
the presence of anthracitic quality coals caused by thermal
effects of andesitic intrusions. These coals can be found
near the intrusive bodies of Bukit Asam, Bukit Bunian and
Bukit Kendi. They will be discussed separately.
104
7.3.1 ENIM PROSPECT AREAS
The Enim Prospect areas can be divided into two areas;
West Enim areas including Arahan, Muara Tiga, Banjarsari and
Kungkilan area, and East Enim areas including Banko and
Suban Jerigi area. The Bukit Asam coal mines actually, are
included in the West Enim area, but, because it has already
been mined since 1919, its coal resources will be discussed
in a separate section (Section 7.8).
The oldest coal seam of M2 subdivision, Kladi seam, has
been reported to occur in the Air Serelo area. The Kladi
seam offers a good prospect in terms of quality and is up to
9 metres in thickness. The coal is relatively clean and
high in rank.
In the Enim area, the Petai seam (C) of the M2
subdivision is developed throughout the areas as a 5-9
metres seam. Locally, this seam splits into two layers (CI
and C2) which have been recognized at the southern part of
West Banko and also at Central Banko (Kinhill Otto Gold,
1987). The combined thickness of these seams commonly
exceeds 12 metres.
In general, the most uniformly developed seam in these
areas is the Suban seam (B) of the M2 Subdivision. This
seam has a thickness varying from 15 to 20 metres and is
characterized by up to six claystone bands. It has been
reported that the Suban seam splits into a thicker (10-15
metres) upper (BI) and a thinner (2-5 metres) lower (B2)
105
seam in East Banjarsari, West Banko and Central Banko
(Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987) .
The Mangus seam (A) of the M2 Subdivision occurs as two
leaves, Al and A2, in most areas except in Arahan, South
Muara Tiga and West Banko. In these latter areas, the
Mangus seam is split into numerous thin streaks and
interbeds by thick fluvial intersections. The A2 seam is
fairly uniformly thick (8-12 metres) in most areas except
Central Banko where it tends to split. , The Al seam is
generally 8-10 metres thick, but it splits into numerous
thin seams in the areas mentioned above.
A 9 to 12 metres thick development of the Enim seam
occurs over large areas and it is generally free from dirt
bands. The thickness of this seam reaches approximately 27
metres at Banjarsari and North Suban Jerigi area.
Another interesting seam is the Jelawatan seam which
has a thickness between 6 to 15 metres at Banjarsari and
Suban Jerigi area.
7.3.1.2 PENDOPO AREA
During the Shell Mijnbouw Coal Exploration Program, the
studied areas near Pendopo included Muara Lakitan and Talang
Langaran, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang, West Benakat and
Prabumulih areas. Coals from the M2, M3 and M4 subdivisions
are found in these areas.
Seams present in the M2 subdivision include the Petai,
106
Suban and Mangus seams. The Petai seam occurs in the
Sigoyang Benuang, Prabumulih and West Benakat area. The
thickness of this seam varies from 5 to 8 metres. The Suban
seam is found at Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat. The
Suban seam has a thickness between 9 to 13 metres. The most
widely distributed seam in the M2 subdivision is the Mangus
seam. It occurs over all of the Pendopo areas. The
thickness of the seam varies from 6 to 13 metres. The
thickest development of the Mangus seam is found in the West
Benakat area but unfortunately the dips of the seam are
relatively steep, around 15 .
The M3 subdivision is represented by the occurrence of
the Benuang (Burung) seam which has a thickness of about 5
to 9 metres. This seam can be found in the Talang Langaran,
Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat areas.
Coals of the M4 subdivision are found in the whole
Pendopo area. These coals are the Niru, Jelawatan, Kebon,
Enim and Niru seams. The Enim seam offers an attractive
mining target in terms of thickness as it ranges from 9 to
24 metres. The thickness of the Niru seam varies from 6 to
11 metres. The Jelawatan seam reaches 15 metres in
thickness in the Talang Akar area, while a 5 metre thick
development of the Kebon seam is found in the Muara Lakitan
area.
107
7.4 COAL QUALITY
On the basis of the potential use for brown coal as a
thermal energy source (calorific value and moisture content
being the main determinants of suitability) the quality of
South Sumatra coals was summarized by Shell Mijnbouw (197 8).
According to Shell Mijnbouw (197 8), the older coals of the
Ml and M2 subdivisions contain about 30-50% moisture, while
the moisture content of coals of M3 and M4 subdivisions
ranges between 40-65%. The dry ash-free gross calorific
value of Ml and M2 coals ranges between 6500 and 7500
kcal/kg, and it varies between 6100 and 7000 kcal/kg for the
M3 and M4 coals. The inherent ash content of coals is
usually less than 6% (dry basis). Sulphur content of the
coals is generally less than 1% (dry basis) but locally it
increases to 4% (dry basis) in some areas.
Kinhill Otto Gold (19 87) has also determined the
quality of coals from specific areas such as the Enim area.
According to the Kinhill Otto Gold result's, the rank of
coals in the Enim areas, varies between sub-bituminous A
(ASTM)/brown coals, Class 1 (ISO)/Glanzbraunkohle (German
classification) and Lignite B/brown coals, Class
5/Weichbraunkohle (Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987). Quality values
for the coals typically range between :
Total Moisture: 23-54%
Ash (dry basis): 3-12%
Sulphur (dry basis): 0.2-1.7%
10 8
CV net (in-situ): 10-20 MJ/kg
Sodium in ash: 1.8-8%
Grindability: 37-56 HGI
Further details of the coal qualities of the Pendopo
and Enim areas are given in Table 7.1-7.6, where the
parameters of thickness, total moisture (TM), ash, sulphur,
volatiles and calorific values are listed. Values are
averages for each seam and for each area or sub-area.
7.5 ASH COMPOSITION
The ash composition data were obtained from Kinhill
Otto Gold (1987). According to this report the major
mineral components in Sumatran coals are; quartz (detrital)
and kaolinite. Small amounts of pyrite (marcasite),
volcanic feldspar, Ca and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates and sulphates,
and phosphates, are also present. Volcanic tuff bands which
are commonly present in the coals, contain mainly kaolinized
volcanic glass.
A study of sodium content in the coal ash was also done
by Kinhill-Otto Gold (1987), particularly for coals in the
Enim area. This study is important in relation to use of
these coals in thermal power station. The Na~0 values above
3-4% are indicative of undesirable fouling and slagging
characteristics in industrial boilers and strongly lower the
ash fusion temperatures. Substantial impact on boiler
operation is expected above 6-8% Na~0. The results
109
of sodium-in-ash analyses are listed in Table 7.7. The
analyses were performed on coal samples following the
procedures of ISO.
According to Kinhill-Otto Gold (1987), the upper seam
group (M4), with the Enim and Jelawatan seams, has moderate
sodium content (below 2.5%) and peak values rarely reach
5.0%. The lower group of seams (M2), including the Al, A2,
B/Bl and C/C1-C2 seams, has a moderately high to high Na
2
0
content.
7.6 STRUCTURES
In general, the tectonic style of the area under study
is characterized by fold and fault structures. Pulunggono
(1986) recognized that these structures run parallel with a
WNW-ESE trend. He also concluded that the Plio-Pleistocene
orogeny was responsible for these WNW-ESE trending folded
structures with accompanying faults.
Within the Pendopo areas, the general trends of folds
is NW-SE. This trend can be observed at Muara Lakitan area
and Talang Langaran area. The NW-SE folds at Muara Lakitan
have gently to moderately dipping flanks, less than 20.
The average inclination of coal seams in the Muara Lakitan
area is about 8, while that in the Talang Langaran area, is
steeper (15 ) than that in the Muara Lakitan. Low seam dips
(about 6 ) are found in the areas of Talang Akar and
Sigoyang Benuang but they become steeper (20) in the
110
vicinity of N-S and NE-SW faults. Numerous small faults
trending N-S and NE-SW occur in the West Benakat area.
Steep dips of the coal seam (around 15) cause difficulties
from the mining point of view. In the Prabumulih area, dips
of coal seams are generally low (6-10).
In general, the strike direction of the fold axes in
the Enim area occurs at approximately E-W (80-100; see
Figure 1.5). This direction turns towards WNW-ESE
(100-130) in the northwestern part of the Bukit Asam area.
In the Northwest Banko area, directions of 130-160 are
predominant. The structural features of the Banko-Suban
Jerigi area are more complicated than those in other areas.
Numerous folds and faults are present in these areas. A
NW-SE anticlinal axis is closely related to numerous
displacements along NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE, NE-SW and WNW-ESE
directions. Dip angles range from 5 to 2 .
In the Arahan area, particularly in the northern part
of this area, dips of coal seams are relatively low (around
7), but they become higher (9-10 ) in the southern area.
Relatively steep (around 14-19 ) dips of coal seams are
present in the Air Lawai areas. Although the coal seams of
this area offer good prospects in term of thickness (9-20
metres), the dips of the seams are too steep for surface
mining. As discussed above, the geological structures of
the Banko-Suban Jerigi area are complicated due to intensive
faulting. Therefore, the mineable areas are restricted to
some of the relatively larger blocks bounded by fault
Ill
planes. Dip angles of coal seams vary between 5 to 20 .
7.7 COAL RESERVES
As mentioned previously, Shell Mijnbouw (1978) divided
the Pendopo area into four subareas; the Muara Lakitan and
Talang Langaran area, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang area,
West Benakat area and Prabumulih area. Coal reserves for
each of these areas were also estimated.
An in-situ coal volume of approximately 300 million
cubic metres can be expected in the Muara Lakitan and Talang
Langaran areas combined with a maximum overburden thickness
of 50 metres, a minimum coal seam thickness of 5 metres and
a maximum 15 dip of the seam (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978) . The
Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang areas have about 1,330
million cubic metres in-situ coal volume. The coal
resources of the West Benakat area, however, were not
calculated, because the coal seams are either too steep or
too thin. In the Prabumulih area, surface-mineable coal
reserves for seams of more than 5 metres in thickness and
less than 15 dip amount to 400 million cubic metres down to
50 metres depth.
Although coal reserves in the Enim area had already
been estimated by Shell Mijnbouw, the reserve estimates were
also made by Kinhill otto Gold (1987) and the latter are
used in the present study. The classification of the
geological reserves used by Kinhill Otto Gold follows the US
112
Geological Survey system. A summary of coal resources of
the Enim area is given in Table 7.8.
7.8 THE BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES
Coals occurring in the Bukit Asam Mines area are known
as the Air Laya Coal Deposit because one of the mines
operating is in the Air Laya area. These coals have been
mined since 1919 in underground workings but the mines were
abandoned in 1942. Since then, coal mines have been
operated by surface mining systems. Another coal mine is
located in the Suban area where anthracitic coals are mined.
The mines are operated by the state-owned Indonesian
company, P.T. Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam (Persero).
The geology of the Air Laya Coal Deposit was studied in
detail by Mannhardt (1921), Haan (1976), Frank (1978),
Matasak and Kendarsi (1980), and Schwartzenberg (1986).
The Air Laya Coal Deposit is characterized by the close
proximity of sedimentary and plutonic petrofacies. The
thermal and kinematic impacts of the plutonic intrusions
have decisively influenced the structure and the coal
quality. Mannhardt (1921) assummed that the plutonic
intrusions are probably laccoliths.
The coal seams exposed in the Bukit Asam Mines belong
to the M2 Subdivision of the Muara Enim Formation (Figure
7.1) .
113
7.8.1 STRATIGRAPHY
7.8.1.1 QUATERNARY SUCCESSION
This unit consists mainly of river gravel and sands
from the ancient Enim River and overlies soft clay deposits
which are interbedded with bentonite layers of former ash
tuffs and occasional large volcanic bombs (Schwartzenberg,
1986). The thickness of this unit is about 20 metres.
7.8.1.2 TERTIARY SUCCESSION
In the Bukit Asam Coal Mines, the Tertiary succession
can be divided into two subunits; coal seams, overburden and
intercalations.
7.8.1.2.1 Coal seams:
Three coal units of the M2 Subdivision occur in the
Bukit Asam area, they are; the Mangus, Suban and Petai
seams. The Mangus seam is split into two layers (Al and A2
seam) by a 4 to 5 metres thick unit of tuffaceous claystones
and sandstones. The thickness of the Al seam is about 2.5
to 9.8 metres, whereas that of the A2 seam is around 4.2 to
12.9 metres thick.
The Suban seam also splits into two layers (BI and B2
seam). The BI seam is usually the best developed of the
114
sequence with an average thickness of 11 metres. The B2
seam is about 2 to 5 metres in thickness.
The lowest coal seam in the Bukit Asam area is the
Petai seam. It varies in thickness between 4.2 to 10.8
metres.
7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and Intercalations:
The overlying strata consist of claystones and
siltstones which are interbedded with up to three bentonitic
clay layers (each only a few metres in thickness). The
claystones are blue-green to grey in colour and are usually
massive but sometimes they are finely banded. Clay
ironstone nodules are abundant in this unit. They vary in
size from small pebbles to large cobbles.
Tuffaceous claystone and sandstone occur as the
intercalation layers between the A (Mangus) seams. This
unit is continuously graded from the base where quartz and
lithic fragments are enclosed in a clay matrix, to the top
where the rock is fine-grained and clayey. The thickness of
this unit is about 4 to 5 metres.
The interseam strata between Al-Bl and B1-B2 coal seams
are characterized by similar rock types to those of the
overlying strata but plant remains occur more frequently in
the interseam strata. A thin coal intercalation of 0.2-0.4
metres in thickness occurs within the A2-B1 interval. This
coal is known as the Suban Coal Marker. The thickness of
115
the A2-B1 interval is around 18 to 23 metres, whereas that
of B1-B2 interval is up to 5 metres. In the western part of
the Bukit Asam area, the intercalation between B1-B2
disappears and the B1-B2 seams merge together.
A sequence of some 33-40 metres of siltstone and silty
sandstone occurs between the B2 seam and C (Petai) seam.
This sequence consists of glauconitic sandstone alternating
with thin lenticular and ripple-bedded siltstone layers.
These sedimentary structures suggest sedimentation within
tidal zones (Schwartzenberg, 1986). In the Suban mine, an
andesite sill is intruded into the B2-C intercalation and
increased its thickness from about 35 to 60 metres.
7.8.2 COAL QUALITY
The Bukit Asam coals are characterized by a wide range
of quality due to the intrusion of a number of andesitic
plutons during the Early Quarternary. The heating has
increased the extent of coalification and advanced the rank
of coals. In terms of coal rank, three classes of coals are
found in the Bukit Asam area. They are semianthracite to
anthracite, bituminous and sub-bituminous coals. Kendarsi
(1984) and Schwartzenberg (1986) described the quality of
the Air Laya coal deposit. According to them, the total
moisture of the Air Laya coals varies between 4 and 26%.
The ash content of the coals ranges between 6-7% and reaches
maximum values of around 10% in the areas of greater
116
coalification (Schwartzenberg, 1986). Volatile matter of
the coals is about 32.1% (as received), while fixed carbon
content is around 40.3% (as received). Heat value of the
coals ranges between 5425 to above 6000 kcal/kg (as
received). The sulphur content of the coals varies between
each seam. The Al seam contains 0.5%, A2 and BI seams
contain 0.3%, B2 seam contains 0.9%, and C seam contains
1.1%. From these figures, it can be concluded that the
lower part of the M2 Subdivision was more influenced by
marine conditions.
Kendarsi (1984) reported the quality of coals from the
Suban mine on an air dried basis as described below:
Gross CV 7900-8200 Kcal/kg
Inherent moisture 1.7-2.3 %
Total Moisture 3.7-6.2 %
Volatile matter 8.2-16.8 %
Fixed Carbon 75.0-84.4 %
Ash 1.6-5.8 %
Total sulphur 0.7-1.2 %
7.8.3 COAL RESERVES
Schwartzenberg (1986) estimated and described the
reserves of the Muara Enim coals in the Air Laya mine based
on the ASTM-Standards (D 388-77) as described below:
117
Class Group
Approximate Tonnages
Anthracite 3Semianthracite 1,000,000
Bituminous
Sub-bituminous
lLow Volatile
2Medium Volatile
3High Volatile A
4High Volatile B
5High Volatile C
lSub-bituminous A
2Sub-bituminous B
15,000,000
30,000,000
66,000,000
T o t a l 112,000,000 tones
The reserves of anthracitic coals at the Suban mine
have been reported by Kendarsi (19 84) to be approximately
5.4 million tonnes.
7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS
Bukit Kendi is located about 10 kilometres southwest of
Bukit Asam. Ziegler (1921) described the coals of this area
and identified the coal sequences as (from young to old);
the Hanging seams, the Gambir seams, the Kendi seam and the
Kabau seam. The Hanging seam comprises 2 to 8 seams which
total 15 metres in thickness. This seam probably belongs to
M3-M4 subdivision (Shell, 1978). The Gambir seams consists
118
of 1 to 3 layers having a thickness between 2 and 10 metres.
This seam probably belongs to the M3 subdivision." The Kendi
seam is 8-30 metres in total thickness in the Bukit Kendi
area. The Kendi seam comprises 2 to 3 layers and can be
correlated with the Mangus-Suban-Petai sequence of the M2
subdivision. The Kabau seam is split into two layers with 2
to 6 metres total thickness. This seam is believed to be
equivalent with the Kladi seam of the Ml subdivision.
The rank of Kendi coals has been upgraded, by an
andesitic intrusion, from brown coal to high volatile
bituminous coal. Unfortunately this coal is distributed
only in limited small areas due to the structural
complications in this region. Naturally coked coals have
also been found in this area, and they probably belong to
the Kabau seam. The quality of the Kabau seam is described
in Table 7.9.
Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) estimated the in-situ resources
of the Kabau seam about 0.5 million tonnes, down to 100
metres depth.
7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS
Bukit Bunian is located 10 kilometres south of Bukit
Kendi. In this area two coal groups occur which were
designated by Hartmann (1921) as the Tahis and Bilau seams.
The Tahis seam can be correlated with the Kladi seam of the
Ml subdivision (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978), whereas the Bilau
119
seams are believed to be equivalent with the Mangus, Suban
and Petai seams. The Tahis seam is split into two layers
and has a total thickness up to 4 metres. The Bilau seams
can be divided into three; Bilau 1, 2, and 3. The Bilau 1
is a poorly developed seam consisting of 2 or 3 thin layers
and often contains carbonaceous clay. The thickness of this
seam varies from 0.5 to 1.5 metres. The best developed coal
seam is Bilau 2 about 10-15 metres in thickness, whereas
the thickness of Bilau 3 seam varies from 1.5 to 8 metres.
The quality of the Bunian coals was reported by Shell
Mijbouw (197 8). According to this report, the reflectance
values of the Bukit Bunian coals are about 0.6 to 0.8% and
the coals have gross calorific values of about 7100-7900
kcal/kg (dried air free). Inherent moisture of the coals
varies between 10 to 18%. Volatile matter contents of the
coals range from 40 to 55% (dry). The coals contain less
than 5% ash and contain less than 1% to 2.6% sulphur on a
dry basis. In the area closer to the intrusive body, gross
calorific values of the coals increase to about 8300-8500
kcal/kg (dried air free) and volatile matter content
decreases to about 4%. Inherent moisture content of the
thermally upgraded coals drops to 1%.
The resources of coal have been reported to be more
than 35 million tonnes, but these resources would be
difficult to mine by either open-pit or subsurface methods
due to very steep dips (20-55) and the complicated
structural setting.
120
CHAPTER EIGHT
COAL UTILIZATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Indonesia, the utilization of coal for domestic
purposes can be divided into two categories; firstly as
direct fuel, for example in power plants, lime, brick tile
burning and cement plants, and secondly as an indirect fuel
or as a feedstock for chemical industries. In this last
case a major use is coke as a reductant in ore smelting and
foundries.
The utilization of coal cannot be separated from the
application of coal petrographic studies because the
behavior of coal properties such as type and rank will
influence the utilization of coal. Petrographic methods are
generally the most suited for determining the genetic
characteristics of coal, the rank of coal and can be also
used to predict the behavior of coal in any technological
process of interest.
At the present time, the South Sumatra coals,
particularly from the M2 subdivision of the Muara Enim, are
mainly used for steam generation. This energy is used
directly and indirectly in industrial processes and by
utilities for electric power generation. Semi-anthracite
coals from the Suban mine are used mainly as reductant in
the Bangka tin smelter.
121
The coals are transported by train from the Bukit Asam
mines to supply the cement manufacturing plant at Baturaja
town, the electric power plants at Bukit Asam itself or at
Suralaya (West Java), and to supply the Bangka tin smelter
on Bangka Island (see Figure 8.1).
8.2 COMBUSTION
Mackowsky (1982) and Bustin et al. (1983) noted that
the generation of energy or heat from coal by combustion is
the result of reactions between the combustible matter of
the coal and oxygen. Four coal characteristics related to
rank and petrographic composition influence combustion
(Neavel, 1981; Mackowsky, 1982); calorific value,
grindability, swelling and ignition behavior, and ash
properties.
The relationship between calorific value and maceral
groups has been discussed by Kroger (1957) as shown in Table
8.1. From these data it can be concluded that macerals
which have a high hydrogen content, would have markedly
higher calorific value. Liptinite macerals of low rank
coals contain relatively high hydrogen. Therefore, the
calorific value of this maceral is also high. In contrast
the inertinite macerals have low calorific values, which are
partially caused by their low hydrogen content. Mackowsky
(1982) recognized that the calorific value of the three
maceral groups are almost the same for coals of low volatile
bituminous rank.
122
The use of coal for combustion at present is dominated
by its use as pulverized fuel for electric power generation.
Baker (1979) considered that moisture content of coal is the
most important factor to be considered in fuel pulverized
plant design because variable and excessive moisture can
cause serious problems in the operation of pulverizers.
Therefore, coal must be dry before entering the pulverized
fuel plant.
In most power station boilers, coal must be pulverized
to a particle size mainly below 7 5 microns (Ward, 1984).
Therefore grindability of a coal is an important
characteristic because of the additional energy required to
grind a hard tough coal. Based on the ASTM Standard D-409,
this property of coal is known as the Hardgrove Grindability
Index (HGI); the higher the HGI values, the easier coals are
to pulverize. In terms of energy required, the higher HGI
values mean less energy is required for grinding than for
lower HGI values. The grindability of the Muara Enim coals
ranges between 37-56 HGI.
The HGI is related to rank and type of a coal. This
relationship has been studied by Neavel (1981). He noted
that the HGI increases with increases in rank to about 1.40%
vitrinite reflectance (about 23% volatile matter and 90% C)
and decreases at ranks greater than 1.40% vitrinite
reflectance. Low-volatile bituminous coals are generally
much easier to pulverize than high-volatile coals. Coals
rich in liptinite and inertinite, are much more difficult to
123
grind than vitrinite-rich coal. The Muara Enim coals are
rich in vitrinite but are easy to grind and commonly
accumulate in the finer fractions, being enriched in the
small size range. In addition, mineral content of coal is
also related to the HGI values. In low rank coals, the HGI
values increase with increases in mineral matter content.
Neavel (1981) reported that increases in the amounts of
liptinite, vitrinite and pyrite can be correlated with an
increase in the explosive tendencies of dust. Furthermore,
he added that the tendency for spontaneous combustion in
stockpiles is mainly related to the presence of coals rich
in fusinite or pyrite. The Muara Enim coals have a low
content of fusinite (less than 1%), but the tendency for
spontaneous combustion is still high due to their low rank
and, in some cases, high pyrite content.
The behavior of the individual coal macerals during the
combustion process has been observed by Ramsden and Shibaoka
(1979) using optical microscopy. They indicated that
vitrinite-rich particles from bituminous and sub-bituminous
coals expand forming cellular structures. However
fusinite-rich particles show little or no expansion.
Expansion is greatest for medium volatile coals where it is
mainly influenced by the rate of heating. They also noted
that the burn-off rate is influenced by the maceral content.
Vitrinite-rich particles have a higher burn-off rate than
fusinite-rich particles.
Reid (1981) noted that the ash properties are related
124
to mineral composition in the coals. Mineral matter affects
the development of deposits and corrosion. Variations in
type of mineral matter also can affect ash fusion
properties. Coals that have low ash fusion temperatures are
likely to cause slag deposits to form on the boiler
surfaces. Boilers can become coated or corroded by slag
deposits.
The major elements of the ash in the Muara Enim
coals, that is Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg, Na and K, are bonded to the
coal. These elements are present in minerals such as
quartz, kaolinite, pyrite, detrital volcanic feldsphar, 'Ca
and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates, sulphates and phosphates. Sulphur
is a major contributor to corrosion by flue gases. Sulphur
content of Muara Enim coals varies between 0.2 to 1.7%.
8.3 GASIFICATION
Gasification of coal is another possibility for using
Muara Enim coals. Through gasification, the coal is
converted into gas by using oxygen and/or steam as the
gasification agent. The gas yielded can be used as an
alternative to natural gas. Gasification testing of the
coals from the Bukit Asam mines has been done by using the
Koppers-Totzek process (Gapp, 1980). According to tests,
the coals produced good results for gasification.
In South Sumatra, a large nitrogen fertilizer industry
is based on natural gas. This industry is located near
125
Palembang City. Continued future operation of this facility
depends on an assured supply of natural gas as its
feedstock. Reserves of mineral oil and natural gas are
limited whereas abundant coal is available. By using coal
gasification technology, synthetic gas can be produced
economically for ammonia and methanol production. Hartarto
and Hidayat (1980) estimated that one coal gasification
plant would consume about 700,000 tonnes of coal per year to
produce 1000 tonnes ammonia per day. He added that from
these figures, about 7000-8000 tones of sulphur can be
produced a year as a useful by product. Most of Indonesia's
sulphur requirement is still imported because there are no
large sulphur deposits within the country. Therefore,
sulphur from coals could replace this import.
8.4 CARBONISATION
In the area of coal carbonization or coke making, the
application of coal petrology plays an important role.
Maceral and reflectance analysis can be used to predict the
behavior of coals used for coke. In general, coals in the
bituminous rank range (from about 0.75% to 1.7% vitrinite
reflectance) will produce cokes when heated, but the best
quality cokes are produced from coals in the range vitrinite
reflectances from 1.1 % to 1.6 % (Cook, pers. coram, 1991).
However, not all bituminous coals can produce coke.
Carbonisation or coke making is a process of destructive
126
distillation of organic substances in the absence of air
(Crelling, 1980; Neavel, 1981; Cook, 1982; Makowsky, 1982).
In this process, coal is heated in the absence of air and
turns into a hard sponge-like mass of nearly pure carbon.
Coke is mainly used in iron making blast furnaces. In the
furnace, the coke has three functions; to burn and to
produce heat, to act as a reductant, and to support,
physically, the weight of ore, coke and fluxing agents in
the upper part of the shaft (Cook, 1982).
In order to improve coking properties of Muara Enim
coals, a Lurgi low temperature carbonization pilot plant was
built in the Bukit Asam area (Tobing, 1980). The result of
the tests indicated that metallurgical coke of sufficient
strength and porosity could not be made on an economical
basis. Tobing (1980) described the chemical characteristic
of the semi cokes which were produced from the Lurgi plant
and they were similar to the Bukit Asam semi-anthracitic
coals as shown in Table 8.2. The Bukit Asam
semi-anthracitic coal is used by the tin ore smelting in
Bangka and ferro-nickel smelting at Pomalaa (Sulawesi).
Edwards and Cook (1972) studied the relationship between
coke strength and coal rank which is indicated by vitrinite
reflectance and carbon content of vitrinite (Figure 8.2).
They suggested that coal containing between 86% and 89%
total carbon in vitrinite can form cokes without blending
with other coals. Coal which has a vitrinite content
between 45% to 55% and an inertinite content of close to
127
40%, is very suitable for coking coal. These target
specifications are not met by the coals from the South
Sumatra Basin.
128
CHAPTER NINE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
9.1 SUMMARY
9.1.1 TYPE
The composition of maceral groups in the Tertiary
sequences are summarized in Table 9.1 and Appendix 2. The
results of the present petrographic study show that the
Muara Enim, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations contain
lithologies rich in DOM and a number of coal seams. In
general, vitrinite is the dominant maceral group within the
Tertiary sequences. The second most abundant maceral group
is liptinite. In the Gumai Formation, however, inertinite
appears to be the second most abundant maceral to vitrinite.
Table 9.1
No. Formation Range R max
(%)
V
C o a l
V I L
(%)
(m.m. f. )
D O M
V I L
(%)
(m.m. f.)
1. Lahat 0.54-0.92
2. Talang Akar 0.50-0.87
3. Baturaja 0.53-0.72
4. Gumai 0.36-0.67
5. Air Benakat 0.31-0.58
6. Muara Enim 0.30-0.50
86
87
81
4
3
10
10
13
84 2
90 3
97 tr
63 22
78 3
65 3
14
7
3
15
19
32
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, on a mineral matter
free basis the vitrinite content of the DOM from Tertiary
sequences ranges from 65% to 97% (average = 81%), whereas in
the coals, it ranges from 81% to 87% (average = 84%). Both
129
in the coals and DOM, detrovitrinite is the main vitrinite
maceral group and predominantly occurs as a detrital
groundmass interbedded with thin bands of telovitrinite. In
some cases where the coals are affected by thermal effects
from intrusions, telovitrinite is the main type of vitrinite
as reported by Daulay (1985).
Vitrinite from the youngest coal seams (Muara Enim
coals) still shows cellular structures derived from plant
material. Some of the telovitrinite cell lumens are
infilled by fluorinite or resinite. Gelovitrinite, mainly
corpovitrinite and porigelinite are scattered throughout the
coals. With increasing depth and age, telovitrinite becomes
dense and compact, and the cell lumens are completely
closed. This occurs in the coals from the Lahat and Talang
Akar Formations. For the thermally affected coals,
vitrinite is mostly structureless, massive and contains few
pores (Daulay, 1985). The dominance of vitrinite in these
coals is indicative of forest type vegetation in the humid
tropical zone, without significant dry events throughout the
period of accumulation. Cook (197 5) noted that coals which
have a high vitrinite content were probably deposited in
areas of rapid subsidence. In some cases vitrinite-rich
coals have a high mineral matter content.
Inertinite is generally rare in the South Palembang
Sub-basin. On a mineral matter free basis, it ranges from
sparse to 22% (average = 5%) in the DOM while in the coals
it ranges from 3% to 6% (average = 5%). The highest
130
inertinite content occurs in the Gumai Formation. In the
Tertiary sequences, inertinite mainly occurs as
inertodetrinite but semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite
can also be found in the coals' from the Muara Enim and
Talang Akar Formations. Some well-preserved mycorrhyzomes
occur in the Muara Enim coals. Micrinite also occurs in
some coals and DOM and it is present generally as small
irregularly-shaped grains.
Liptinite content of DOM ranges on a mineral matter
free basis, from 3% to 32% (average = 15%), whereas it
ranges from 10% to 13% (average = 11%) in the coals.
Cutinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite are the dominant
liptinite macerals in the Tertiary sequences.
In general, the liptinite macerals from the youngest
sequences can be easily recognized by their strong
fluorescence colours compared with liptinite in the oldest
sequences. Suberinite has strong green to yellow
fluorescence and mostly occurs in the Muara Enim coals.
Fluorinite is also common in the Muara Enim coals. It has
green fluorescence and commonly infills cell lumens or
occurs as discrete small bodies. In some cases, fluorinite
also occurs in the Air Benakat and Gumai Formations, but in
minor amounts. In the Muara Enim coals, cutinite and
sporinite have a yellow to yellowish orange fluorescence.
However, they give weak fluorescence colours ranging from
orange to brown in the Talang Akar and Lahat coals.
Exsudatinite occurs mostly in the Muara Enim and Talang Akar
131
coals, but it also occurs in some of the Lahat coals. It
has bright yellow fluorescence in the Muara Enim coals and
yellow to orange fluorescence in the Talang Akar coals.
Bitumens and other oil related substances such as oil
drops, oil cuts and dead oils occur either associated with
DOM or coal throughout the Tertiary sequences. In general,
bitumen and oil cuts are mostly present in the Muara Enim
coals and have a greenish yellow to bright yellow
fluorescence. In the Talang Akar coals, bitumen has yellow
to orange fluorescence. Bitumen occurs mostly within
vitrinite, largely in cleat fractures of telovitrinite but
also some in detrovitrinite. Based on the petrographical
observations, bitumen is probably derived from the liptinite
macerals where these macerals have a higher H/C ratios.
vitrinite macerals also provide some contribution.
9.1.2 RANK
Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance of coal samples from
shallow drilling and oil well samples from the South
Palembang Sub-basin was plotted against depth as shown in
Figure 5.21. The vitrinite reflectance gradients of the
basin range from 0.20% to 0.35% per kilometre. A marked
increase in vitrinite reflectance with depth is shown from, a
depth of below about 1500 metres (R max 0.5%) to 2500 metres
(R max 0.9%). The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are
intersected by the 0.5% to 0.9% R max surfaces, and are
-\o,o
thermally mature for oil generation. Therefore, coals from
these formations can be classified as high volatile
bituminous coal. The Muara Enim Formation has vitrinite
reflectance values ranging from 0.3% to 0.5% and is
thermally immature to marginally mature for oil generation.
Consequently, the coals from this formation are brown coal
to sub-bituminous in rank. Chemical parameters such as
carbon content, calorific value and moisture content from
the Muara Enim coals (see Table 7.1 in Chapter 7) also
support that classification. In some places the Muara Enim
coals affected by intrusions have high vitrinite
reflectances, ranging from 0.69% up to 2.60% and they can be
classified as semi-anthracitic to anthracitic coals. The
Baturaja and Gumai Formations are thermally mature while the
Air Benakat Formation is immature to marginally mature for
oil generation.
Relationships between coalification and tectonism can
be defined by comparing the shape of the iso-rank surfaces
and structural contours. In general the iso-reflectance
lines in the South Palembang Sub-basin are semi-parallel
with the orientation of the formation boundaries.
Therefore, a major pre-tectonic coalification event is
present in this area, but partial syn-tectonic coalification
patterns are also evident in the Limau-Pendopo area.
9.1.3 THERMAL HISTORY
The present geothermal gradient in the South Palembang
133
Sub-basin ranges from 36C to 40C/kilometre, with an
average of 38C/kilometre. However, Thamrin et al., (1979)
reported that the average geothermal gradient in the South
Palembang Sub-basin is 52.5C per kilometre. The high
geothermal gradient may result from rapid burial during
sedimentation which followed Tertiary tectonisra. At least
three major tectonic events occurred in the South Sumatra
Basin, that is the mid-Mesozoic, Late Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary and the Pio-Pleistocene orogenic activities. These
orogenic activities were mainly related to the collision and
subduction of the Indo-Australian plate against the Eurasian
plate.
The gradthermal model and palaeothermal calculations
suggest that the present temperatures are lower than in the
past. These also indicate that the sediments of the South
Palembang Sub-basin underwent a period of rapid burial prior
to a period of uplift and erosion.
9.1.4 SOURCE ROCK AND HYDROCARBON GENERATION POTENTIAL
Organic petrology data show that the Lahat, Talang
Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations have better
source potential for liquid hydrocarbons than the Baturaja
and Gumai Formations. According to Sarjono and Sardjito
(1989), however, the Baturaja and Gumai Formations have good
to excellent source potential based on the TOC and Rock-Eval
pyrolysis data. The differing results are probably caused
134
by the limitation of samples from these formations used in
the present study.
From petrographic studies the Lahat, Talang Akar and
Muara Enim Formations are considered to have good source
potential for gas and liquid hydrocarbons but based on the
Tmax data, only the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations are
considered to be early mature to mature with Tmax values
ranging from 430C to 441C. This is supported
microscopically by the presence of bitumens and other oil
related substances within the coal and shaly coal samples.
The Muara Enim Formation is immature to early mature with
Tmax values of less than 420C, although coals from this
formation contain significant amounts of bitumen and oil
related substances. The Muara Enim and Air Benakat
Formations are considered to be gas prone but in some places
they may also generate oil. The organic matter in the Gumai
and Baturaja Formations comprises mainly vitrinite and they
probably generate dominantly gas.
Vitrinite reflectance data show that the oil generation
zone is generally reached below 1500 metres depth in the
Muara Enim area, but it is reached below 1200 metres depth
in the Pendopo area. In the Muara Enim area, the top of the
oil window generally occurs in the top of the Gumai
Formation, but in some wells it occurs in the lower part of
the Muara Enim, Air Benakat or Talang Akar Formations. In
the Pendopo-Limau area, the upper and middle parts of the
Gumai Formation occur within the top of the oil generation
135
zone.
The Lopatin model indicates that the onset of oil
generation occurs at 1300 metres depth in the Muara Enim
area, while in the Pendopo-Limau area it occurs at 1200
metres depth. In the Muara Enim area, oil may have been
generated since the Late Miocene (8-7 Ma BP), while it
occurred in the Middle Miocene (11-9 Ma BP) in the Pendopo
area.
Gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry analyses indicate that the oils in the South
Palembang Sub-basin were derived from terrestrial higher
plant material. These oils are characterized by high ratios
of pristane to phytane and by the high concentrations of
bicadinanes and oleanane.
In the present study, geochemical data from the source
rocks and coals, particularly from the Talang Akar
Formation, reveal that these samples are just approaching
oil generation maturity and their biomarker signatures are
almost similar with those in the oil sample studied.
A number of potential reservoir rocks in the South
Palembang Sub-basin occur within the regressive and
transgressive sequences. The Muara Enim and Air Benakat
Formations from the regressive sequences have good potential
as reservoirs. The transgressive sequences are represented
by the Talang Akar and Baturaja Formations. The most
important reservoir rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin
are sandstones from the Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar
136
Formation.
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, oil is mainly trapped
in anticlinal traps, but some oils are also found in traps
related to basement features such as drapes and stratigrapic
traps.
9.1.5 COAL POTENTIAL AND UTILIZATION
In the South Palembang Sub-basin, coal seams occur
within a number of the Tertiary formations such as the
Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations. The coals
with economic potential are largely within the Muara Enim
Formation. In the Muara Enim Formation, the most important
coals in terms of quality and thickness occur in the M2
Subdivision. The M2 coals are sub-bituminous in rank and
locally increase to semi-anthracitic in the area influenced
by andesitic intrusion. Although the coals from the M4
Subdivision comprise two thirds of the volume of the coal in
the South Palembang Sub-basin, they are low in rank (brown
coals). The thickness of the coal seams varies from 2 to 20
metres.
The moisture content of the M2 coals is about 30 to
60%, calorific value of the coals is about 6500 to 7 500
kcal/kg (dried air free). The inherent ash content of the
coals is less than 6% (dry basis), and sulphur content is
generally less than 1%.
The volumes of coal available in the South Palembang
137
Sub-basin are approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to a
depth of 100 metres below the ground surface. These
reserves are clustered in the Muara Enim and Pendopo areas.
The coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin are mainly
used for steam power generation. Semi-anthracitic coals are
used as reductants in the tin smelter. Another possibility
for using the South Palembang coals is gasification where
the gas yielded can be used as an alternative to natural
gas. The South Palembang coals do not have coking
properties and even where blended with other coals which
have vitrinite contents between 45% to 5 5% and inertinite
contents of close to 40%, they are unlikely to give
satisfactory blends. The Lurgi low temperature
carbonization pilot plant may allow more diversified coal
use
9.2 CONCLUSIONS
The Tertiary South Palembang Sub-basin is the southern
part of the back-arc South Sumatra Basin which was formed as
a result of the collision between the Indo-Australian and
Eurasian plates. Tectonic activity in the region continued
to influence the development of the basin during the Middle
Mesozoic to the Plio-Pleistocene.
The Tertiary sequence comprises seven formations,
deposited in marine, deltaic and fluvial environments, which
are underlain by a complex of pre-Tertiary igneous,
138
metamorphic and carbonate rocks..
Economically, the South Sumatra Basin is an important
region in Indonesia because it is a major petroleum
producing area and the coals are suitable for exploitation
as a steaming coal. One large mine is presently operated by
the Indonesian government through the Bukit Asam Company
with the coal available for both internal and export
markets. With regard to petroleum, few petrographic studies
have been carried out to characterise the organic matter in
the source rocks or to elucidate the geothermal history of
the basin.
This study was undertaken to further knowledge of the
coal and source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin, a
sub-basin in which many studies have been carried out on the
petroleum but few on the coal and its resources. Evaluation
of the organic matter in representative coal, carbonaceous
shale and clastic rock samples from the seven formations was
based on maceral type and abundance studies using reflected
white light and fluorescence mode microscopy. The maturity
of the rocks was assessed using vitrinite reflectance data
which was then used to determine the geothermal history as
described in the Lopatin model. In addition Rock Eval
geochemistry of selected samples
1
was undertaken.
Four oils from the Talang Akar, Lahat and Baturaja
i
Formations were characterised using gas chromatography and
gas chromatograph-mass spectroscopy techniques.
In general, petroleum potential of the seven formations
139
in the South Palembang Sub-basin ranges from poor to good to
very good. Specific conclusions arrived at during this
study are listed below.
In the South Palembang Sub-basin coals occur in the
Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations but the main
workable coal measures are concentrated in the Muara Enim
Formation. The coals occur as stringers, ranging from
centimetres in thickness, to seams up to 20 metres thick.
The Muara Enim coals are widely distributed over the entire
South Sumatra Basin. Coal in the Talang Akar and Lahat
Formation is similar in occurrence to the coal in the Muara
Enim Formation.
From the viewpoint of economically mineable coal
reserves, coals from the M2 Subdivision are the most
important coal units in South Sumatra. The coals can be
utilized for electric power generation and gasification but
are unlikely to be satisfactory as blend coals in
carbonisation processes.
The clastic units contain dispersed organic matter (DOM)
which constitutes up to 16% of the bulk rock, with some
carbonaceous shales associated with the coals containing up
to 40% organic matter.
Many of the samples examined contain bitumens, oil
drops, oil cuts and oil haze when examined in fluorescence
mode. These components together with the presence of
exsudatinite are accepted as evidence for oil generation in
140
some of the units, especially the Muara Enim and Talang Akar
Formations.
Based on the reflectance data, the Muara Enim coals are
classified as brown to sub-bituminous coals in rank. Some
anthracitic coals are also found in the area near andesitic
intrusions. The Talang Akar and Lahat coals can be
classified as sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous
coals in rank.
The Gumai, Baturaja, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations
are typically oil mature, but in some places, the lower part
of the Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations are also
mature. The reflectance profiles of the Palembang Sub-basin.
increase at 0.20% to 0.35% per kilometre and, based on the
reflectance data the oil generation zone is generally
reached below 1500 metres depth.
The average geothermal gradient in the South Palembang
Sub-basin is relatively high, at more than 40 C/km;
therefore, oil may be found at shallow depths. Based on the
gradthermal model and palaeothermal calculations, the
present temperatures are lower than in the past.
Using the Lopatin model and taking the top of oil window
at TTI = 3, oil generation can be expected to commence at
depths of 1200 to 1300 metres which fits well with the top
of the oil window as predicted from reflectance data. Oil
generation in the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations is
predicted to have started approximately 9-11 Ma BP.
Coals and DOM in the Tertiary sequences are dominated by
141
vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as the main
macerals. Liptinite occurs in significant amounts and
comprises mainly liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite. In
general, inertinite is rarely present in the sequences.
Bitumens are mainly found in the Muara Enim coals but they
are also found in the Talang Akar and Lahat coals. The
coals and DOM are mostly derived from terrestrial higher
plants.
Coals and DOM from the Lahat, Talang Akar, Air Benakat
and Muara Enim Formations can be considered as having good
to very good source potential for gas and liquid
hydrocarbons. In some places, the DOM from the Baturaja and
Gumai Formations may also generate gas. Assessment of the
source rock potential of the various units was carried out
using the Score A method which is based on the volume and
composition of macerals. Score A values of up to 16-19 were
obtained for some samples from the Muara Enim and Talang
Akar Formations, indicating very good source rock potential.
The same samples gave high SI + S2 Rock Eval values, also
indicating very good source potential.
The crude oil geochemistry indicates that the oils are
derived from terrestrial land plant sources, a factor that
is supported by the petrographic data. The oils are
dominated by saturated hydrocarbons (up to 77% of the total
oil) and can be classed as paraffinic oils. Aromatic
hydrocarbons constitute up to 27% and polar compounds
comprise up to 9% of the oil.
142
The saturated fraction is characterized by a bimodal
n-alkane pattern with isoprenoid alkanes relatively
abundant. Pr/n-17, Ph/n-18 ratios and pristane/phytane
ratios indicate that the oils were derived from terrestrial
organic matter.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that the
oils contained a series of C27, C29+ pentacyclic
triterpanes, bicadinanes, hopanes and C27-C29 steranes.
The Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar Formation is the
most important reservoir in the South Palembang Sub-basin
but sandstones from the Muara Enim and Air Benakat
Formations also have good reservoir potential.
A review of the data shows that within the South
Palembang Sub-basin the Pendopo-Limau area, in the northeast
part of the sub-basin, has the greatest potential for
hydrocarbon generation and, therefore, is the most
prospective region.
142(a)
REFERENCES
Adiwidjaya, P. and De Coster, G.L., 1973. Pre-Tertiary
paleotopography and related sedimentation in South
Sumatra. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 2nd Ann. Conv.
89-104.
Alam, M. and Pearson, M.J., 1990. Bicadinanes in oils from
the Surma Basin, Bangladesh. Org. Geochem., 15(4).
461-464.
Armagnac, C., Bucci, J., Kendall, C.G.St.C. and Learche, I.,
1989. Estimating the thickness of sediment removed at
an unconformity using vitrinite reflectance data. In
Naeser, N.D. and McCulloh, T.H. (eds.), Thermal History
Of Sedimentary Basins. Springer-Verlag New York Inc.,
New York. 217-239.
Bailey, N.J.L., Krouse, H.H., Evans, CR. and Rogers, M.A.,
1973. Alteration of crude oil by waters and
bacteria-evidence from geochemical and isotope studies.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 46.
, Jobson, A.M. and Rogers, M.A., 1973.
Bacterial degradation of crude oil: comparison of field
and experimental data. Chem. Geol., 11. 203-221.
Bainton, C.S., 1975. Coal formations in Indonesia.
Proceeding Regional Conference on the Geology and
Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia, I.A.G.I. Jakarta,
Indonesia. 55-63.
Barker, C, 1979. Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum
Exploration. AAPG Continuing Education Course Note
Series 10, AAPG Education Department.
Barker, C.H., 1989. Temperature and time in thermal
maturation of sedimentary organic matter. In Naeser,
N.D. and McCulloh, T.H. (eds.), Thermal History Of
Sedimentary Basins. Springer-Verlag New York Inc., New
York. 73-99.
Basuki, P. and Pane, Z., 1976. The hydrocarbon prospect of
the Baturaja Formation in South Sumatra. Proc. Indo.
Petrol. Assoc. 5th Ann. Conv. 109-131.
Baumann, P., Oesterle, H., Suminta and Wibisono, 1973. The
Cenozoic of Java and Sumatra. Proc. Indo. Petrol.
Assoc. 1st Ann. Conv. 31-42.
Bemmelen, R.W. van, 1932. Toelichting bij blad 10
(Batoeradja). Geol. kaart van Sumatra, 1/200.000.
Dienst. Mijnb. Ned. Indie, 1932.
143
Bemmelen, R.W. van, 1949. The Geology Of Indonesia.
Government Printing Office, The Hague, 2nd ed. 1970,
Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague.
Benson, A.A., 1960. Orientation of lipids in chloroplast
and cell membranes. Am. Oil Chem. Soc, 43.
265-270.
Central Bureau of Statistics, 1978. Penduduk Luar Jawa.
Hasil Registrasi Penduduk. Jakarta.
Bjoroy, M., Hall, P.B., Loberg, R., McDermott, J.A. and
Mills, N., 1988. Hydrocarbon from non-Marine source
rocks. Org. Geochem., 13(1-3). 221-244.
Blow, W.H., 1969. Late Mid-Eocene to Recent planktonic
foraminiferal biostratigraphy. Proc. 1st Int. Conf.
Plankt. Microfoss., 1, Geneva, 1967. 199-421.
Bostick, N.H., 1973. Time as a factor in thermal
metamorphism of phytoclasts (coally particles). Compte
Rendu, 2. Congress International de Stratigraphie et
de Geologie Carbonifere, Septime, Krefeld. 183-193.
Bostic, N.H., 1979. Microscopic measurement of the level of
catagenesis of solid organic matter in sediranetary
rocks to aid exploration for petroleum and to determine
former burial temperatures - a review. Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special
Publication, 26, 17-43.
Boyd, J.D. and Peacock, S.G., 1986. Sedimentological
analysis of a Miocene deltaic systems: Air Benakat and
Muara Enim Formations, Central Merangin Block, South
Sumatra. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc., 15th Ann. Conv.
245-257.
Brooks, J.D. and Smith, J.W., 1967. The diagenesis of plant
lipids during the formation of coal, petroleum and
natural gas-I. Changes in the n-paraffin hydrocarbons.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 31. 2389-2397.
, Gould, K. and Smith, J.W., 1969. Isoprenoid
hydrocarbons in coal and petroleum. Nature, 222.
257-259.
, 1970. The use of coals as indicators of the
occurrence of oil and gas. Aust. Petrol. Explor.
Assoc. Jour., 10(2). 35-40.
Brown, H.R., Taylor, G.H and Cook, A.C, 1964. Prediction
of coke strength from the rank and petrographic
composition of Australian coals. Fuel, 43. 43-54.
144
Bustin, R.M., Cameron, A.R., Grieve, D.A. and Kalkreuth,
W.D., 1983. Coal petrology its principles, methods,
and applications. Short Course Notes Volume 3.
Geological Association of Canada. 230 pp.
Cole, J.M., 1987. Some fresh/brackish water depositional
environments in the S.E. Asian Tertiary with emphasis
on coal bearing & lacustrine deposits and their source
rock potential. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc, 16th Ann.
Conv. 429-441.
Connan, J., 1974. Time-temperature relation in oil genesis.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 58. 2516-2521.
and Cassou, A.M., 1980. Properties of gases and
petroleum liquids derived from terrestrial kerogen at
various maturation levels. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta.,
44. 1-23.
Cook, A.C, 1975. The spatial and temporal variation of the
type and rank of Australian coals. In Cook, A.C
(ed.), Australian Black Coal-Its Occurrence, Mining,
Preparation and Use. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall.,
Illawara Branch. 63-84.
, 1980. Optical techniques for the examination of
organic matters in oil shales. In Cook, A.C. and
Kantsler, A.J. (eds.). Oil Shale Petrology Workshop.
Wollonggong 1980. Keiraville Kopiers, Wollonggong.
1-15.
, 1981. Temporal variation of type of Australian
seams. Bull. Centres. Rech. Explor-Prod.
Elf-Aguitaine, 5(2). 443-459.
(ed.), 1982. The Origin and Petrology of
Organic Matter in Coals, Oil Shales and Petroleum
Source Rocks. University of Wollongong, Wollongong.
106 pp.
, 1982a. Organic facies in the Eromanga Basin.
In Moore, P.S. and Mount, T.J. (Compilers), Eromanga
Basin Symposium, Summary Papers, Geol. Soc. Aust. and
Petrol. Explor. Soc. Aust.. Adelaide. 234-257.
Cook, A.C, 1986. The nature and significance of the
organic facies in the Eromanga Basin. In Gravestock
D.I. et al. (eds) Contributions to the Geology and
hydrocarbon potential of the Eromanga Basin, Geological
Society of Australia Special Publication, 12, 203-219.
145
Cook, A.C, Hutton, A.C and Sherwood, N.R., 1981.
Classification of oil shales. Bull. Cent. Rech.
Expl.-Prcd. Elf-Aguitaine, 5, 353-381.
Cook, A.C. and Kantsler, A.J.,1980. The maturation history
of the epicontinental basins of Western Australia.
U.N. CCOP SOPAC Techn. Bull., 3, 171-195.
Cook, A.C, Murchison, D.G. and Scott, E., 1972. Optically
biaxial anthracitic vitrinites. Fuel, 51. 180-184.
, Smyth, M. and Vos, R.G., 1985. Source
potential of Upper Triassic fluvio-deltaic systems of
the Exmouth Plateau. Aust. Petrol. Explor. Assoc.,
25(1). 204-215
and Struckmeyer, H., 1986. The role of coal as a
source rock for oil. In Glenie, R.C (ed.). Second
South-Eastern Australian Oil Exploration Symphosium.
Petrol. Explor. Soc. Aust. 419-432.
, 1987. Source potential and maturation of
hydrocarbon source rocks in Indonesian sedimentary
basins. Sixth Regional Congress on Geology, Mineral
and Hydrocarbon Resources of Southeast Asia-GEOSEA VI.
Jakarta, Indonesia. 50pp.
Cook, A.C. and Ranasinghe, S.P., 1989. Course on Organic
Geochemistry and Its Application to the Oil Industry.
Keiraville Konsultants, Wollongong, Australia. 126pp.
Cox, H.C, de Leeuw, J.W., Schenck, P.A., van Koningsveld,
H., Jansen, J.C, van de Graaf, B., van Geerestein,
V.J., Kanters, J.A., Kruk, C. and Jans, A.W.H., 1986.
Bicadinane, a C30 pentacyclic isoprenoid hydrocarbon
found in crude oil. Nature, 319. 316-318.
Crelling, J.C. and Dutcher, R.R., 1980. Principles and
Applications of Coal Petrology. Short Course Notes,
Indiana University, U.S.A. 127 pp.
Daulay, B., 1985. Petrology of Some Indonesian and
Australian tertiary Coals. M.Sc Thesis (unpubl.). The
University of Wollongong, Australia. 265 pp.
and Cook, A.C, 1988. The petrology of some
Indonesian coals. Southeast Asian Earth Sci.,
2(2). 45-64.
De Coster, G.L., 1974. The geology of the Central and South
Sumatra Basins. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 3rd Ann.
Conv. 77-110.
146
Didyk, B.M., Simoneit, B.R.T., Brassell, S.C and Eglinton,
G., 1978. Organic geohemical indicators of
palaeoenvironmetal conditions of sedimentation.
Nature, 272. 216-222.
Diessel, C.F.K., 1975. Coalification trends in the Sydney
Basin, N.S.W. In Campbell, K.S.W. (Ed.), Gondwana
Geology-Papers from the third Gondwana Symposium,
Canberra, Australia, 1973. Australian Natural
University Press. 295-309.
, 1982. An appraisal of coal facies based on
maceral characteristics. Aust. Coal Geol., 4(2).
474-483.
, 1984. Coal Geology. Aust. Min. Found.
Workshop Course 274/84, Indonesia. 208 pp.
Directorate General of Mines (DGM), 1983. Muara Tiga Coal
Exploration Project, Final Report (unpubl.).
Dow, W., 1977. Kerogen studies and geological
interpretations. Geochem. Explor. J., 7. 79-99.
Durand, B., 1980. Sedimentary organic matter and kerogen.
Definition and quantitative importance of kerogen. In
Duran, B. (ed.), Kerogen: Insoluble Organic Matter From
Sedimentary Rocks. Graham & Trotman Ltd., London.
13-35.
and Paratte, M., 1983. Oil potential of coals: a
geochemical approach. In Brook, J. (ed.), Petroleum
Geochemistry and Exploration of Europe. Geol. Soc. of
London, Spec. Publ., 12, Blackwell. 255-266.
Edwards, G.E. and Cook, A.C, 1972. The design of blends
for the production of metallurgical coke, with
particular reference to long terra aspects of using New
South Wales coals. Proc. Australas. Inst. Min.
Metall., 244. 1-10. "
Espitalie, J., Deroo, G. and Marquis, F., 1985. Rock Eval
Pyrolysis and Its Applications. Institut Francais Du
Petrole. 72 pp.
Eubank, R.T. and Makki, A.C, 1981. Structural Geology of
the Central Sumatra Back-Arc Basin. Proc. Indo.
Petrol. Assoc. 10th Ann. Conv. 153-196.
Falcon, R.M.S. and Snyman, CP., 1986. An introduction to
coal petrography: Atlas of petrographic constituents in
the bituminous coals of Southern Africa. The Geol.
Soc. South Africa, Review Paper No.2. 27 pp.
Fletcher, G.L. and Soeparyadi, R.A., 1976. Indonesia's
Tertiary basins-the land of plenty. SEAPEX Program,
Offshore Southeast Asia Conference, Paper 8. 41 pp.
147
Franks, CD., 1978. Geology of the South Sumatra Coal
Province, 1 : 250.000 Scale Map (Drawing No.
G.64082/3); Shell International Petroleum Maatschappij
B.V. Internal Map (unpubl.).
Gafoer, S., Cobrie, T. and Purnomo, J., 1986. The Geology
of the Lahat Quadrangle, Sumatra. Geological Research
and Development Centre, Bandung, Indonesia.
Gapp, J., 1980. Possibilities of utilization of Indonesian
coal by carbonization and gasification. In
Mangunwijaya, A.S. and Hasan, O. (eds.). Proceeding
Seminar on Coal Technology and Indonesia Need.
199-217.
Geoservice, P.T., 1983. Recent development in Indonesian
coal geology. P.T. Geoservice Report No. 10/51
(unpubl.).
Gore, A.J.P., (ed.), 1983. Mires: swamp, bog, fen and moor.
'Ecosystems of the World', series, 4. Elsevier, New
York.
Gordon, T.L., 1985. Talang Akar coals-Arjuna Subbasin oil
source. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 14th Ann. Conv.
91-117.
Goodwin, N.S., Park, P.J.D. and Rawlinson, A.P., 1983.
Crude oil biodegradation under.simulated and natural
conditions. In Bjoroy, M. (ed.), Advances in Organic
Geochemistry 1981, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York.
650-658.
Grantham, P.J., Posthuma, J. and Baak, A., 1983.
Triterpanes in a number of Far-Eastern crude oils. In
Bjoroy, M., et al (eds.), Advances in Organic
Geochemistry, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 675-683.
Haan, E.J., 1976. Stratigraphic and Structure of The Coal
Deposits Surrounding The TABA Concession, South
Sumatra. Shell Mijnbouw N.V., Jakarta. 16 pp
(unpubl.).
Hamilton, W., 1976. Subduction in the Indonesia Region.
Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 5th Ann. Conv. 3-24,
, 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian region.
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper., 1078. 345 pp.
Harsa, A.E., 1975. Some factors which influence oil
occurrence in the South Sumatra and Central Sumatra
Basins. Paper presented at the Regional Conference on
the Geology and Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia.
Jakarta.
148
Hartarto and Hidayat, N., 1980. Role of energy in
Indonesia's future with emphasis on coal utilization.
In Mangunwijaya, A.S. and Hasan, O. (eds.). Proceeding
Seminar on Coal Technology and Indonesia Need.
221-241.
Hartmann, E., 1921. Geologische Rapport Lematang Oeloh,
Jaarboek Mijnwezen Netherland Post Indie, Verh. II.
Hacuebard, P.A. and Donaldson, J.R., 1970. Coal
metamorphism and hydrocarbon potential in the Upper
Palaeozoic of the Atlantic Provinces, Canada. Can.
Jour. Earth Sci., 7. 1139-1163.
Hedberg, H.D., 1968. Significance of high-wax oils with
respect to genesis of petroleum. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Bull., 52(5). 736-750.
Herman, M.A. and Wright, J.H., 1984. Development of Ibul
stratigraphic play, South Sumatra Basin, by
integration of geologic and seismic data. Proc. Indo.
Petrol. Assoc. 13th Ann. Conv., 51-61.
Heroux, Y., Chagnon, A. and Bertrand, R., 1979. Compilation
and correlation of major thermal maturation indicators.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 63. 2128-2144.
Hilt, C, 1873. Die beziehungen zwischen der
zusammensetzung un den technischen eigenschaften der
steinkohle. Sitzungsberichte Aachener
Bezirksvereinigung, VDI, H4.
Hoffmann, C.F., Foster, C.B., Powell, T.G. and Summons,
R.E., 1987. Hydrocarbon biomarkers from Ordovician
sediments and the fossil alga Gloeocapsomorpha prisca
Zalessky 1917. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 51.
2681-2697.
Horsfield, B., Yordy, K.L. and Crelling, J.C, 1987.
Determining the petroleum-generating potential of coal
using organic geochemistry and organic petrology. Org.
Geochem., 13, Nos 1-3. 121-129.
Huang, W.Y. and Meinschein, W.G., 1979. Sterols as
ecological indicators. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 43.
739-745.
Huck, G. and Karweil, J., 1955. Physikalische-chemische
Probleme der Inkohlung. Brennstoff-Chemie.. 36. 1-11.
149
and Patteisky, K., 1964. Inkohlungsreaktionen
unter Druck. Fortschritte in der Geologie von
Rheinland und Westfalen, 12. 551-558.
Hughes, W.B. and Holba, A.G., 1988. Relationship between
crude oil quality and biomarker patterns. Org.
Geochem., 13(1-3). 15-30.
Hunt, J.M., 1979. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H.
Freeman and Company, San Fransisco. 617 pp.
Hutapea, O.M., 1981. The prolific Talang Akar Formation in
Raja Field, South Sumatra. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc,
10th Ann. Conv. 249-267.
Hutton, A.C and Cook, A.C, 1980. Influence of alginite on
the reflectance of vitrinite from Joadja N.S.W. and
some other coals and oil shales containing alginite.
Fuel, 59. 711-744.
-' , 1984. Organic Petrography. Petroleum
Generation and Migration, Course Notes for Short Course
F3. 7th Australian Geological Convention. The
University of Wollongong, 1984. 1-30.
Hutton, A.C, 1981. Classification of oil shales. In
Abstracts 51st ANZAAS Congress, Brisbane, 13.
Hutton, A.C, 1987. Petrographic classification of oil
shales. Inter. Coal Geol., 8. 203-231.
International Committee For Coal Petrology, 1963.
International Handbook of Coal Petrography, 2nd
edition, Centre National de la Rescherche Scientifique,
Paris.
t
1971.
International Handbook of Coal Petrography, 1st
supplement to 2nd edition, Centre National de la
Rescherche Scientifique, Paris.
/
1975.
International Handbook of Coal Petrography, 2nd
supplement to 2nd edition, Centre National de la
Rescherche Scientifique, Paris.
Jackson, A., 1960. Notes On A Regional Isopach Map Of The
Talang Akar Formation In South Sumatra. EP-31795
(unpubl.).
Kalan, T., Maxwell, R.J. and Calvert, J.H., 1984. Ramba and
Tanjung Laban oil discoveries Corridor Block, South
Sumatra. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc., 13th Ann. Conv.
365-383.
150
Kantsler, A.J. and Smith, G.C, and Cook, A.C, 1978.
Lateral and vertical rank variation: implications for
hydrocarbon exploration. Aust. Petrol. Explor. Assoc.
18. 143-156.
__.
/
Cook. A.C and Smith, G.C, 1978a. Rank
variation, calculated palaeotemperature in
understanding oil and gas occurrence. Oil and Gas, 20.
196-205.
__
n
_ cook, A.C, 1979. Maturation patterns in
the Perth Basin. Aust. Petrol. Explor. Assoc, 19(1).
94-107.
and Cook, A.C, Prudence, T.J.C and
Zwigulis, M., 1983. Hydrocarbon habitat of the
Cooper/Eromanga Basin, Australia. Aust. Petrol.
Explor. Assoc. Jour., 23(1). 75-93.
, 1985. Thermal Regimes In Some Australian
Sedimentary Basins. PhD Thesis (unpubl.). The
University of Wollongong. 380 pp.
Karweil, J., 1956. Die metamorphose der kohlenvon
standpunkt der physikalischen chemie. Zeitschrift Der
Deutschen Geologischen Gesselschaft, 107. 132-139.
Katili, J.A., 1971. A review of the geotectonic theories
and tectonic map of Indonesia. Earth Science Reviews,
7. 143-163.
Katili, J.A., 1973. Geochronology of West Indonesia and its
implication on plate tectonics. Tectonophysics, 19.
195-212.
, 1975a. Plate tectonics in Southeast Asia: The
state of the art. Proceeding Regional Conference on
the Geology and Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia.
Jakarta.
, 1975b. Volcanism and plate tectonics in the
Indonesian Island Arcs. Tectonophysics, 26. 165-188.
, 1980. Geology of Southeast Asia with
particular reference to the South China Sea. Proc.
East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.
_
f
1984. Evolution of plate tectonic concepts
and its implication for the exploration of hydrocarbon
and mineral deposits in Southeast Asia. Pangea, No.3.
Centre International Pour la Formation et les echanges
Geologiques, Paris. 5-18.
151
Kdtz, B.J., Liro, L.M., Lacey, J.E. and White, H.W., 1982.
Time and temperature in petroleum formation:
application of Lopatin's method to petroleum
exploration: discussion. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol., 66. 1150-1151.
, Royle, R.A. and Mertani, B., 1990. Southeast
Asian and Southwest Pacific coals contribution to the
petroleum resource base. Proc Indo. Petrol. Assoc,
19th Ann. Conv. 299-329.
Kelley, P.A., Bissada, K.K., Burda, B.H., Elrod, L.W. and
Pheifer, R.N., 1985. Petroleum generation potential of
coals and organic rich deposits: significance in
Tertiary coal rich basins. Proc Indo. Petrol. Assoc
14th Ann. Conv. 3-19.
Kendarsi, R., 1984a. The coal resources of Indonesia and
Southeast Asia. Paper presented to A.G.I.D-I.L.P
Workshop, 7th A.G.C, Sydney. 43 pp.
, 1984b. Indonesia coals, the chalenge of the
future. Paper presented to A.G.I.D-I.L.P Workshop, 7th
A.G.C, Sydney. 32 pp.
Khorasani, G.K., 1987. Oil-prone coals of the Walloon Coal
Measures, Surat Basin, Australia. In Scott, A.C. (ed.),
Coal and coal-bearing strata: Recent Advances. Geol.
Soc Spec. Publ.
y
32. 303-310.
, 1989. Factors controlling source rock
potential of the Mesozoic coal-bearing strata from
offshore central Norway: application to petroleum
exploration. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol., 37(4).
417-427.
Kim, H.Y., 1987. A Comparative Study of The Hydrocarbon
Generation Potential of Korean and Australian
Tertiary/Cretaceous Sedimentary Basins. PhD Thesis
(unpubl.), University of Wollongong. 583 pp.
and Cook, A.C, 1986. Organic petrography and
geochemistry of a suite of samples from Tuna and
Kingfish oil fields and Latrobe Valley coalfield,
Gippsland Basin, Australia. Poster Display In APEA
Conference (unpubl.), Adelaide.
Kinhill-Otto Gold Joint Venture, 1987. South Sumatra Coal
Exploration Project: Comparative Evaluation Of South
Sumatra Coal Resources. A feasibility study for
Directorate General of Mines, Republic of Indonesia
(unpubl.).
Koesoemadinata, R.P., 1969. Outline of geologic occurrence
of oil in Tertiary basins of west Indonesia. Bull. Am.
Assoc Petrol. Geol., 53. 2368-2376.
1 C.O.
J / mm
._, and Pulunggono, A., 1975. Geology of
the Southern Sunda Shelf in reference to the tectonic
framework of Tertiary sedimentary basins of western
Indonesia. Geologi Indonesia, 2(2). 2-10.
, 1978a. Sedimentary framework of
Tertiary coal basins of Indonesia. 3rd Regional
Conference on Geology and Mineral Resources of
Southeast Asia. Bangkok, Thailand. 621-639.
r
1978b. Geologi Minyak Dan Gas Bumi.
I.T.B. 296 pp.
Kroger, C, Pohl, A., Horestadt, H., Kuthe, F. and Burger,
H., 1957. Die physikalischen und chemischee
Eigenschaften der Steinkohlegefugebestandteile
(Maceral), I. Chemische Eigenschaften und
Inkohlungsverhalten der Steinkohlengefugebestandteile;
Brenns. Chemie, 38. 33-42.
Lewan, M.D. and William, J.A., 1987. Evaluation of
petroleum generation from resinites by hydrous
pyrolysis. Bull. Am. Assoc Petrol. Geol., 71.
207-214.
Leythauser, D., Hagemann, H.W., Hollerbach, A. and Schaefer,
R.G., 1980. Hydrocarbon generation in source beds as a
function of type and maturation of their organic
matter: A mass balance approach. Proc World Petrol.
Congr. 10th, 2. Bucharest. 31-41.
Lopatin, N.V., 1971. Temperature and geologic time as
factors in coalification. Izv, Akad. Nank. SSR., Ser.
Geol. Izvestiya, 3. 95-106 (in Russian). English
transl. by Bostick, N.H., Geol. Surv., Illinois, 1972.
Lopatin, N.V. and Bostick, N.H., 1973. The geologic factors
in coal catagenesis. Illinois State Geological Survey,
Reprint Series, 1974-Q. 1-16.
Mackowsky, M.-Th., 1982. The application of coal
petrography in technical processes. In Stach, E.,
Mackowsky, M.-Th., Teichmuller, M., Taylor, G.H.,
Chandra, D. and Teichmuller, R. Stach's Textbook of
Coal Petrology. 3rd edition, Gebruder Borntraeger,
Berlin-Stuttgart. 413-474.
Mann, A.L., Goodwin, N.S. and Lowe, S., 1987. Geochemical
characteristics of lacustrine source rocks: A combined
palynological/molecular study of a Tertiary sequence
from offshore China. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc, 16th
Ann. Conv. 241-258.
153
Mannhardt, P.G, 1921. Verslag, etc. Tanjoeng Kolen Velden,
Jaarboek Mijnbouw, Netherland Indie, Verh. II. 67-107.
Marks, P., 1956. Stratigraphic Lexicon Of Indonesia. Publ.
Keilmuan No. 31. Seri Geol. Pusat Jawatan Geology,
Bandung. 233 pp.
Martin, R., 1952. Ontwikkeling en olievoering der Onder
Telisa Formatie in Zuid Sumatra (unpubl.). PERTAMINA.
Matasak, T. and Kendarsi R., 1980. Geologi Endapan Batubara
di Bukit Asam, Sumatra Selatan. Bull. Dept. Tekn.
Geol., Inst. Tekn. Bandung, 1. 11-33.
McCartney, J.T. and Teichmuller, M., 1972. Classification
of coals according to degree of coalification by
reflectance of the vitrinite component. Fuel, 51.
64-68.
McKenzie, A.S., Patience, R.L., Maxwell, J.R.,
Vandenbroucke, M. and Durand, B., 1980. Molecular
parameters of maturation in Toarcian shales, Paris
Basin, France. I. Changes in configurations of
acyclic isoprenoid alkanes, steranes and triterpanes.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44. 1709-1721.
t
1984. Application of biological markers in
petroleum geochemistry. In Brookes, J. and Welte, D.
(eds.), Advances in Petroleum Geochemistry, 1, Academic
Press, London. 115-124.
McKirdy, D.M. and Powel, T.G., 1973. Crude oil correlation
in the Perth and Carnarvon Basins. Aust. Petrol.
Explor. Assoc, 13. 81-85.
Mishra, H.K., 1986. A Comparative Study of the Petrology of
Permian Coals of India and Western Australia. PhD
Thesis (unpubl.), University of Wollongong. 610 pp.
Moldowan, J.M., Seifert, W.K., Gallegos, E.J., 1985.
Relationship between petroleum composition and
depositional environment of petroleum source rocks.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 69(8). 1255-1268.
Murchison, D.G., Cook, A.C. and Raymond, A.C, 1985.
Optical properties of organic matter in relation to
thermal gradients and structural deformation. Royal
Society of London, Philosophical Transactions Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 315. 157-186.
Musper, K.A.F.R., 1937. Toelichting bij Blad 16 (Lahat),
Geol. kaart van Sumatra, 1/200.000.
154
Neavel, R.C, 1981. Origin, petrography and classification
of coal. In Elliot, M.A. (ed.), Chemistry of Coal
Utilisation. John Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York.
1313-1387.
Padmasiri, S., 1984. Crude Oil and Potential Source Rock
Studies in the Eromanga Basin. MSc Thesis (unpubl.),
Palacas, J.G., Andres, D.E. and King, J.D., 1984. South
Florida Basin - A prime example of carbonate source
rocks of petroleum. In Palacas, J.G. (ed.), Petroleum
Geochemistry and Source Rock Potential of Carbonate
Rocks. AAPG Studies in Geology No. 18, AAPG. 71-96.
Patteisky, K. and Teichrauller, M., 1960.
Inkohlungs-Verlauf, Inkohlungs-MaBstabe und
Klassifikation der Kohlen auf Grund von
Vitrit-Analysen. Brennst. Chemie, 41. 79-137.
Philippi, G.T., 1969. Essentials of the petroleum formation
process are organic source material and a subsurface
temperature controlled chemical reaction mechanism. In
Schenk, P.A and Havenaar, I. (eds.), Advances In
Organic Chemistry, Oxford, Pergamon Press. 25-44.
PERTAMINA, 1969. Laporan Akhir Suraur Eksplorasi GM-14.
Eks. UEP II Plaju. (unpubl.).
, 1970. Laporan Akhir Suraur Eksplorasi KG-10.
, 1972. Laporan Akhir Suraur Eksplorasi PMN-2.
, 1976. Laporan Akhir Sumur Eksplorasi KD-1.
, 1986. The Geology of Indonesian Basins. Paper
contributed in the Formation Evaluation Conference,
Jakarta. Directorate of Exploration and Production.
1-23.
, 1987. Laporan Akhir Sumur Eksplorasi BRG-3.
PERTAMINA, 1988. Laporan Akhir Sumur Eksplorasi MBU-2.
Potonie, R., 1950. Petrographische klassifikation de
bitumina. Geol. Jb., 65. 551-572.
155
Powell, T.G.. and McKirdy, D.M., 1975. Geological factors
controlling crude oil composition in Australia and
Papua New Guinea. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 59.
1176-1197. ~
Pulunggono, A., 1969. Basement configuration in the South
Palembang basinal area: Its significance to
depositional conditions and oil-trapping. Paper
presented at ivth Petroleum Symposium in Canberra. 16
pp.
_ 1976. Recent knowledge of hydrocarbon
potentials in sedimentary basins of Indonesia. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Memoir. 25. 239-249.
_ 1983. Sistem Sesar Utama dan Perabentukan
Cekungan Palembang. Phd (thesis), Institut Teknologi
Bandung (unpubl.), Bandung. 239 pp.
Pulunggono, A., 1986. Tertiary structural features related
to extensional and compressive tectonics in the
Palembang Basin, South Sumatra. Proc Indo. Petrol.
Assoc 15th Ann. Conv. 187-198.
Purnomo, J., 1984. The difference between the Jambi Basin
and the Palembang Basin. Memo Eks. PI. No.355
(unpubl.). PERTAMINA UEP-II. 10 pp.
Reid, W.T., 1981. Coal ash-its effect on combustion system.
In Elliot, M.A. (ed.), Chemistry of Coal Utilisation.
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. 1398-1446.
Rigby, D., Gilbert, T.D., Batts, B.D. and Smith, J.W., 1986.
The generation and release of hydrocarbons from
Victorian-brown coal lithotypes. In Glenie, R.C
(ed.), Second South-Eastern Australia Oil Exploration
Symposium. Technical Paper Presented at PESA
Symposium, 14-15th November, 1985, Melbourne. 433-438.
Robert, P., 1980. The optical evolution of kerogen and
geothermal histories applied to oil and gas
exploration. In Duran, B. (ed.), Kerogen: Insoluble
Organic Matter From Sedimentary Rocks. Graham &
Trotman Ltd., London. 385-415.
Robinson, K.M., 1987. An overview of source rocks and oils
in Indonesia. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc 16th Ann.
Conv. 97-122.
Samuel, L. and Gultom, L., 1984. Daur Pengendapan di
cekungan-cekungan minyak Indonesia Barat. Pertemuan
Ilmiah XIII I.A.G.I. 12 pp.
156
Sarjono, S. and Sardjito, 1989. Hydrocarbon source rock
identification in the South Palembang Sub-Basin. Proc.
Ind. Petrol. Assoc. 18th Ann. Conv. 427-468.
Seifert, W.K. and Moldowan, J.M., 1978. Application of
steranes, terpanes and monoaromatics to the maturation,
migration and source of crude oils. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta, 42. 77-95.
Seyler, C.A., 1954. Letter to The Noraenclatur Subcommittee
of International Committee for Coal Petrology
(unpubl.).
Shell Mijnbouw, 1978a. Explanatory Notes to The Geological
Map of The South Sumatra Coal Province. Jakarta, 18 pp
(unpubl.).
f
1978b. Technical Evaluation Report South
Sumatra (unpubl.). Liaison Unit SIPM/SIPC. 35 pp.
Shortland, F.B., 1963. The distribution of fatty acids in
plant lipids. In Swain, T., (Ed.), Chemical Plant
Taxonomy. Academic Press, London. 253-311.
Simbolon, A.F.B., 1974. Laporan Penyelidikan Geology di
Daerah Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan. PERTAMINA Internal
Report (unpubl.).
Smith, G.C. and Cook, A.C, 1980. Coalification paths of
exinite, vitrinite and inertinite. Fuel, 59. 641-646.
, 1981. Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous Coal and
Coal Measure Sediments in The Bass and Gippsland
Basins. PhD Thesis (unpubl.). The Univ. of Wollongong.
331 pp.
Smith, G.C. and Cook, A.C, 1984. Petroleum occurrence in
the Gippsland Basin and its relationship to rank and
organic matter type. Aust. Petrol. Explor. Assoc, 24.
196-216.
Smyth, M., 1983. Nature of source material for hydrocarbons
in Cooper Basin, Australia. Bull. Am. Assoc Explor.
Geol., 67(9). 1422-1428.
, 1984. Source rocks for hydrocarbons. Petroleum
Generation and Migration, Course Notes for Short Course
F3. 7th Australian Geological Convention. The
University of Wollongong, 1984. 31-36.
Smyth, M., Cook, A.C. and Philp, R.P., 1984. Birkhead
revisited: Petrological and Geochemical studies of the
Birkhead Formation, Eromanga Basin. Aust. Petrol.
Explor. Assoc. 21(1). 187-199.
157
Snowdon, L.R., 1980. Resinite-a potential petroleum source
in the Upper Cretaceous/Tertiary of the
Beaufort-McKenzie sedimentary basin. In Miall, A.D.
(ed.). Facts and Principles of World Petroleum
Occurrence. Mera. Can. Soc. Petrol. Tech.. 6. 509-521.
and Powell, T.G., 1982. Immature oil and
condensate-Modification of hydrocarbon generation model
for terrestrial organic matter. Bull. Am. Assoc
Petrol. Geol., 66(6). 775-788.
Soedarsono, 1974. Pola structur didaerah cekungan Sumatra
Selatan. Perterauan Ilmiah III I.A.G.I. 20 pp.
Spruyt, J.M., 1956. Subdivision And Nomenclature Of The
Tertiary Sediments Of The Palembang-Djambi Basin,
EP-27168 and EP-27168B (unpubl.).
Stach, E., 1968. Basic principles of coal petrology:
macerals, microlithotypes and some effects of
coalification. In Murchison, D.G. and Westoll, T.S.
(eds.), Coal and Coal-bearing Strata. Oliver and Boyd,
Edinburgh. 3-17.
Stach, E., Mackowsky, M.-Th, Teichmuller, M., Taylor, G.H.,
Chandra, D. and Teichmuller, R., 1982. Stach's
Textbook of Coal Petrology. Gebruder Borntraeger,
Berlin-Stuttgart. 535 pp.
Standard Association of Australia, 1981. Australian
Standard AS 2486: Microscopical Determination of The
Reflectance of Coal Macerals. Standards Association of
Australia. Sydney. 22 pp.
, 1986. Australian
Standard AS 2856: Coal Macerals Analysis. Standards
Association of Australia. Sydney. 22 pp.
Stanvac, 1954. Completion Well L5A-22 Report. Eks. UEP
Plaju. (unpubl.).
, 1959. Completion Well ETM-3 Report. Eks. UEP
Plaj u. (unpubl.).
, 1965. Completion Well BL-2 Report. Eks. UEP
Plaju. (unpubl.).
Stopes, M.C, 1919. On the four visible ingredients in
banded bituminous coal. Proc Roy. Soc, 90. 470-487.
, 1935. On the petrology of banded bituminous
coal. Fuel, 14. 4-13.
158
Struckmeyer, H.I.M., 1988. Source rock and maturation
characteristics of the sedimentary sequence of the
Otway Basin, Australia. Phd Thesis (unpubl.),
Sudarmono, 1974. Pola struktur di daerah cekungan Sumatra
Selatan. Paper presented at PIT IAGI 3rd, Jakarta. 20
pp.
Suhendan, A.R., 1984. Middle Neogene depositional
environments in Rarabutan area, South Sumatra. Proc
Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 13th Ann. Conv. 63-73.
Summons, R.E., 1987. Branched alkanes from ancient and
modern sediments: Isomer discrimination by GC/MS with
multiple reaction monitoring. Org. Geochem., 11(4).
281-289.
, Brassell, S.C, Eglinton, G., Evans, E.,
Horodyski, R.J., Robinson, N., Ward, D.M., 1988.
Distinctive hydrocarbon biomarkers from fossiliferous
sediment of Late Proterozoic Walcot Member, Chuar
Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona. Geochim. Cosmochim.
Acta., 52. 2625-2637.
Summons, R.E. and Jahnke, L.L., 1990. Identification of the
methylhopanes in sediments and petroleum. Geochim.
Suseno, A., 1988. Beberapa catatan dari studi cekungan
Sumatra Selatan di Den Haag, Netherland. Explorasi
Pertamina UEP-II Report (unpubl.)
Taylor, G.H., 1971. Coal petrography. CSIRO Aust. Div.
Coal. Res. Tech. Commun., 45. 4-19.
and Liu, S.Y., 1989. Micrinite-its nature,
origin and significance. Int. of Coal Geol., 14.
29-46.
Teerman, S.C, Hwang, R.J., Williams, H.H., 1987. Liquid
hydrocarbon potential of Sumatran resinite. Proc.
Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 16th Ann. Conv. 231-240.
f
1989. Evaluation of the source
rock potential of Sumatran coals by artificial
maturation coal. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 18th Ann.
Conv. 469-490. _ _ __
Teichmuller, M., 1962. Die Genese der Kohle. Quatrierae
Congres International de Stratigraphie et de Geologie
du Carbonifere, Heerlen 1958, Comte Rendu, 3. 699-722.
159
Teichmuller, M. and Teichmuller, R., 1966. Die Inkohlung im
Saar-Lothringischen Karbon, vergliechen mit der in
Ruhrkarbon. Zeitschrift der Dutschen Geologischen
Gesellschaft, 117. 243-279.
_ 1968. Geological
aspects of coal metamorphism. In Murchison, D.G. and
Westoll, T.S. (eds.), Coal and Coal-bearing Strata.
Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. 233-267.
, 1971. Anwendung kohlenpetrographischer
Methoden bei der Erdol-und Erdgasprospektion. Erdol
und Kohle, 24. 69-76.
, 1974. Generation of petroleum-like
substances in coal seams as seen under microscope.
Advances in Organic Geochemistry, 1973. Technip.,
Paris. 321-349.
and Wolf, M., 1977. Application of
fluorescence microscopy in coal petrology and oil
exploration. Microscopy, 109, part 1. 49-73.
, 1982. Origin of the petrographic
constituents of coal. In Stach, E., Mackowsky,
M.-Th., Teichmuller, M., Taylor, G.H., Chandra, D. and
Teichmuller, R. Stach's Textbook of Coal Petrology.
Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin-Stuttgart. 5-86.
and Teichmuller, R., 1982. Fundamentals of
coal petrology. In Stach, E., Mackowsky, M.-Th.,
Teichmuller, M., Taylor, G.H., Chandra, D. and
Teichrauller, R. Stach's Textbook of Coal Petrology.
Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin-Stuttgart. 5-86.
, M. and Durand, B., 1983. Fluorescence
microscopical rank studies on liptinites and vitrinites
in peat and coals, and comparison with results of the
Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Int. Coal Geol., 2. 197-230.
Thamrin, M., Siswoyo, J., Sanjojo, S., Prayitno and Indra,
S., 1980. Heat flow in the Tertiary basins of South
Sumatra. Proc 16th Session of C.C.O.P. Bandung,
Indonesia, 1979. 250-271.
and prayitno, 1982. Heat flow
in the Tertiary basin of North Sumatra. Proc 17th
Session of C.C.O.P., Bangkok, Thailand. 394-408.
, Prayitno and Siswoyo, J., 1984. Heat flow
measurement in the Tertiary basin of northwest Java
Proc. 18th Session of C.C.O.P., Seoul, Republic of
Korea, 1983. 224-235.
160
Ting, F.T.C and Sitler, J.A., 1989. Comparative studies of
the reflectivity of vitrinite and sporinite. Org.
Geochem., 14(3). 247-252.
Tissot, B.P., 1984. Recent advances in petroleum
geochemistry applied to hydrocarbon exploration. Bull.
Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 68(5). 545-563.
an
d welte, D.H., 1978. Petroleum Formation
and Occurrence. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, Tokyo. 632 pp.
and Welte, D.H., 1984. Petroleum Formation
and Occurrence. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, Tokyo. 699 pp.
r
Pellet, R. and Ungerer, P.R., 1987. Thermal
history of sedimentary basins, maturation indices, and
kinetics of oil and gas generation. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol., 71(12). 1445-1466.
Titheridge, D., 1989. Sedimentology and coal petrology of
the Brunner Coal Measures, New Zealand. PhD thesis,
University of Wollongong.
Tobing, S.L., 1980. Problem in reutilization of Bukit Asam
Lurgi pilot plant for coke making and synthetic fuel
oil. In Mangunwijaya, A.S. and Hasan, O. (eds.).
Proceeding Seminar on Coal Technology and Indonesia
Need. 191-198.
Tobler, A., 1906. Topographische und geologische
beschreibung der petroleumgebiete von Muara Enim, Sud
Sumatra. T.K.N.A.G., Vol. XXIII.
, 1912. Voorlopige raededeeling over de geologie
van de residentie Djarabi. Jaarb. Mijnwezen Ned. Post
Indie. 1-29.
Todd, D.F. and A. Pullunggono, 1971. The Sunda Basinal
Area. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Conv. Houston.
{ Total Indonesie, 1988. Geological evaluation of Muara
Enim Block, South Sumatra, Indonesia (unpub. report).
Van Aarsen, B.G.K. and Leeuw, J.W.de., 1989. On the
identification and occurrence of oligomerised
sesquiterpenoid compounds in oils and sediments of
southeast Asia. Abs. 63, 14th Int. Meeting on
Org. Geochem., Paris.
, Cox, H.C, Hoogendoorn, P. and Leeuw,
J.W. de, 1990. A cadinane biopolymer in fossil and
extant damar resins as a source for cadinanes and
bicadinanes in crude oils from Southeast Asia.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 54. 3021-3031.
161
Vogler, E.A. and Meyer, 1981. Comparison of Michigan basin
crude oils. Geochim. Cosraochira. Acta., 45. 2287-2293.
Volkman, J.K., Alexander, R., Kagi., R.I., Noble, R.A. and
Woodhouse, G.W., 1983. A geochemical reconstruction of
oil generation in the Barrow Sub-basin of Western
Australia. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47. 2091-2105.
and Woodhouse,
G.W., 1983a. Deraethylated hopanes in crude oils and
their applications in petroleum geochemistry. Geochim.
Von Schwartzenberg, T., 1986. The Air Laya coal deposit,
South Sumatra, Indonesia. Braunkohle, 38 (Heft 11).
307-315.
Waples, D.W., 1980. Time and temperature in petroleum
formation: Application of Lopatin's method to petroleum
formation. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 64(6).
916-926.
, 1985. Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration.
International Human Resources Development Corporation,
Boston. 232 pp.
and Machihara, T., 1990. Application of
sterane and triterpane biomarkers in petroleum
exploration. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol., 38(3).
357-380.
Ward, C.R., 1984. Coal Geology and Coal Technology.
Blackwell Scientific Publication, Victoria. 345 pp.
Welte, Dietrich H., 1965. Relation between petroleum and
source rock. Bull. Am. Assoc Petrol. Geol., 49(12).
2248-2268.
Wenneckers, J.H.L., 1958. South Sumatra basinal area, in
Habitat of Oil. Tulsa, Oklahoma, Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. Syrapho. 1347-1358.
Youtcheff, J.S., Given, P.H., Baset, Z. and Sundaram, M.S.,
1983. The mode of association of alkanes with coals.
Org. Geochera., 5(3). 157-164.
Ziegler, K.G.J, 1918. Verslag over de uitkomsten van mijnb.
geol. onderzoekingen in Z. Bantam. Jaarboek Mijnwezen
Ned. Post Indie, Vol. XLVII, 1918, Verh. I (1920).
40-140.
FIGURES TO CHAPTER ONE
AREAS:
NORTHERN PROSPECTS
BN. BENTAYAN
TG TAMIANG
BA. BABAT
KL.KLUANG
PENDOPO PROSPECT
ML MUARA LAKITAN
TL. TALANG LANGARAN--
TK TALANG AKAR
SB. SIGOYANG BENUANG--
WE. WEST BENAKAT
PR. PRABUMULIH
ENIM AREA
AR.ARAHAN
AL. AIRLAWAI-- --
SJ, SUBAN JERIGI --
BO, BANKO
SOUTH EAST PROSPECTS
GM GUNUNG MERAKSA
KE. KEPAYANG
MU MUNCAKABAU--
VJ. AIR MESUJI
TOTAL
"I | 330 j> BROWN COAL, MOISTURE CONTENT i 6 0 %
}
400
"I 120 (WEST-ENIM J
~J> 450 (EAST- ENIM) MOISTURE CONTENT 28-36%
:}
I 10
I 50
250
5135
EQUIVALENT OF 6162 x IC
6
TON
(50 METER DEPTH)
Figure 1.1 South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated
coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984).
10N
GULF OF THAILAND
SOUTH CHINA SEA
SINGAPORE /
KALIMANTAN
INDIAN OCEAN
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
STUDY AREA
LOCATION MAP
SCALE
200 10O"i
10S
Figure 1.2 Location map of Sumatran back-arc basins
Figure 1.3 Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after
Purnomo, 1984).
4*00
3* 30
M
)
c
c
o
2 = = S
5
5
S
S
-"
O OOQ if O
400
a.
,fl Di
4J fl
H n
'1
ft
l
H H
,d id
CO 04
43
H -M
+ 3
rt O n
H CO 00
0) cn
M CD H
,fl
M 4J -
H 0
0)H fl
fi 0 0
+> 0
ta oi
fl fl 3
it) D H
09 3 0 4
C H
o o M
H <D
4J O JJ
<fl -H m
o fl m
0 0
H -M
O fl
H O-H
H 4J W
a) (d
3 HA
0 i
H-OrQ
H cd P
o e w
o
o
o
m
in
O
ca
0)
H
0
TJ X
C
rO
i
CU
u
0
-Q
CO W
<
JJ
H
M
fl
0
ca
fl
0
H ^
m 4J co
CU
X
id o\
U rH
0
JO H -
H
w o w
0
ca
0
>H
3
4->
rfl
CU
*W
H
id
fl rH
id ro
a
- A
ca cu
id x
cu
u u
ro cu
P
Om-i
fl id
H *-
U T3
H C T3
Ol 3 CU
0
H
0
CU
0-H
M TJ
rH fl
fl -P
U ca ca
m
CU
H
Cu.
FIGURES TO CHAPTER TWO
IMPREGNATION
I
c
o
tS
I
u
03
>
LU
05
<
Ji
cr
"
ACUATION
a.
F
a
c
<o

>
* SETTING
a
cn
t
GRINDING
120 220 400 600 ''200
GRIT LAP "GRIT LAP WET ANO ORY H*WET ANO ORY ^WET ANO ORY
PAPER PAPER PAPER
npregnation with Astic Resin
< '
POLISHING
Water
Pr
ooat
CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE
SELVYT CLOTH
CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE
SELVYT CLOTH
JtUM
I
MAGNESIUM OXIDE
SELVYT CLOTH
MAGNESIUM OXIDE
SELVYT CLOTH
I
i
Washed in
Distilled Water
Washed in
Propan-2-oI
I I
Air Dried
Air Dried
Figure 2.1
MOUNTING ON
PLASTICSNE
EXAMINATION
Flow diagram showing the method for polishing
and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984).
A
c
o
a
o
c
a
cr
co
E
cr
o
s
<
r-
LU
2
X CO
CO
LU
z
LU
c
<
sjosjroejfj J'94) P U B E|2J80E^,' eqi jo uoiJBjaiiv }o juajxg
>? ra o w
o ~ re
= E
0 = 0
dC "
*
c o ._
2 a. o
0
.* s
x
o a.
_ 01 c
ta ff ta
B> 01 o
c .a a -
D "
w C
' w
OJ u
I
~ J
St
3
E =
c
_o
re
u
o
\
j =
3 C . .
o- ~ =
\
\
\
\
K
\
\
\
\
\
t>
0 19
u 0
C m.
" >
O **
0 c
0 ~
2 =

e
o .
2 0 u -
c ~
D
*>
M
0

3"
0
i^^7___
~ ~
K
< ^ >
o 0 d
u." < <
J do
> 5
c
* ~ 3
= r 0 u.
<- 5-
(1 p - ^^
S|.f 0
E
0 1 - w
< *
0
5^
_l
^ z ^

2 .
eJ o.
a c
a
5
3
U.
.
01
c
0
V
(0
" ~
fc
->
^

y
1
>
S
_*
. _re
a
OJ
01
ro
*~
UJ
0
<
r-
V)
CJ
ro
CJ
u
m 5
<u 0
-c S
01 Ol
a =
0 _
a
O _z
5
T3
c
S
. flj
=
c.
E c
cu
0
in m
- " 10
.H a
C w.
O
i) m
w ro
0 2
.2
ta. *-
a 5
0
0 c
c E
.2 -2
ro cu
0 _=
_o *-.
0 0
0 <"
(J CO
\D
un
0 CO
'O M
Li 0
0 g
W 1 W
0 <
c u
0 c s
H Q) 0
XJ U Li
IS CI3N
Li 0 *
3 Li
0 0 >
H 3 "0
W H S
C >w JJ
0 CQ
0 T3
C CO
H (0 -H
(0 rC
U XJ u
H J3
XJ 0) C
Q J H H
0 H
& 0 0
C m-i W
H H S
l-S
0 s c
X 0
10 0 H
0 XJ
E u in
r3 u >
r l U M ^
0H 0 VO
ro >M co co
H 0i3 W
Q Ll 0 rH
D C *
0
U
3 W :
a
<
o
E
n
C. c.
E _!
B 13
s:
B rs
Ll
3
CT
H
LU
01
a
u
0
in
ro
>.
>
ro
cu
>.
irt
a
0
c
0
ai
~
" >
J2
0
Si
0
ta . C " ta "
r - t - >< c
u
- J w -_: = ; ; *i
~ ~ f o c . - ai
U - - a. - U O . -
- ~ 3 - - - O i 3
Q
6
I!
0-. 5 %
SPARSE
2.0%
ABUNDANT
1.0%
COMMON
10%
MAJOR
Figure 2.4 Visual aid to assist in the assessment of
volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic
matter in sediments.
FIGURES TO CHAPTER THREE
ta O O mm). OOmmmm. O
i. A> _
m. m. & A, Cl.
A A J L _
LATE CARBONIFEROUS-EARLY PERMIAN 3UB00CTION
PERWIAH-EARLY TRIASSX: SUBOUCTrON
LATE TRtASSJC - JORASSC 3UBOUCTION
CRETACEOUS EALY TERTIARY 3UB0UCT10H
TERTIARY SUBOUCTrON
PRESENT SUBOUCTrON
PATERWOSTER FAULT
'DIRECTION OF SPREADING
Figure 3.1 Lineaments of subduction zones in western
Indonesia (after Katili, 1984).
fTTfflzon. A
[777?
< ' I Z o n a C
mZZtX.
Zoo* 0
Zona
gratilt*
Kl L0METRE3
KRAKATAU
Figure 3.2 Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in
the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974)
FIGURES TO CHAPTER FOUR
LAHAT FORMATION
N = 15
DOM 0.09-16.99%(Av.= 8.50%) by vol.
COAL 2 - 34 % (AV. = 18 %) by vol.
Vol. %
40
COAL
-30
20
COAL
10
DOM
Total Abundance
Average Abundance
and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well
locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
TALANG AKAR FORMATION
N = 48
DOM 1.82^37.91% (Av= 13.63%)
by vol.
Sh.COAL 12-30% (Av= 23%)
by vol.
COAL 24-97%(Av= 39.47%)
by vol.
Vol.%
J
< ^
r r r :
yy \
y\ | [\ ., .
/ llK...
/* XIK *
j
L
"~^J \
/ \ V
^^*"*ta^
' ^ v
V
\
\
\
\
\
1
SHALY COAL
Total Abundance
Average Abundance
Inartinite
| '.'.*.'.' LipTinite
and coal in the Talang Akar Formation at ten
well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
BATURAJA FORMATION
N
=
6
DOM 0.1-2.93% (Ava0.87%)by vol.
VoL%.
-a.
.2
_l
0
OOM
Total Abundance
Average Abundance
i Vltrfntte
Inertinite
Liptinite
Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the
GUMAI FORMATION
N = 24
DOM 0.05- 7.33% (Av=l.8 7%)by vol
VOl.%
4
-3
_2
.1
0
DOM
DOM
Vitrinite
3
Total Abundance
aftC#)
HUH j Inertinite
l-.'-y.-'.-l Liptinite
Average. Atmcul<
Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the
AIR BENAKAT FORMATION
N = 24
DOM 0.15-15.44% (Av = 3.66 %) by
vol
voi.%
.15
.10
DOM-
-5
3
=3
DOM
[ ' j Totol Abundance
Average Abundance
j Vi trin ita
Inertini te
Liptinite
and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air
Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the
MUARA ENIM FORMATION
IM = 57
DOM 1.8 7-7.98% fAv= 4.37%) by vol.
COAL 35.6-100% (Av = 66%) by vol.
voi.%
rr
.
A
.
I0O
C 0 A L
_30
DOM
Total Abundance
Average Abundance
COAL
and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in
the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations
in the South Palembang Sub-basin.
FIGURES TO CHAPTER FIVE
MBU- 2
TD
s
2200 m
0,1 0.2 0,3 0.4 OJ 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9
% Vttrfnite Reflectance
from the MBU-2 well.
PMN-2
TD = 1959: 6m
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0.3 0.6 0.7
% Vitrinite Reflectance
from the PMN-2 well.
r
500
fi
E
a.
Q
1000
GM- 14
TD= 1398 m
N*
i
i
u.
u
2
318
84
<
li.
3
O
I04
nee.
iteo
l4_
BRF
TAF
LAF
6M
0.1 0,2 0,3 0.4 a3 OJS 07
o,a
Figure 5.3
Plot of reflectance against depth for samples
from the GM-14 well.
KG-10
TD-I575 .8 m
167
U.
<
it.
rao.
u.
UJ
.2
12TB.
1447.
1817.
U.
<B
<
6UF
BRF
TAF
i u iii u.4 iii ii.i. ii/ -u.y
Vo Vitrinite Reflectance
from the KG-10 well.
KD- 0|
TD 1858.5 m
Sloo

c
a.

a
1000
1500
LL.
468
946.
i sea-
1872.
ie7.
n
u.
UJ
2
LL.
3
BRF
TAF
B M
0,1 0,2 0,5 0,4 OJ 0.6 OJ" 0.6
% Vftrfnlte Reflectance
from the KD-01 well.
BRG-3
T.D . 2300 m
- o
900
1
o
E
Q.
a
.1000
1900
20O0
S4
<
1221
18 81
U
Ik
a
<
2 0 64
20 64
:
|.0 *280.
u.
3
O
JPOE-
TAF
LAF
from the BRG-3 well.
TMT-3
TD-1633 m
300
c r*

a
o
a
1000
t
1500
310
U.
.UJ
2
w-
u.
as
<
Urn
3
9
1164 ... ,,.
issA.
i i i i i i i
O.i 3 3 0,-5 tt4 UJ 0.6 CL7 Q.d
3W
from the TMT-3 well.
L-5A 22
TD* 2237 m
a
r 500
1000
1500
2000
828.
u.
LU
2
964.
U.
a
<
LL.
3
(3
1290.
1312 3RF_
LL.
<
1900.
U.
<
-I
SM
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 OJ" 0.3 0.9
from the L5A-22 well.
BL-2
TD= 1675 m
500
1000
-
a.
o _
a
1300
8(2
03
1323
LS6
U.
3
8RF
u.
<
0,1
as as o^ as o.6 0,7 o.a 0.9
from the BL-2 well.
L_
E
a.
a)
a
BN G-IO
T.D. 2565 m
-O
MEF
t4
1207
i ess
1667
aa
<
2 427
I
3
9
DOC
LAF
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I
from the BN-10 well.
I'
UJ
u
(_>(/)
0
a
id
JJ
o
0)
DlH
^>M
0 Q>
M
5
I
o
o
JJ ta
o
flJ rd
m o
Ll
0
DO
H
Ol
c
H

M
(d
I
CQ
10
0
2
O O
<0
U C
H <U W
JJ P4 QJ
rd i o
3 <d
rdM-l
** 3 b
O-H 3
xn L3 to
CN
LO
OJ
H
4
S 3 M 1 3 W N! Hid3Q
Depth
(in metres)
U~
1000-
.
2000"
i r\s\/\ _
3000 i

0 MEF
0 ABF
+ GUF
BRF
TAF
LAF
'
0.0 0.2
ScQ
5e
o+ JL
OOOB _.
* m
o+ %.
o
+
0
&
+ >
o
o o + e+
61 D
v
a
a
a
i | i | . ,
0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Rvmax (%)
0
from South Palembang Sub-basin.
/ I
0 c
m. o
c
0 ~

0 0
0) -H
CM
1 -m
U --I
09 S3
0 0
mm. 0
U3
r-t
U*5
0)
U
3
rao
.rm
c
0 0
C -:
0 <3
u 0
S
y
n
-
t
e
c

c
o
a
l
i
f
j

in
r-l

in
u
3
M
Ex.
c
0 0
H -
C 4J
0 cS
jj 0
0
OJ c*-
jj *-
1 "
C fl
U 0
c_ 0
CO
rd
fi
w
0
H
a
0
JJ
o
cu
JJ
T3 ^3
C cn
03 r-l
a
o u H i
H A
JJ
(0 T3
H <U
O CO
M 0
a
0 0
J3 H
H 0,
in
a;
200-
100
0-001
(0.51 0.6 0.6 L5
3 ! 4 5 (6) (7JV.R.
40
10.51
o.e
35 30 IS 20 IS 10
i
5 i
V.VM
0.7 OJBJ OJ I US
i h
(asi
0.6 0.71 as
CL5)
1*71
10 t.s
i n i i n i
2.5 3 I i S (S) (7|
I i i '
%R.-
-v.fli
2.0
? ' , * , ?
(
6H?>V.R."
IS
0.6 0.71 0.8 ' UO ' ' US i ' 2.0 i2.S 3 J
JO 35 30 2S 20 15 10 S 4
1 I i 1 I I!
49
I (Sb-.R.
(2- V.VM
JS
JO 35 30 75 20 15 10 5 I
V , V M
lime in million years
10 12 20 30 40 50 100
001 002
Z-SCALE
figure 5.17 Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time
(Ma), temperature { C) and rank scales (after
Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for
calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and
5.12.
s
I
e
e -
g
m__Z
v.
I
r e
it
a E
:
e _
D X
o
e o
fl
c
v
8
I*
o
o
o
M
o
E
o
o
o
o
10
o
(0
m
(D
8
o
o o
o
o
8 2
8 8 8
N 10 *
(Ut) H <J 3 a
o
o
o
o
T3
CD
J->
(0
CD
a
CD
co 0)
H
>i
JS-O
o (0
H CD
CD
X
EH
ca
C
0
0 H
OJ
c
H
u
CD
>
H
4J
(0
u
H
>i fl
CU -H
CO

LD
CD
to
H
0)
M ro
O
v. CD
CN X
W JJ
(0 W
JJ 0
(0
CO
H
W
H
H
O
jJ T3
3 >
O J3
H
JJ 0
c
o
u
fl
o
H
CD JJ
MI
0
c
o
H H
JJ CD
H J3
CO 01
0-H
QjJ3
S
O JJ
U rd
CD
fQ CO
U
S fl
8
H 0
s
J5
JJ
8
J3
CO
CO
c
0
fO
U
CD
c
CD
0)
0
JJ
CO
fl
CD
CD 01
O JJ
0
JJ Ll
CD
O l *
C
5 o
0-H
CO I
CD
(0 JJ
u
0
0
a
i
CD
JJ
H
fl
H
JJ
U
CD
C
H
0 '
JJ
CD
M
rO
I
CJ
CO
CD
H
Ol
M
CD
C
CD W
(0
CTi
00
<7l
H
CD
JJ
0 JJ
U U
T3 CD
>i fl
X-ri
JJ
rO
d
s
fl
0
H
JJ
rd
>
H
JJ
U
to
CO
C
CD
Ol
O
u
CD
M
o
10
N
Ho.
s?
1
o
c
o
-0>
So
* p
c
DTK
6

L.6
>
ID
6
6
A

-
o
c

-
c
o
o
o
c

*
fm.
JmZ
CX
D
c
1
i
' o
' ! =
1
\;t.
1 J=
1 o
o
<
o
c
o
CVO
1
X
\
\
\
CO
o
V
c
\
o
a
sz
o>

o
>>
X

to
a
>s
to
o
9
V

a
O
o
c
c
o
3
3
cn
4
V / 5 =
-r V
X
0
(E
01
u s \a
I
l
N
I
T

T
I
N
I

S
I
N
I

R
I
N
I

or J K >
u
o
d
fl
rO
H
0
M
0
J-i
d
c
d
fl
0
a-d
fl 2
0
c
H CO
rO
JJ
fl
0
u
CD
JJ
CD
d
8
fl
0
H
JJ
rO
U
CD
fl
CD
Ol
fl
o
JQ
U
rO
CJ
0
M
d
cn
i-H

LD
CD
H
H
CJ iw
ro
co >
u
0
M
CD
JJ
JJ
CD fO
K
B
fl U
0-H
W

6 Oi
0 U '
U 0 ~
4-1 CN
H CO
CD (0 cn
H rH
JJ -
CO H
O O H
T3 VJ CD
fl M 3
0 0 0
U JJ 0H
JJ
rO
co
C
VERY GOOD
GOOD
FAIR
POOR
Q
O
0 Muara. Enim Fat.
Tata fig Akar RB.
I i
I '' I l I
5 . 0 K >
| i I l , \ i l l '
50 KX> ISO
i
0.2
i - i i i i
O.S 1.0
A : Liptinite 0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite (Vel. %of sample)
Figure 5.20 The relationship between S1+S2 values and the
Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim
Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after
Struckmeyer (1988).
Figure 5.21 Generalized zones of petroleum generation and
approximate correlation with maximum
palaeotemperatures and reflectance of
vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith
and Cook, 1984).
Figure 5.22 Maturation model for the main organic matter
groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook,
1984).
tfl
fl
0
H
0
A
JJ
C+JH
0 ft a)
H
JJ
(0
|
CO
o ta
H r<
m
H
H
rd
0
0
CD
X
4J
M
0
m
H
0
s
E

rd

ta
CD
R O M
M fl JJ
Q)"H
5
W
0
e
OtjO
CD CD LT)
& J J CN
cd
<D -P U
M
rd
.
a
>*
C O H
CD ft CD
to 0 JJ
Q)
M a)
ft>
rd
rd
Jfl 0
rd JJ
M
rd
0 0
CD JJ
fl iH
Sm>d
0 0 CD
A
OJ'
S
JJ
I
c
-H
4J

0
P
fl fl
0 tfl
H ta
JJ JJ rd
0
&
0
JJ
tfl
H
JJ=!
0
rd JJ
ft c
g o
0-H
Ond
rd
0 u
M
ft
ft
rd
fl
0
H
ta
0
M
Q)
.
0
fl
0
0
0
fl CnM
ro
CN
m
CD
U
g
H
04
(IW Hidaa
CD
0 JJ U
LU
2
t-
LU
7.
LU
O
o
o
-1
o
1
H CJ
JJ CD
ro w
U 4J
fl
H
CO
H
4-1
H
H
(0
0
U
4-1
0
fl
0
H
JJ
CJ
fl
M
JJ
CO
fl
CD
T3
CD
fl JJ
0
H
JJ
U
rfl
ft
S
0
u
0
ro
IM
CD
ft
0
9
>
ro

CO
CD
M
X JJ
0
C J^
>
CO
fl
0
H
0 JJ
o
CD
H
CD
S
JJ
1
fl
H
JJ
rd
ft
0
a
*i
CN
1
LT)
22
S
rn
>0 CN
CD 10
j

3
CO
>i
H
CD
ft CO JJ
gs
3
rd
CO JJ
to
<
$
rO
CD
U
C
CD
H
-d
ro
u
0)
ro H
0
ft
0
rfl
s
jtaj
CD
ox
a JJ
0
Pm
0
CD
rfl

H
X
0
S-i
ft
ft
(0
c
0
H
CO
0
M
CD
*
CD
01 C
CD JJ
CD A
M JJ
S
H
M
0
CU 4-1
fl
CD
U
0
CD W
to
CD
CD
U X
ft JJ
FIGURES TO CHAPTER SIX
54 0
5 41
N-ALKANES
AROMATIC
POLARS
542
54 3
Figure 6.1 Bulk composition of the crude oils from South
Palembang Sub-basin.
g d
0

H
rd JJ
JJ rd
>iH
H Jfl CD
CO Cu OS
CD
M d
rO
0
0
u
V
CO
CD
fl
>i ro
X M
d
CD
JJ
d
u
fl
JJ
rd
CO
4-1
H
ro
i
c
CD
M

X

1
CO
CD
C
rO
fl
H
CU H T3
*
0)
fl
rO
JJ
CO
H
cd
fc
CO
CD
fl
rd
U
H
CQ

-
rO
M Jjd
Cw H

M
N
rO EH

(0 CU T3 3
CO
OM
CO
j
(3
id
CD
ft
M d
a CD
0
JJ
rd
g
0
U

U
CD
o
f3
3
fl
fl
0
0
M
3
M
X
CJ
>
M
H
0
%
C O
CD
M
u
rd
ftT-
0
CO
fl
rd
H JJ
w
VJ H
CD
rO X
U JJ
M
H
CD
0
rd
fl
u
CD
JJ
fl
0 H
to o J3 JJ
rO ^ JJ
CJ if)
CN

<D
o
u
s
H
L%
CD
H
0
JJ
VJ
CD
4-1
0) CD
ft C
g
(0
CO
H
H
0
H
-d
M
H

0 in
u
u
fd
rH
1

W
H
*.
Sh
JJ
H
CO
fl
CD
JJ
fl
H H
6 T3 * CD
O CD CD >
C JJ rfl
CO O) > i H to
C -H X CD CD
o co cu os c
O CD rd
to v c
ro xJ *H
u cu H d
0 to DS rfl
to CD U
d a CD -H
>i rfl fl * CQ
xi .* rfl w
H JJ CD
TJ rfl co fl -
CD I -H rfl PS
JJ C to ^
rfl CU H *
to rfl EH
fl CD
JJ to to
rfl rfl CU T3 IS
co - H
o
4-1 CQ to C d
0 J* CD CD to
rfl JO to rfl
w CD E ftd
e ft 3 o c
ro fl co ra
tod -H JJ
Ol CD C H
0 to 0
JJ CD X) to H
rfl J5 to CD rd
6 1 fd -fl fl
0 fl U JJ to
to 2 O CD
X to JJ
CJ -H fl
CD 0 H
CO rH XJ JJ
rfl ^* JJ
O Ln co
0 to H
JJ CD
ro O 4-1 *
H Ol CD >i
vo ft fl to JJ
6 -H -H
CD 13 T3 CO
to CO to fl
fl O in CD
O l H U r-l JJ
H -H U I fl PL, O rfl -H H
o
o
LO
o
51
LU
o
ro
to d
Ol CD
0 to
JJ CD
rd
ftd
0 fl
D
r\i
o
"r>.
o
to
CD
LO
6-0 cp
0 CD CD >
to JJ fl -H
4-i rd ro JJ
fl JJ ra
to 0) > i H to
fl -H X) CD CD
0 to CU PS C
A CD (0
to XJ fl
rd xJ *H
U CU H d
0 to PS rd
too- V
d fl CD -H
>i td fl - CQ
X! X rfl w
H JJ CD
d ro co c -
CD 1 -H rfl PS
JJ C M X
^ rd CM H -
to fO H
fl CD
JJ to to
Id ro CM TD S
. W -H
r_z 0 "
: 4H to to C "0
0 X 0) 0! to
: rd JQ to id
10 CD g ftTJ
2 | ft 3 o fl
,_ id fl CQ ro
n
m
i i
r\i
i i
tod H JJ
0) CD fl CO
0 to 0
JJ O JO to H
rd J5 to o id
6 I rox; fl
0 fl 0 JJ to
tog 0 CD
XJ to JJ
CJ -H fl
CD 0 H
to m X JJ
rd # JJ
O in w
0 to H
JJ CD
in o H *
H 0) CD >i
<> ft fl to JJ
6 -H -H
CD (0 T3 CO
to to to fl
p o m CD
& H U rH JJ
H -H U 1 fl
PLI 0 (0 H H
RI
RI
IK,
es
cc
48
a
i
IK
68.
U.
<e
8
C27
370>I9I
w
' Ca i ~ *"
J_
-^VY-^*^
C28
384-HI9I
B
JAJAJW-^JWlU-^Ji
V
1
1
K
a

a
i
186.
88
C8
<e.
?.
8
C32
440I9I
C33
4547191
IS 16
1314
^^JA-*JtaÂiU ta^/^tataW^taJÂ.-^ J^JhAm-r~
17
ie
<S Tr <f <e <: R <:
TIME (HOUR)
v^.^^K\^^^J^^Jiî^
20
w
5? * <i I ft K i C 28 1 Ec <c I 8< li
Figure 6.6 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical
South Palembang oil showing the distribution of hopane.
Refer to Table 6.2A for peak identification. Each
chromatogram is identified by carbon number (e.g. C27) and
specific transition measured (e.g. 370->191). Ri: Relative
Intensity.
o
o
z
LU
CL
cc
UJ
p-
cc
r-
Z
%
o
z
X
z
II
X
"-
X
eS_
CO
-t-
X
GO
LU
Z
<
z
<
LU
-1
o
(1
_l
o
UJ
z
<
T
Q
<
O
m
o
w
o
*>
c
ta.
*"
>
o
m
<3
II
iS
LU
7!
<
7
O
<
o
CD
O
IO
O
<n
c
D
ta,
ta-
>
c
o
*-
)
c
c
ta,
r-
n
r-
LU
Z
<
z
5
u
m
o
to
o
II
i-
o
ID
z
<
z
o
<
()
m
u
2
o
X
II
cc
LU
z
<
z
<
n
CD
o
o
II
K.

LU
Z
<
0.
o
X
cC
II
*-
-
to
0)
0
JJ
rfl
I
to
XJ
u
c
0
to
0)
0
H JJ
JJ
U
ro
CD
rfl
to
to x )
U
rH
CTl 0>
rH C
* -H
I "0
to
0
CJ
CD
to
N
c
0
H
d
CD
JJ
CJ
fl
to d
JJ CD
CO JJ
C CJ
0 CD
U H
CD CD
PS tfl
*
mD
CD
to
H
CC
<S?8 45 <8 <8 88 45 26 58 48 5? 88 53 ?8 54 48 55 88 5) K
TIME (HOUR) *
58 48 188 88 1 8 1 ? * I 6? 46 184 18
Figure 6.8 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical
South Palembang oil showing the distribution of steranes and
methylsteranes. Each chromatogram is identified by carbon
number (e.g. C27) and specific transition measured (e.g.
372->217). RI: Relative Intensity.
Notes for the peak assignments for steranes
present in the chroiatograis.
1.
2.
4,
6 <
8.
9.
10.
20S-5c(H)
20R-5o(B)
2QS-5a(B|
20K-5a!B)
20S-5a(B)
20S-5a(B)
20R-5a(B)
20S-5a(B)
20R-5a(Bj
20R-5afflj
,13B(B
,136(1
,13B(B
,136(B
,136(B
,14B(B
,MB(B
,146(6
,14B(B
,146(B
,17a(B|
,17a(B)
,lTa(H)
,l?a(B)
,17a(B)
iHolB)
,17a(B)
,17o(B)
,lTa(B)
,17a(B)
-diaster&ne(C27)
-diasterane(C27|
-diiethylsterane(C28)
-dnethylsterane|C28)
-diaethylsterane(C29|
-sterane(C27)
-sterane(C27)
-sterane(C27)
-sterane(C27)
-diaethylsterane(C29)
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
*:
T=
T' =
=
E' =
20S-5a(B),146(B),lla(B)-iethylsterane(C29)
20R-5a(B),148(B),17a(Bj-iethylsterane(C28]
20S-5a(B),146(B),11a(B)-iethylsterane(C28)
20R-5a(B),146(B),17o(B)-iethylsterane(C28)
20S-5o(B|,146(B),no(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
20R-5Q(B)
)
146(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
20S-5a(B),148(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
20R-5o(B),146(B),17n(B)-ethylsterane(C29)
Cis cis trans C30 bicadinane
Trans trans trans C3D bicadinane
Trans trans trans C30 bicadinane
Boiobicadinane C31
C30 bicadinane
C27
Figure 6.9 Facies interpretation using triangular diagram
displaying C27-C29 steranes distribution (after
Waples and Tsutomu Machihara, 1990).
5383 5384
N-ALKANES
AROMATIC
POLARS
5385
5386
Figure 6.10
Bulk composition of the extracts from South
Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of the polarity
classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatics
and combined NSO-asphaltene fraction.
ro
cr
cr
E
o
a
CD
c
CO
CD (0
O
o
'CD
CO
CD ^>
'LO
Z
o
o
CM
ta..-*
r
Z
LL.
^-
^
^
ta. .2
o- r-
LU
CD
o
'ro
o
"C\J
d
CD
JJ
rd
to
fl
JJ
rfl
co
CD
XJ
JJ
fl
H
CD
H
H
M-l
o
to
6
H
fl
W
rfl
to
ro
fl

CD
XJ
JJ
to
CO
JJ
& u -*
rfl n
to
JJ
X
CD
fl
0
H
JJ
fl
O
H
to
JJ
CO
H
d
CD
fl
rfl
M
H
rfl
CD
to
fl
0i
H
co
on
LO
CD
X
JJ
c
H
CO
G
0
H
JJ
CJ
ro
to
UJ
CD
H
&
CO
fl
0
H
JJ
rfl
O
-o
ro
i
(3
cc
o
0)
1
o
o
o
CD
'CD
o
"Ln
o.
! LU
! i
CD
r^cxi
-0
CD
JJ
rfl
to
fl
JJ
rfl
co
CD
xi
JJ
c
H
CD
H
H
4-i
0
to
c
o
H
JJ
fl
mQ
H
to
JJ
co
H
d
CD
C
rfl
M
H
rfl
g
H
fl
W
rfl
to
rfl
fl

CD
X!
JJ
I
to
CO
JJ
u
rfl
to
JJ
X
CD
CD
XJ
JJ
c
H
CO
C
O
H
JJ
CJ
rfl
to
co
ro
in
CD
H
CO
fl
0
H
JJ
rfl
0
Cn
I
CN
CD
to
fl
Ol
H
Cn
CD
E
o
ro
i
C5
rx
CD CM
CM
I
CD
O
j
co
i C D
i
o.
C3 _S
__3 r
CD
LO
CM
CM
*
CM
CO -
CD
CM
1
^
1
3
CD
^*
CD
o
CM
0.
^
" ^
_ ^
>
~?
!_
LU
CD
"m
3
CD
"Oj
d
CD
JJ
rfl
to
fl
JJ
rO
co
CD
X!
JJ
fl
H
CD
H
H
4-1
0
to
a
c
0
H
JJ
O
H
to
JJ
co
H
CD
C
rfl
M
H
(fl
to
ro
0)
c
ro
H
ro
EH
CD
X!
JJ
I
to
H-l
CO
JJ
CJ --
rfl m
CO
ro
Lf)
to
JJ
X
CD
CD
XJ
JJ
fl
H
CD
CO
C
0
H
JJ
rfl
CO
fl
0
H
JJ
CJ
rfl
to 0
MJ Cn
ro
10
CD
to
fl
Oi
H
Cn
cc
~v L _ a
*
CM ~
'w
CO
CM
CM
CM
CO
CO
mm.
E
_w
ro CM
c
CD CM
* 'Sc
o
CM
O
m
.
*
P3
*> T
/ .->.->
0.

J
3.
- ^
^ ^
"""~^
" *"%
-4
^ .
^
3
^
_='
-^C
Ml.,. I I . _ _ _
= ?
"4.
^
- ^
^
M
j
-a
i
!
!
C D
pr^-
i
pCD
i
1
i
CD
pin/
1
i
! J
: s
LL
i 5
1 ^
i CD
pro
i
i
pr\j
__o
n

t
h
e

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d

t
h
e

T
a
l
a
n
g

A
k
a
r

rt
e
CD 0
H to
H >W
IN
0 CO
to JJ
f* Q 0-.
rfl vo
C to co
0 JJ ro
H X m
JJ CD
fl CD
:
-5 8 ^
H X! a
a
l
k
a
n
e

d
i
s
t
r

a
c
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

t

r
m
a
t
i
o
n

(
s
a
m

l to 0
fcM-i Cn
-#
H
1
VO
CD
to
g
H
Cn
-CD
1
m\CX\
410"
420
450
460
* 470.
>
K 480
o
E 490
\-
1
BOO
940-
920
930
940
990
!
990
60O
TYPE III
Immature
PI
Wilt InWilli
"ml
Mmm
sllilllll
Condensate
wet gas
: dry gas .
TYPE II
Immature
1 pi Willi
Gas
TYPE!
Immature
ffiQiuiiiiii
JSasZZZ
Non existence
of
Tmax
: -.
-410
.420
-430
-440
-450
.460
_470
Figure 6.15 The determination of petroleum formation zones
by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985).
DOO
TYPE II
200-
TYPE ni
T
1
I I
50 100 150
OXYGEN INDEX

200
250
Figure 6.16 Modified Van Krevelen diagram using
conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after
Katz et al., 1990).
FIGURE TO CHAPTER SEVEN
E
a

CO
cn
e
a
o
i
a
m)
-3
\
\
V.
CO
co
CO
2 < ^<g
c
3
\
coco
M
to
3 = c
c e -o
_l =cn
w
i ^ to
i_ ta ta, ta. .
(i D a
\ - . s-
<o /
a. /
/
/
/ to
a.
a
v
2
/
to
D
3
1 I I I
2
I
X *
ro
2
llll 1
2
1
2
CO VO
< CO
c*
JJ H
H
^
fl
CQ
CD
X!
JJ
4-1
0
*
Oi
to
CD

CD
N
JJ
to
10
>.S
Xi X!
a o
ro co
to
0) c
H 0
JJ >
(0
to
JJ
to
CD
CO JJ
H
rfl
to
CD
fl
CD
O
<H
rfl
<
rfl
CD
to
(0
\
JVX
UOjJDLUJCy IDSD>|
(<J d W )
q jaqiua^
(D dW)
D jaqoia/j
UOIJDOIJOJ IDOQ LUIU3 OJDn^J
j v a
UOI| DILI JO J
IDHOuag j{v
d n o j g 6uDqLue|o
c
t
auaoojicj auaaoi.id-oiVN
AWVIia3l
auaooj/j
CD
to
fl
Ol
H
Cn
FIGURES TO CHAPTER EIGHT
N
PAUEMBANS I
w
KrTOpoti
BUKHÂSAM MINE
( SOURCcN?F COAL )
^jM"*
atang.
$Vrrrrn.'''* ProbumuUh
% Muaraenim '-,
Km 9
Ton junge nim
%
^
S 0\.U T H
S U M A\T E R A
5 ^
SURALAYA STEAM
(POWER PLANT
(POINT OF DELIVERY)
LEGEND
System Location
i Raiiwoy
Waterway
L
Nsw Trade
if **
lOOKm
Figure 8.1 The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal.
South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984).
LU
u
in
4-
h-
(3
Z
LU
C 3
to-
LU
id'
o
>-
cr
<
LT
to-
rn
1-
r*
I
1.5
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
MEAN MAXIMUM VITRINITE REFLECTANCE,%
i
80
i
82
i
88
84 86
% CARBON IN THE VITRINITE (dmmf)
dmmf sdry mineral matter free
90
Figure 8.2 Generalized relationship of coke strength and
coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance
and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant
type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972).
TABLES
TO ALL CHAPTERS
Table 1.1 Oil fields in South Sumatra and their
cummulative production until 1966 (after
Koesoemadinata, 1978).
OIL FIELD
Sungai Takai
Suban Jeriji
Hangunjaya
Teipino
Bajabang
. lenali Asaa
Betung
Carang Ringing
Babat
Kebao
Raja
Boh
laipung tfiny&k
Iruh
Huang
Lilin
T.Akar Pendopo
Liiau
Gunung Eeiaia
Air Benakat
Jirak
Tanjung Tiga
ifest T.Hiring
Talang Jiiar
Prabuiulih Vest
Karangan
Abab
Selo
Be tan
Deras
YBAR OF
DISCOVERY
1963
1905
1934
1931
1923
1931
1923
1903
1902
1941
1940
1962
-
1941
1944
1936
1922
1928
1938
1933
1931
1940
1938'
1937
1953
1957
1957
1937
1949
1951
DEPTH OF
RESERVOIRS
(U
40-595
363-763
201-2251
589-824
824-1007
320-1171
110-400
50-366
30-320
360-550
1983
1220
-
1006
700-793
900-?
854
1357-1632
1891-1934
439-467
210-290
1342-1403
1284-1537
1098-1281
1446-1720
1341
1830
580
1983
1830
FORHATIOH
Kuara Eoii
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
Air Benakat
-
Air Benakat
6 u a i
Air Benakat
-
Air Benakat
-
Air Benakat
-
Kuara Enii
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
Talang Akar
OIL TYPE
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Asphaltic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Parafinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
Paraffinic
0
API
43.1
43.7
24.8
41.1
44.7
23.8
40.5
40.5
42.5
36.5
55.7
46.0
44.0
-
38.0
40.0
-
37.0
28.0
38.0
36.0
37.0
28.0
28.4
28.5
32.5
27.7
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
CUMULATIVE
PRODUCTION
(BARREL)
4,281,222
8,670,834
15,836,554
76.343.699
37,269,022
80,335,861
-
2,115,716
-
-
-
16,851,348
140,462
-
1,474,777
27,495,042
482,320
331,425,405
158,945,473
16,807,313
102,370,655
45,509,927
35,429,231
1,541,100
125,546,539
7,244,023
-
2,990,595
492,482
3,990,595
957,050
8
u
4-1
fl
(0
(0
0
u
4-1
0
fl
0
H
4J
(0
u
H
4-1
H
CQ
CQ
ro
H
u
T>
0) CN
N CO
H <n
H H
id
u -
cu ,*
fl 0
CU 0
u u
CN
cu
H
S
>-
r
= 2
cc o
UJ
o
o
A I
0> 03
u"Hia'|OA M0|H
E o
i - e
2 5 O
loo u/ojg
OU.
o o =f
-J > C3
o c
<n <
isoo PJH
o o
O o o
IO <o
IO
J
o
IO
o
o o
o *.
sousscajonu aiqatoaiep O N
-*
5
>
D C
o
o
o
o o
o o
o o
o
o
o
cr
o
o
to
o
o
o
o
o
o
<0
>- O o
a
O
C
<
<
o
u
n
m
o
uo
'is
?*
2 <
< o
O
q
0 0 0 * 0
O IO in ^r
,1,1,1.1
O m 7 n 9 ) m , 0
1 . 1 I
>
(V
ci
n
ci
I I [
9 r. a
odd
o
O
= e
a- o
z >
I 5 E
o =
2
> a
= E
* ". =
o o
_i > to
e =
Table 2.2
Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from
Group
Maceral Maceral
Vitrinite Telinite
Collinite
Vitrodetrinite
Liptinite Sporinite
Cutinite
Resinite
Alginite
Liptodetrinite
Inertinite
Micrinite
Macrinite
Semifusinite
Fusinite
Sclerotinite
Inertodetrinite
Submaceral-
Maceral Variety-
Telinite 1
Telinite 2
Telocollinite
Gelocollinite
Desmocollinite
Corpocollinite
Cordaitotelinite
Fungotelinite
Xylotelinite
Lepidophytotelinite
Sigillariotelinite
Tenuisporinite
Crassisporinite
Microsporinite
Macrosporinite
Pyrofusinite
Dearadofusinite
Plectenchyminite
Corposclerotinite
Pseudocorposclerotinite
+ Incomplete, can be expanded as required.
4-1
o
s
cu
jJ
CQ
>1
CQ
c
cu
H
U
, O
c
0)
0> M
W
H
U)
ro
V
W Cu
0
CO
Q)
g cn
4J
c
rO CU
C 3
W -H JJ
cu cu cn
cn 2: -H
C rH
ns
n a
0 J-J 0)
I 4J
T3 Cn CJ
cu - H cu
(X H H
cn
c
c
H
Dl
rH
U
O
u
0
>i
T5
0
0
3
O
cu
H
HH
H
X
O
3
cn
cn
H
JJ
U
H
CO
0
-M
3
r-t
U
>i u
r-i CU
rH J=.
fO JJ
U O
CU
C IH
CU 0
tn <*H
J *
rfl
OJ
3
cu
0
G
CU
u
co
cu
tn
c
rO
U
JJ
3
0
CU
JJ
u
0)
rH CU
W J cn cu
c 3
CU rH
JJ ,0
5
c
H
JJ
Ta-
rn cu
H 4J
rH (0
rH
u o
cu cn c 0
cu >,
>i 0)
cu tr>
1-1
rfl A!
a
O Q
JJ
3
0
rH
r-\
CU
;*
cu
u
m c
c
o
u
> rH
rfl rfl
U S
JJ CO
4J
m
CO
3
0
c
H
CO
0)
1-1
OJ UJ
x a
cn JJ
w 3
r H rO
tfl
CU
c
rfl
M rfl
O -H
rJ
>i CU
s e
c cn
cu cu
rH -H
rH TJ
0 0
Cu X.
T3 M
C rfl C
(0 tn 0
rM JJ
tn < x
0) c
1
H
c e
H CU CU
X s
JJ 4J
c
ro TJ Z
c
rO CU
2 ~ X
X -U
ro CO
TJ5 4H
>. rfl 0
rH CU
c cn
O CTi C
o
J3
w
A :
u
0
* u
CO cu
u
c
<J rfl
0) u
4 il
0 c
rt CU
> U
rO
U
co 3
,
C X X
rfl cu CM
ro
0
O 0
CO
cn
3
0
u
cu
e
0
cu CO
4H
TJ
C
rfl
C
0
X
U CO
rfl CU
U r-\
rfl
CU J3
M CO
CU
J= H
Oi -H
CO 0
JJ
X
tn .c
H co
rH -H
3
O
tn
C rH
ro cu
U >i
JJ
JH
C 0
H
CU
CU JJ
3 -H
O
1
X
rfl 3
0
c
(0
CJ
rH 4J
CO
JJ
c
m m
H rfl
rH H
U-l
T3
CU TJ
JJ CU
u -u
aj to
rH rH
uj 0
CU CO
U -H
0
JJ
CU
u
en
3 CU
O rH
U rfl
03 OJ
CU
JJ
H
3
CO
rfl
VJ
3
U
U
0
CU
CU rH
rfl IJ
CU
>. JC
rH JJ
rfl
U
H
E
0)
JG
CJ
0
H
CQ
e ,
CU JJ
0 sz ro
U g
CO
tn 1
cu u
<-\ 0
3
JH rH
0 UJ
cu o
u Z
CO
c
cn cu
u s
cu 3
>1 rH
rO I
cu cu cu
> CJ 0
H C
CO c CU
tfl CU u
rfl O i CO
e 0 cu
(0 rfl
CJ -H
H H
CU
C rfl -4
rfl CU rfl
CU N 0
> 3 -H CJ
T3 W T3 JJ
0 CO -H rfl
3 JJ O U
on
CN
CU
H
EH
CM
3
0
JJ
CU
JJ
H
c
H
rJ
JJ
H
>
JJ
JJ
rJ
CU
c
Table 2.4 Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from
Group Maceral
Huminite
Liptinite
Inertinite
+ Incomplete, can
Maceral Subgroup Maceral
Textinite
Humotelinite
Ulminite
Attrinite
Humodetrinite
Densinite
Gelinite
Humocollinite
Corpohuminite
Sporinite
Cutinite
Resinite
Suberinite
Alginite
Liptodetrinite
Chlorophyllinite
Fusinite
Semifusinite
Macrinite
Sclerotinite
Inertodetrinite
be expanded as desired
Submaceral+
Texto-Ulminite
Eu-Ulminite
Porigelinite
Levigelinite
Phlobaphinite
Pseudophlobaphinite

Table 2.5 Proposed coal maceral classification system for
coals (Smith, 1981).
Maceral Group
EXINITE
VITRINITE
INERTINITE
Maceral Sub-Group
TELOVITRINITE
DETROVITRINITE

GELOVITRINITE*
Maceral
Liptodetrinite
Sporinite
Cutinite
Suberinite
Resinite
Fluorinite
Exsudatinite
Bituminite
Alginite
Textinite
Texto-ulminite
Eu-ulminite
Telocollinite
Attrinite
Densinite
Desmocollinite
Corpovitrinite
Porigelinite
Eugelinite
Sclerotinite
Semifusinite
Fusinite
Macrinite
Micrinite
Inertodetrinite
Gelovitrinite is only recognized when 10 microns diameter and when not
part of telovitrinite.
0
+->
Di
a
H
M
0
u
u
ns
c
H
tfl
rO
e
re
M
rC
e
-i

o
w
CM
0
>i w
a o
rO X
U 4-J
H
4J
rd
W
m
tu
H
3
tH
fO
01
w
re
LU
a.
CO
D
i
Table 3.2 Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the
present study based on Spruyt*s Nomenclature
(1956).
a
o
H
4J
(0
e
U
o
mU
E
o
o
CM
I
o
CM
> o z: <=
o
" J? c
? * 5
" I 2.
c
5
o co .. c
. o o
" ** tT
_ "O _
** o c ;
> E
3 a
o O
o U
o
3 O
c
3
C o
a c
CO
o
c
o
.$2
" ^ *- o
3 b a
o >.
ca ? o
a
c
E
o
CD
CM
I
O
o
- 3
CM -3 O
- !1
c
2

"* u.
X C
* *!
o t $
*
6
"> ?
s =
Ho
g o w
to -q JB
3
O
J3
a
to
cl
in

*- a
c
il o
5 -
= J=
W 3
. <*
SI
o
o 8
.O
O
IE
o O
E
o
<\J
I
o
o
u
3 w
i c]
a
* :*
o E
0
^ '
o E - = "
2 2
^ o
O . 1
1
c
i :-=
^> >
-
O r> -
O
= c '
* * s
o o 2
*- *- w.
Q IH n
E
o
IO
CM
I
o
o
o
13
C
c
o
o o
M a
3
> o
e)
>- O
o
o -
c o
o c
c "i
I
cn .>
a
_a
cu c
LU
Dl
C
c a
o =
XI c
CT
c
3
i
3
CD
v tn
2.
3
c
D^cn a
C C j
a a 3
2 1 to

a
j
Q.
I I I I I I
rn
JUL
CVJ
21
a
i
OJ
2
a
a
dV^
( q d w )
q jsqiuaw
( dW)
D JBqiUBW
dV
U014DUJJO-J (DSD>{ UOIjDlUJO-j |DOQ LUIU3 DJDn^
U0I4DLUJ0-J
4D>jD"uag JIV
dnoJQ 5uDquj3]Dd
AdV|ld31
SUSOOIL^
against depth in the MBU-2 well.
against depth in the PMN-2 well.
against depth in the (34-14 well.
.oi' Mn VJ.:l
rf w . . ' W ' Wi I "
""-ri' "an*"* ' * 3 C "arrcc
J M V I v
- I. VJ f ,
r-ira 2f
,
*.
1
r,
*
w
T
C
s
/ 0*37 '
L W b l l .
22273
; " 0 7 '
^ 22 75
* r> l"
L. WC, . W
? * ?77
L w W *
? 1 * " 3
il w ; w
:507a
i *
n n
n
I _ W4.W W
3 ** 2 1
>. ... - ..
1 1 J 5
IHflile
W We. W "*U
- We. w W
*nn_,",c
"20-
:
5
C f II! tt
W W W W w
w w w w w
| A * * *
~ M ~ - el
- w w . w
r w _ f n
I W W W W
:CI^_JR
' *
w
- -
. w u T
i<!ic_:,*
I25S-50
a T w
1 O T J - T S
W J T . W
nan.;!
- w V We.
"jcw-.s
(. U
T
W W
in <_;,s
1 W W " . W
0.24
0.25
:' "
T * 5
w * w w
W i T I
,1 1,".
u * f*w
w tl.
0. J5
0.5!
n is
w i f w
1 1 H i
0."*
-i :n
* l W V
n 'C
T U
,1 tl
^2S22r'2ELTS ^r^rt'awr ffl ."'I'm
W I H M W I W, W WI W W I WW; t W H W ? I 11 III
itHlUA Wl W.WIWHW WikWArrMM
22
^n
W W
* 2
:n
- w
2
1 W
:n
w W
(fl
!3
;i
"5
w w
in
* w
32
in
J *
0.022
0.029
W t W C u
n niii
J ..... T
0.050
n .*. *
. . w w w
- r.n
W . W T I
* n * n
0.025
r. no;
W W f. T
W W W 1
n r.-it
W w w T
0."'"7
.". r. u
W t W T I
n ,",17
W * W W 1
n mi
w . w w u
wc:
uc:
i
3 C
n u t
A S :
n u t
A
:
-
A 3 E
niyi
*cc
cue
W W 1
TIC
" A C
. n i
T.i. C
nt
T J C
; .TI
L.ni
i A C
u n i
- h i "
" 7
- r
v W
t 1
T 1
T V
fS
" W
:a
W W
:a
w w
7 .ir*iro amn
!<G-!0
'C7S j .or.er
l W l w . u llw wl w W
J7
v
"ri!lCl'':
against depth in the KD-01 well.
Table 5.6
against depth in the BRG-3 well.
ire o m n
..mm
"If,!", nerrac
"'il
1>MI !
it UIU A \ f. I
C71
1
1
w .
J
c.
W
7
a
a _
in
1 w
' *,
< 1
w
'2
! (
1 w
s
i w
17
'0
1 W <
12.
in
u W <
12,
in
w w <
1 '
m . 1
77
L> W 1
77
- W I
W T i
IE
L W I
t ;
* s
7 0 W n n
W W w W W
rt /) n i
I J w t 1
L i . W 1
7*5 SX "
7 4 fl 7
L W w w
mou
Ub . w ^
IOOE:
710:7
- - - v 1
'iiana
-. lm W W W
77o;n
W *. - V W
710S1
W W W V 1
7 7 0 S 1
22252
7 7 0 S /
l . w W -
770EE
WW<* W w
22257
770c:
773E3
k b . * w
77Q7n
L.4. W ( W
2227;
1 7 0 7 7
Kmm * u
77377
2237-
7707S
77077
. k w t ,
7707:
k. W - 1 J
^ 1 2 >
L. 4. W W
7702!
w W w W 1
emtio fa rn re
W ill u w 1 W w W 1 u
% IIIUA Jl w 1
fi J fl - 7 *
W 1 W - W
W 1 V - w
7 7 n ? *
1 - w - w
3 n r. _: n
w w w W
W W W w
1 W i W ' T
(ins.-n
1 w w w . w
!77_:s
[ W W W W W
f TW 4. ww
!52"*2
n
1 w T ij w _
(Rc;.;a
i w w * w w
t r n e . - Q
.:ww - U
(7in.(1
, * 1 w . T
rfloe-.n
1 WU w -w
lOE/.Ea
1 -. -J T W W
b W * V W W
H 4 fl1 JJ 1 ^
L, J W W ' w
7icn.i;
t, m> ml W T
L. 1 W W - w
2'23-2i
7 7 7 7 - 7 S
W W e> W - W
5 0 J M
Le. t 1
?7c;.::
- 1 . W T W W
i i e s _ r -
W i . W W m,
A
* 3 "* * * **
WW* W ~ W W i_
7707
w w w w
rt
'1 W W 1 W.I W W W
arf 7 7w*/'/m
WiH. y Ih.AII Mil
V.
W(
n 73
w ww
1 M
V * I
n M
V t f 1
n '7
v * Y 1
1 n
n ;n
W 4 W W
'. 'Q
w i t .
a :i
W e w w
n:5
n
j
3
3
n
n
w
w
r,
w w
w w
W
S7
w 1
w 1
ww
>,,
0.2!
0.32
n :
-os/iinne
in
wu
in
w W
in
7 a
w w
1]
n
1 w
ia
- w
77
- W
;E
17
- I
"I
> w
(7
17
L. w
1 7
- I
16
77
U W
IE
w w
71
11
L I
'0
ir,
WW
fl * *
m
W W W w
1 A 0 7
u W W I
n -77
W W u I
n 17/
V V W T
.1 171
W W L> w
rt 7 7 3
W W W w
r
t
noe
w p w mm
1 777
W 1 W U l
.1 mo
W e W W W
n -n
W . w T .
w . v -r w
in//
W . w .*
ft ms
J 1 w w w
ft mo
w t W U W
ft ',Ei
w w w I
1 ,-/s
^ W T w
n m''
4 . w h
G.04
e
ft mn
W * w w W
0.327
0.C23
1 -.; 7
-1 w w <
0.04
7 "7 '
uc:
, 1 w
lie;
uc:
uc:
KEF
uc:
11 w
ucz
1 : wi
floi
ADC
Hwl
<cc
CMC
;7!!C
W W I
"AC
* A :
'Af
,', c
:r,
:J
--a
an
j w
IE
4 W
CE
W W
an
-> w
22
22
5i
ni
w w
*Z
w w
ro
IE
against depth in the TMT-3 well.
against depth in the L5A-22 well.
against depth in the BL-2 well.
Muara Enim area.
Crl] Un Wall flanr-h 0 Ana Cnrrnvfi nm Tnrac Tien Tnrrt Cr'ri-Tcn Tcn-f^no
u p i . nil . E l | Js. w wu I. . H A nm<. | u| M U . I Wit l U I W U l I I W W . . I U U . Jl U W . . W W i ii w II Ii W m w
y n n n n
U) (ay)
3
2
. 0.
790CC QDC-7 in7n n cn in wen eq ac tc? A u
W*.w w w wiiw) w t U t u W . WW ill lit* WU WW I wt W . + b 3
(_i.wwi witw w Iwt-w J. ww iw rtCi
58
95
01
We.
w w
117
!!8
tci
1 M C
ton
1 u*.
1QQ
IUW
-fl ii
W T *
-fl n
We tW
-0.24
jiacc apt* i i7ir\ n c7 u enc
C4.WWW UltW W II iw J , w ' It JUl
22273 BRG-3 2190 3.33 21.S TAF 111 120 132 -0.11
22975 9RG-3 2241 0.37 22 TAF 114 127 203 -0.13
22924 MHU-2 1450 0.55 14 6UF 32 31 145 -0.05 25
11007 UOII-1 17RD rt C7 1C CMC Oi as <K0 _n n7
b k . u l nCwj u i i w w w . w i Iw wwi w + w w Iww w . w l
22940 MBU-2 1830 0.79 13 TAF 93 124 133 -0. oc
n o o n CM-ii tiiQ n it ts ciic 7R an too .n no is
L.W4.UW Wfl '+ I L T w W . W I IW WW* IW WW . I. w M . W W L. V
inor; eu_u tini n Ei in lie 70 an too _n 17
L.W4.WW 3 i T l T I w W T W . w * WW U1I IW WW I k U W . W I
22550 ICD-1 1553 0.52 15 SUF 30 30 128 -0.02 25
22552 KD-1 1725 0.57 19 TAF 37 100 150 -0.21
23557 KD-! 1302 0.51 35 LAF 39 32 131 -0.!4
22595 PMN-2 1855 0.55 22 TAF 95 20 144 -0.09 25
23598 PMN-2 1900 0.53 23 TAF 98 94 !50 -0.03
Pendopo-Limau area.
Spl.Hc Sal] Depth R M X Age Forsatian Tgrss. Tjso. Tgrad. Sr2d:Iso Tsurf.
SUF
QDC
will
TAF
LAF
LAF
LAF
70
n
37
105
tn
I 1 L.
114
115
118
tnn
1 WW
110
100
105
toe
I u w
189
ISO
175
150
153
W . W I
-0
cc
W w W
-0.05
-0.05
0.20
0.14
22500 TMT-3 1513 0.57 22 TAF 83 82 147 -0.14
73
82
83
30
90
ai
dim
144
144
147
1110Q
mot
k W b W I
11101
i We- w W
woe
e. W4_ W W
111O0
UW*. w W
BL-2
3L-2
3L-2
3L-2
3L-2
1133
1334
tiin
tCQi
i w w - *
1CCC
(www
0
w W W
0 ci
Vi W W
3 "
W * W W
fl 71
W e l l .
fl 71
V e i l .
14
19
uw
11
Li.
24
SUF
i nt
TAF
TAF
TAF
74
81
91
ww
W W
91
100
90
aa
WW
tna
1 w u
tnc
1 WW
150
144
142
173
tea
i W W
-rt 1fl
23181 3JH0 1255 0.55 15 SUF 73 100 150 -0.40
23182 BN-10 1654 0.52 17 8RF 84 110 175 -0.25
22187 8JMQ 1934 0.55 26 TAF 95 105 163 -0.12
22133 8M-10 2112 0.33 27 TAF 100 115 184 -0.20
22131 3N-I0 2253 0.35 28 TAF 105 IIS 183 -0.12
22132 9H-10 2235 0.32 25 LAF 110 120 192 -0.12
22137 SN-10 2542 0.35 40 LAF 115 118 189 -0.03
r
n s i n i K i - 1 1 fttfi ri fi ti c u e 7ft fte toe -ft flf ie
WWW4.W WWrt w k I I III W . w k IW WWI IW I I 9 IUU W . W I i.W
11S11 !EI_11 117i ft ml tO
b . H L I L w A 1_4. ll.IT J . W W IU
11611 IU-11 1770 ft SS 11
L w w im. w uwrt i_i. I t i u w w w L M
?
9
5?9 ttk-w ^(\na fl 7a in
l-WWUW L.WH We. b W W U W . v w WW
IIRIO i KA-H ilea n ai 11
L WW*. W WWrt (.*. t. I WW J . U I Wfc
22521 L5A-22 2224 0.32 23
23534 TMT-3 1254 3.54 18 TAF 73 SO 144 -0.2
7
25
22539 TMT-3 1488 0.53 20 TAF
-Li] 25
FEATURE -
MICRINITH
FLUORINITE
EXSUDATINITE
OIL CUT AND
HAZE
SECONDARY
FLUORESCENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
DISPROPORTIONATION
REACTIONS
HIGH CARBON (MICRINITE)
AND HIGH HYDROGEN (OIL
PRODUCTS)
IN SOME CASES
NON-MIGRATED OIL
FORMS AND OCCUPIES
FRACTURES
REPRESENTS PARTIALLY
MIGRATED OIL-LIKE
MATERIAL
INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF
FREE OIL
INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF
BITUMENS
Table 5.13 Summary of petrographic features and their
significance in relation to oil generation and
migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986).
TABLE 6.1 LOCATIONS OF CRUDE OIL AND CUTTING SAMPLES
SAMPLE WELL SAMPLES FORMATION DEPTH
NO. TYPE (M)
OIL LAHAT FM. 2265-2267
OIL TALANG AKAR FM. 2209-2211
OIL BATURAJA FM. 1808-1812
OIL BATURAJA FM. 1845-1848
CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 680-690
CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 900-910
CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2106-2110
CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2190-2194
540
541
542
543
5383
5384
5385
5386
BRG-3
BRG-3
MBU-2
MBU-2
BRG-3
BRG-3
BRG-3
BRG-3
X
4-1
w
0
01
g
PJ
0)
JJ
fl
U
H
4-)
cu
fl
CU
4->
d H
S ra
O f
>W.
rd
>
a
ca
rd
i
H TJ O
cu cn
ca 4J g
H
H
0
OJ
u
4-1
0
c
0
H
4J
id
M T3
fl
J->
ra
ca
4-1
0
cu
fl
H
i
0
CJ
ca TJ
OJ
ca
ca
ra
H H
ca
0
u
fl
rrj
ca
c
0
-Q '
a> u c
g 4-> rd 0
0
U
H
rH
(0
CJ-H
0 P
U 0
CU rH TD fd
X
4
CM
U3
CU
H
9
E-
0
>i M
Pi rflW
eo -o
"O ^
i_ * 1
CO
c a
co 2 -
__ W rt.
o -~
CM O)
"O i
w O r < a -^
O
C
o
"3.
o
C O
E r:
a co
XI c
3 O
o o
3 "
JO"
<
cn
o
-
CO
3
ca
(0
o
a>
i
o
>
i o
u
a>
CC
i
>- CD
-5. E
O ^"
a
01
u
(0 CO
E E
O *"*'
k.
<
OT
a>
e*w ^___^
3 E
a
CO
If
3
o """
o
c
o
%
rr
S
ru
UJ
2
<
z
-J
o
a>
c
o
W
"=L
cn
CJ
m
c .
CO
X
CD
dl
o
co
+
-S..
CO
OJ
E
CO
CO
m--
co
CO
CO
rr
r^
cn
CO
to
w
rr
CJ
CN
cri
CD
r^
0)
o
rr
cn
^_
co
6
rr
a.
C7>
C
o
cn
rl
in
CJ
CO
c
ro
X
wC
=t
o
cn
+
rt.
cn
CJ
E
CJ
rT
T
r^
CO
CD
CJ
CD
0)
CO
CO
o
"3"
CJ
CD
CD
cn
r^
o
cn
m-
rr
cn
CJ
CO
6
a:
CD
(35
C
o
cn
5.
cn
OJ
CD
C
CO
X
CD
o"
cn
+
=s.
cn
CJ

*
o
^
CJ
rZ
r-
rr
CJ
CD
CJ
cri
00
cri
CJ
cn
CD
r-
co
CD
T -
r
CJ
rr
cn
-.
CJ
=5
cn
2
OT
C
o
cn
i.
cn
CJ
CD
c
ro
X
CD
-CZ
o
cn
+
=t
cn
CJ
E
CTl
CD
T ^
rr
r-.'
r^
CD
cri
r>-
CO
,
*-;
co
1-
CD
r-'
CD
cri
*

CO
rr
cn
OJ
CJ
D
3
2
Table 6.2A Peak assignments for triterpanes present in
Figure 6.6.
Peak no. Compound name Carbon number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
W
T
T'
R
R'
x
18a(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane(Ts)
17a (H) -22, 29 , 30-trisnorhopane (Tin)
17a(H), 21|3(H)-30-norhopane
17a(H),21a(H)-30-norhopane
18a(H)-+18(3(H)-oleanane
17a (H) , 21(3(H)-hopane
17(3 (H) , 21a (H) -moretane
22S-14a(H
22R-14a(H
22S-17a(H
22R-17a(H
17(3 (H),21a(H)-homomoretane
22S-14a(H
22R-14a(H
22S-17a(H
22R-17a(H
22S-14a(H
22R-14a(H
22S-17a(H
22R-17a(H
Cis cis trans C30
Trans trans trans
17a (H) , 21(3 (H)-diahomohopane
,17a(H) ,21(3 (H)-diabishomohopane
, 21(3 (H) -homohopane
, 21(3 (H)-homohopane
,17a(H),21p(H)-diabishomohopane
, 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diabishomohopane
, 21(3 (H) -bishomohopane
,21(3(H)-bisnorhopane
, 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diatrishomohopane
, 17a (H) ,21(3 (H)-diatrishomohopane
, 21(3 (H)-trishomohopane
, 21(3 (H) -trishomohopane
bicadinane
C30 bicadinane C30 bicadinane
Homobic adinane(C 31)
C30 bicadinane
Unknown compound
27
27
29
29
30
30
30
31
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
33(?)
33(?)
33
33
ca
13 m
cu 0
C 4->
0
jQ
rH
ra
u
0
rH
V
fl *
cu rd
ca CD
cu a
u
a cu cu
X fl
ca u ra
.
&
e
>I-H ca \
X
H
ra
p.
H
0
0 0
fd 4-) CJ
4J -H
rd TJ cu
T3 CU fl
JJ CU
cu rd xj
C X H H
T3
CU
4->
ra
U
fl
4J
&
fl
c
H
ca
cu
E-t CU > v H
rH XJ 4->
4-> H
ca cu -u
ca-H g
H 1
ca ca m
>i-H
rd H x; -a
ca
w
0
rd 4-> )H
fl rd
rd "d 15
fl c
u fd rd
flO +J
0
H
>i ca
>tH
fl
rd
&
Cn
c
H
>
H
&
-m
4-> X3 CU H CN
H > fd CN
ca T3 -H fl u
0
CO 4J U
a fl ra cu
6-
0
CJ
cu
X
H 4J 4J
B-H fl
U 4-> -H
CU fl
p rd cu
cu fl a
EH T3 D
1
4-> *
n
co
cu
H
5
H
0
ca
H
cu
4->

'
to
3
2
"
CO :
eo
O
OJ
CO
CJ
CO
O
o
CO
CJ
S3
o
eo
CM
O
CM
U
CO
CM
u
in
CM
o
rr
CM
CJ
CO
CM
O
CM
CM
U
CM
CJ
o
CM
O
Ol
O
00
5 _
5
w
h* o
5 1
o
-C
5 I
O o
T)
ca
tn <xi
H -
o s
CQ
o S
^ -2
8 1
m n
cn o co uo
r^ co .- oi
V - O N
UO CM
rr UO m- UO
CO CO CO m~
CO O UO ww
UO CO .-
rr m- m- CO
CM o cn cn
O CO O *T
eo f co -
*~
O l ffl '
Ci rr r^ rr
O N Ol N
r r co mm
*~
uo m r-* co
uo to o o
uo r- m- cn
uo - to CM
CM -
co uo r~ co
CD CM uo
^cr. CM co co
'CM cn UO CM
O l
rr to cn co
CM r T - CM
rr co CM o>
cn co co co
cn oo co ro
CM m- rr CO
- i/i in n
O C M co rr
CO m-
to CM m en
cn - r uo
r~ rr co co
co rr cn uo
co -
CO CO rr
cn mr to rr
uo cn co to
.CM CO CO uo
CO r-
^- eo to CO
OJ rr CM CO
co r~ en uo
co rr o to
CO m- m-
U0 rr O CO
.- r- to *-
* r Ul N
- CO to
CO m- m-
f~ ID ID Ol
cn to m uo
r>* CM cn .-
en co m~ r-
CM m- m-
CO mt 0> UO
co o o r~
uo O CO CO
co co CM r*
CM m- m-
uo oi cn to
rr co cn uo
IO ^ V (O
UO CM CM CO
CM mm
10 N ^ CO
UO CO CO UO
to r rr
CO CM Ol 0>
r- co cn m~
to cn co co
CM m- LO eo
CM eo co
tit T- mm m-
cD rr o rr
UO CO CM UO
cn uo r rr
O) CM CM CO
. ^ w~ ..
UO O) CO o
to CO CO o
o o CM a
cn co co r^
CM tO m- m-
CO rr Ol '
to Ol o ?Z
r- rr co
c
"
CO - O CO
o rr o r~
o> UO CO CO
N N n ID
- - CM
r- r a gi
O) UO CO CM
UO Ol O CM
O N N 10
CO rr CM CM
I*
cr
uj
S
C
z
O mm CM CO
rr rr rr rr
UO UO UO UO
r- CM CM
rt co ?3 CM
6 6 3 5
ct cs ra oo
co ca 2 5
u
uS
o
co
CJ
CO
O
O
CO
U
CO
O
co to CM r^
CO O tO r-
b oi r-
tO CM CO CO
CO *- m- m
CO mm U> CO
o w r~ CM
rr mZ o b
U0 m- m- O
^ N CO N
rr O CO rr
co rr oi mi
rr co to
o to to
rr co
o eo ir> r-
r ^ IB h
Ol tO UO CM
s
r rr uo CJ.
CM
O
CM
o
CM
o
CM
o
o
O
O
CM
CJ
o
CM
O
cn
5
o
r
O
to 5
O co
3
ra
in
rr oi co
CO UO OSI ^
oi co r^ rr
in - eo
" "i T ^
tri i oi to"
CM
U) N CO CD
CM CM tO CO
rr r- co to
CM
r*. o> ^ co
m- > Ol
Iii N O IO
CO Ol Ol o
CO p U> rr
p s 6 id'
r- oi to CM
.- o> p CO
CM tO mi ID
CO CO CO m
CM r* co uo
mi ID mi rZ
Ol m-
co uo to to
o co> ini oi
eri oi mi r~'
r ID m- Ol
co CM O
CO UO CO
CO CM O
uo eo r~ CM
oo uo r^ oo
rr o -^ oi
Ol Ol Cl o
m- Ol Ol CM
V N ci 10
co r~ CM o
cn
3
o rr- " **
Q.
Q.
Ol
E
Cm
u
a
O m- CM CO
S r r rr rr
uo to uo
- Ol ^- Ol
ft fi 3 S
6 6 5 5
rr c n cn
ro ca 5 2
uo
CO
O
uS
O
P5
m
CO
O
3
eo
CO
O
CM
CO
o
CO
o
o
co
o
eo
CM
O
r-
Ol
O
CO
CM
o
uo
CM
o
rr
CM
CJ
CM
o
CM
Ol
CJ
CM
CJ
o
Ol
CJ
Ol
O
CO
1^.
Ol
Cl
to
Ol
Ol
oi
o
to
CO
Ol
O)
r-
CO
CO
CO
o
CO
r^
ZZ
8
uo
uo
uo
CO
Ol
rî
CM
to
to
rr
CM
r~'
o
to
Ol
uo
UO
uo
rr
p
CO
c?
oi
uo
CO
'"
r
CM
oi
CO
r^
ci
p
*~
Ol
uo
oi
r
uo
oi
Si
CO
8
CO
to
rr
to
rr
Ol
rr
s
^-
8
rr
r-
rr
rr
rr
rr
i
CM
CO
rr
in
p
rr
CO
p
rr
CO
CO
rr
CO
m- f^.
eo ^
oi to
CM O
rr CM
UO CM
b b
- in
O rr
mi O
S 2
CM mi
Ol CO
CO Ol
Oi mi
Ol rr
O r-;
rr CM
to 00
CO p
eo oi
rr o>
to oi
co o
tO CM
uo co
O UO
UO Ol
CO CO
CM CO i
CO mm '
to' rr
O CM
CM CO
r*' rr
m- ID
ID Ol
tm- rr
r. co
CO CM
r-' uo
03
co' uo
<N^
co to
C M eo
rr C71
cb to
CM CD
Ol CO
cb cd
CO CO
co en.
O ^ CD
CM tn tn ry
f
1
-. to r^ m
oi ^r cb csi
CJ
CO
O
uo
.
o

to
trj
o
(0
o
Sm
a.
tx
a
e
a
3.
8
ai
CO
b
uo
CO
to
to
cn
rr
CD
CO
uo
r^
CO
CO
OJ
to
CO
to
r^
cb
CM
.
r^.
*-
OJ
o
o
CO
CO
b
rr
r~:
r^
o - w n
v v tr
z.
in uo in
m- CM J- CM
ft CO Ol CM
6 6 5 5
cc cr a g
m m 5 2
Table 6.4
The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane
hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data
is also presented quantitatively in relation to
the peak of the internal standard
3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving
quantities in ug/mg(ppt).
OIL N A M E B M R # Pr Ph Bicad W Bicad T Bicad R
Peak Area as read from crtromatogram- -
BRG-3/1
BRG-3V2
MBU-2/1
MBU-2/2
540
541
542
543
39705 4954
38810 5913
9241 4383
15273 4468
4916 6638
3968 7807
2851 4356
424 467
1964
3008
1980
297
Pr Ph Bicad W . Bicad T
cig/mg(ppt) saturates
Bicad FT Pr/Ph Pr/nC17 Bicad W/
Bicad T
BRG-3/1 540 29.55 3.69 3.66 4.94 1.46 8.01 2.08 0.74
BRG-3/2 541 20.23 3.08 2.07 4.07 1.57 6.56 2.77 0.51
MBU-2/1 542 8.55 4.05 2.64 4.03 1.83 2.11 0.70 0.65
MBU-2/2 543 14.56 4.26 0.40 0.45 0.28 3.42 0.90 051
Pr Ph Bicad W Bicad T
fiayrng(ppt) whole oil
Bicad R'
BRG-3/1
BRG-3/2
MBU-2/1
MBU-2/2
540
541
542
543
20.24 2.53
12.89 1.96
6.09 2.89
11-27 3.30
2-51
1.32
1.88
0.31
3.38
2.59
2.87
0.34
1.00
1.00
1.30
0.22
CJ
CJ U
cu
CU 4->
X! OJ
E H 13
Lf)
CU
H
fl
CM
CO
Ol
CM
W
0
c
s
c
a
o
O
Ol
CM
a
a
a
-.
a
a
a
m.
a
a
o
m.
a
co o
CM a
o
CJ a
4-
52
CO
O
rr
co
r>
O
rr
co O
55 P
<
rr
m S
CM
eo
O
rr
<-
w o
<
CM rr
>
o CO
r-
<
CO
cr in
. xs
CO o>
c
CO
o
uo co
CO
uo
co r>-
co --
o
b
CM
r--
uo
CO
CO
rr
rf
UO
CM
CO
CO
o
rr
CO
oo
CO CM
r^
o
co
o
CM
oi
oo
CD
CO
Ol
*-
uo
b
r~
cri
CM
uo
b
CO
uo
b
cn
b
CM
UO
O
.
UO
b
o
to
to
o
.
uo
b
o
UO
CO
uo
b
ra

JO
ra"
-Z
ra

a
.
UO
CO
co
r-
co
co
CM
r^
o
uo
o
uo
o
uo
D
r-
rr
2
CD
CU
2
<
Z
-j
o
CO
cu
.-
ca
uo
b
o
rr
uo
CO
6 .
cr
CQ
CM
r-^
rr
uo
CM
CO
6
cr
m
to
uo
CM
5
CD
2
CM
r ^
CO
CO
rr
uo
CM
CM
5
CO
Z2
0
H
fl
E-t
cr
8
.O
O 2
a a
u
" 2
o 2
co ca
u
a
a
o
Cm
V
CM
8
Si
3 i
o> a
CM a
I
I P
TJ <
9 =
s
M
CU fl
X! 0
E-t W
M0
1
M0
CO
CO
CM
u
CO
t-
<
CO
rr
O
F
<
rr
co a
2
cr
<
CO
rr
LU
2
c
CO r-~
CM CM
O rr rf
CO ' -^
O CO CO
CM
O
UO
r-
o
b
o
CO
o
oi
o
co'
rr
o
b
CO
OJ
o
uo
CO
CM
CO
CO
CO
uo
CO
CO
CO
Oi
CO
o
CM
uo
r~
zz
T
uo'
r-
CD
CM
CD
b
CO
oi
CD
r-
CO
co
oi
CO
CM
CO
CO
O
CO
b
o
rr
b
uo
uo
b
to
uo
b
to
uo
uo
CO
CO
r-~
CO
CO
CM
r>-
rr
r~
r-
o
uo
CM
o
uo
co
uo
r-
CO
CM CM
ro co C M o]
6 6 5 5
rx CC CD CD
a. a. Z> 2>
tc
TJ
3
JO
a
to" r*-*
r-
3
8
rr V CO
mi mi O
co co "
eo -
CU
T3 0
H x;
0
fl
s
OJ H
Q, 0
M
0)
4-)
H
M
4->
CO
cu
fl
rd
C
H
T3 -C

rd
U
H
T3
H
0 CU
rH X!
CU 4J
P
w in
cu
XJ
+J
4-1
0
fl
0
H
4->
H
CQ
0
W
-H S
fl U
0 U
w
>1
"d X3
fl
rd V
cu
w fl
C-H
0 S
O X ) rH
a M cu
6
0
CJ
rd 4J
U cu
0 T3
M
0 -d H
X >i-H
EHX! O
r>
us
CU
H
fl
EH
5
a
3
2
s
.81*
K
rr co r^ co
5 8 8 8
TJ
3
co r* <M co
= ::'-
*- t" CO O
S8
Si
u> r CM a
b .- co' CM
CO m- CM m-
io r- co CM
S 8 8 8
j ; 8
-^ O O CO
co co eo rJ
to m co m-
fm. n -m,
uj rr ui
CO m- CM
si "
re
e
CO

rr
S
m
Ul
s
<
z
1
6
Ol
o
rr
Ui
ft
6
cc
Q
r. Ol m-
3 mi f~
rr eo CM
c^ oi eo
o co ai
p o o
O J to ui
r~- CM rr
8 rZ fc
O O o
Ui Ui Ui
to CM
ui rJ
CM
CO CM
6 5 -j
rr co a
co 2 2
r-
TJ
ca
u
m-
Y-
a.
1
-3
=s
TJ
u
-Q
CM 9
r* -
CM 9
o 5
r~ a
CM C
(j a
o
(0
co e
CM c
O a
o
10
CM C
(j ra
._ CO
Co
CM l
co e
CJ =
mi. "
ft
CJ X
w "*

c
.

E
&
E
E
a
a.
E
St
E
a
E
Q.
CO
mi
CO
CO
rr
ui
Oi
u>
CO
CM
rr
rr
ui
CM
CO
8
CO
s
to
oi
to
*-
Ui
ui
8'
r
Ol
CO
co
..
R
to
a
oi
CO
co
UO
CM
CO
CO
CM
CO
uo
CM
m-
r^
*~
cn
cb
rr
to
CO
b
Oi
Oi
9
a
rr
ui
rr
CM
CM
b
r--
Ui
l^
b
to
Ui
r'
rr
o
pi
Ui
CM
._
ui
r~
CO
CO
CM
rJ
o
eo

,_
cb
Ui
CM
CM
CO
CM
-j
CO
CJ
r
K
CO
rr

10
CM
Ol c
CM c 5
&
o
X
rr E
* a CO.
co a.
"X
CJ
J
-
5S i
CO g. OL
CM O
co X
O
8
r
8
8 -
Ol rr
b to
Ol CM
O
d
CM
cb ui
co
s
6
rr
CD
CM
CO
6

CM
5
CD
2
CM
CM
5
rD
2
TABLE 6.8 THE TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC), ROCK EVAL DATA
AND THE BULK COMPOSITION OF THE SOUTH SUMATRAN
SHALES/COALS EXTRACT.
PARAMETERS
WELL NO.
DEPTH (m)
TOC (%)
TMAX
SI
S2
S3
PI
HI
OI
EXT (g)
EOM (mg)
SUB. SAMP (mg)
SATS. (mg)
AROM. (mg)
POLARS (mg)
RECOVERED(%)
SATS. (%)
mgHC/g TOC
5383
BRG-3
680-690
4.1
421
0.44
4.77
2.64
0.08
117.20
64.86
15.9
42.3
42.3
3.0
2.2
21.3
62.6
7.1
127.8
SAMPLE
5384
BRG-3
900-910
51.2
419
7.45
119.50
21.60
0.06
233.40
42.19
4.0
172.8
53.3
2.2
1.7
22.8
50.1
4.1
7.6
NO.
5385
BRG-3
2106-2110
3.7
433
0.86
4.61
2.05
0.16
123.92
55.11
13.3
50.5
50.5
9.6
6.3
18.2
67.5
19.0
427.4
5386
BRG-3
2190-2194
26.9
446
15.63
62.95
1.85
0.20
234.01
6.88
4.6
90.6
53.4
7.3
14.0
17.7
73.0
13.7
79.2
TABLE 6.9 THE COMPOSITION OF SATURATED HYDROCARBONS OF
SOUTH SUMATRAN SHALES/COALS DETERMINED BY GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS.
PEAK AREA ug/mg(ppt) SATURATES
SAMPLE NO. SAMPLE NO.
5383 5384 5385 5386 5383 5384 5385 5386
STD
C15
C16
C17
C18
C19
C20
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C26
C27
~ C28
C29
C30
C31
C32
C33
C34
C35
9508
8884
16193
20377
20819
19635
18721
18941
22648
26137
25794
27109
23992
23852
18571
22111
28539
21530
12838
11851
5194
3933
52922
26102
50353
56165
53925
45424
44586
61264
93581
129605
135150
196732
183559
122077
105479
111830
164898
86153
65890
56659
38060
26357
28921
52310
76123
83554
79422
74163
59798
50266
44658
38186
31169
28403
21046
19812
14505
16474
26571
15615
9352
9813
3582
2455
44535
56751
77943
85047
81012
75810
65728
66926
79592
91170
89727
98455
81651
73874
67934
58425
56599
45803
34292
29113
20892
13012
10
9.3
17.0
21.4
21.9
20.7
19.7
19.9
23.8
27.5
27.1
28.5
25.2
25.1
19.5
23.3
30.0
22.6
13.5
12.5
5.5
4.1
10
4.9
9.5
10.6
10.2
8.6
8.4
11.6
17.7
24.5
25.5
37.2
34.7
23.1
19.9
21.1
31.2
16.3
12.5
10.7
7.2
5.0
10
18.1
26.3
28.9
27.5
25.6
20.7
17.4
15.4
13.2
10.8
9.8
7.3
6.9
5.0
5.7
9.2
5.4
3.2
3.4
1.2
0.8
10
12.7
17.5
19.1
18.2
17.0
14.8
15.0
17.9
20.5
20.1
22.1
18.3
16.6
15.3
13.1
12.7
10.3
7.7
6.5
4.7
2.9
Table 6.10 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results:
isoprenoids.
SAMPLE
5383
5384
5385
5386
NO.
WELL NO.
BRG-3
BRG-3
BRG-3
BRG-3
DEPTH
(m)
680-690
900-910
2106-2110
2190-2194
PRISTANE
Peak area as
chromatogram
22161
56820
125180
109549
PHYTANE
read from
5771
12166
27403
21077
TABLE 6.11 SOUTH SUMATRAN COALS/SHALES GC RESULTS:
ISOPRENOIDS ug/mg Saturates
SPL. WELL DEPTH PRIST. PHYT. PR/PH PR/nC17 SUM
NO. No. (m) ratio ratio C15-C35
5383 BRG-3 680-90 23.3
5384 BRG-3 900-10 10.7
5385 BRG-3 2106-10 43.3
5386 BRG-3 2190-94 24.6
6.1
2.3
9.5
4.7
3.8
4.7
4.6
5.2
1.1
1.0
1.5
1.3
424.1
355.3
271.0
310.2
Table 7.1 Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG,
1987).
H&ie of area
Coil in-situ
Total Moisture,J
Ash (dry), SI
Sulphur (dry), X
V.K (daft,
luara Tiga
flesar
28.0
6.5
0.39
50.0
Fixed Carbon (daf).X 50.0
C.V gross, KJ/kg
C.V nett, KJ/kg
Na,0 in ash, I
2
Coal as lined
Total Hoisture, X
Ash (dry), X
Sulphur (dry), X
U (daf), .X
Fired Carbon (daf],
C.V gross, KJ/kg
C.V nett, KJ/kg
h'a 0 in ash, X
20.3
18.9
2.7
25.3
12.4
0.38
49.9
X 50.1
19,3
17.9
2.1
Vest
Banko
26.2
6.0
0.45
49.3
50.7
21.1
19.7
5.5
25.9
9.0
0.44
49.2
50.8
20.5
19.1
3.8
Banjarsari
38.7
5.9
0.21
53.2
46.8
16.1
14.6
2.5
38.2
6.4
0.21
53.1
46.9
15.8
14.3
2.0
North
Suban Jerigi
41.2
6.6
0.20
52.5
47.5
15.6
14.0
1.6
39.8
13.4
0.20
52.3
47.7
14.7
13.2
1.5
Sooth
Muara Tiga
25.7
11.7
0.34
49.9
50.1
19.4
18.0
3.7
25.2
15.9
0,32
48.6
50.4
18.5
17.2
2.8
Kungkilan
23.4
7.0
0.22
49.2
50.8
21.8
20.4
6.0
23.1
10.8
0.22
49.0
51.0
21.0
19.6
4.1
South
Arahan
31.0
7.2
0.22
51.1
48.9
18.7
17.2
3.4
30.4
11.5
0.22
51.0
49.0
18.0
16.5
2.1
North
Arahan
35.9
7.2
0.75
51.4
48.6
17.3
16,0
4.2
Central
Banko
35.0
10.0
0.3
50.0
50.0
17.5
16.01
6.0
South
Banko
33.4
8.9
0.53
50.6
49.4
18.3
6.24
-
Bukit
Kendi
20.0
2.9
0.17
50.7
49.3
23.8
22.4
- '
Table 7.2 Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after
Shell, 1978).
QUALITY PARAMETER
GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG
TOTAL MOISTUHB (A.L), X
VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), J
ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SOLPHOR (DRY), X
H-2
PANGADANG
(ION)
6720
42
53
5
0.2
N-4
BENAKAT
ON)
6720
45
54
7
0.2
Table 7.3 Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after Shell
1978).
DUALITY PARAMETER
GROSS CV (D.A.P.), KCAL/KG
TOTAL MOISTURE (A.L), X
VOLATILE HATTER (D.A.F.), X
ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X
N-2
PANGADANG
Oil
6780
40
53
6
0.3
B-3
BENUANG
(6K)
6690
43
54
5
0.2
N-4
BENAKAT
(14MJ
6470
48
57
9
0.3
Table 7.4 Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area
(after Shell, 1978).
H-2 H-3 H-4
QUALITY PARAMETER
PANGADANG PETAI BENUANG BENAKAT JELAWATAN LEMATANG
UPPER LOWER
(7-9M) (9M) (5M) (7-9M) (22-24H) (8M) (10-11M)
GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG 6640 6680 6880 6530 6450 6530 6380
TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X 42 35 35 - 48 ? 53?
VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.F.), X 53 52 50 51 56 57 58
ASH (DRY), X 6 7 7 15 7 8 II
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
Table 7.5 Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area (after
Shell, 1978).
QUALITY PARAMETER
GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG
TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X
VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), X
ASH (DRY), X
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X
M-2
P A N G A D A N G
LOWER UPPER
(10-13M) (11-13M)
6780
42
56
8
0.5
6830
38
53
.
0.6
u
CO
JJ
4-1
rrj
rfl
CO
u
<
X
H
o
C3 ac
9
U
PM
0J
XJ
4J
4-1
0
n
cu
H
4->
H
H
id
OO
Caa
H
H H
(d CD
0X5
U M
S
U3

CD
H
8
EH
CO
mm.
o
CO
CO
CO
o
Table 7.7 Sodium Oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals
(after KOG, 1987) .
Area
Seal
North Arahan
Sooth Arahan
Sooth Mnara Tiga
Kungkilan
Banjarsari
Muara Tiga Besar-Iest
Muara Tiga Bern-Middle
Muara Tiga Besar-Niddle
Muara Tiga Besar-Sast
Air Lajra-North
Air Laya-South
Bukit Asai, upgraded coals
Vest Banko-North
Vest Banko-South
Central Banko
Suban Jerigi (East l North)
Average for each seai
C/Cl + C2 B/Bl
6.9
3.7 2.6 2.8 + 2.0
3.8 2.S 3.8 T 2.5
E.4 4.3 4 3.2
18.1 13.8
4.3 4 1.8 3.3 4 2.S
5.5 + 2.4 5.1 3.4
7.5 4 7.1 7.2 + 2.6
4.7 i 3.3 5.0 2.6
2.6 1.2 2.7 t 0.7
0.5 4 0.3
1.0 t 0.1 0.8 4 0.2
5.3 + 2.1 6.5 r 2.7
4.3 + 2.4 7.5 2.4
5.2 4 3.5 8.4 r 5.6
6.0 5.4
Sodiui oxide in ash, Na 0
u
A2 Al
2.7 3.0
4.2 3.7
3.3 4 5.4 3.2 4 2.0
7.8 + 2.6
3.1 7.6 + 3.0
4.2 5.4 2.6 4 2.2
2.6 t 3.0 1.7 1.5
4.6 f 3.5 5.0 4 4.8
6.3 + 5.1 8.0 T 9.2
3.3 4 1.0 2.5 0.8
0.4 4 0.4 0.5 + 0.4
5.3 2.6 3.1 + 1.7
6.4 r 4.8 3.0 4 0.9
5.8 t 3.3 8.3
4.5 4.2
(XI
Enii Jelawatan
2.5 + 2.3 1.1 4 9.8
1.7 1.0 0.7 + 0.4
2.1 0.9
ft
0
4J
0
rd JJ
0J
rd
A
a
w
to
s
8
o
M
P
a)
to
OJ
gjj
o
OJ O
XJrH
4J
a
H
to
OJ
0
0
10
a)
to
ta
0)
2
m
rd
t*
|
OJ
ta
a
O H
X!
4J
fl
CD
MT1
H
n
<d.G
0
0
m
0
&
rd
g
p
3
CO
00
r-
GJ
H
A
id
H
0)
>
0
p
1
*
0)
fl
H
E
4J
to
O
B
OJ
ft

OJ
x.-
X 4Jr^
rd 00
g MH <Tt
^"

OtH
3>
CJ
mml
J
a*
î
ca
w
*. Lm
W
as
u
IM
*
m
u

a
a
4>
C9.
_
rt
u
a
a
u
ca
-^j
u
m-%
-V
ct

a
u
u
*-
a
w
j
IM
CL.
US
3
d
u
k.
*
**
^3
3
-*- C n
_
a
zHZ
zm
"^
-a
*J
M
*-> 
e
r
e
J
(39
CM
a
Cd
ca
4
a

m
t-m
*-mt
an
ca
i
CO
i
i
-**
<J9
<n
<o
CM
cj
u
CM
*
CO
c a
-c
o
-fed
s
a
m-m-t
UI
4J
wm
mjO
1
n
-*>
4 *
C=
OO
un
CF1
i
*- CM

aa
OB
a
d
--..*
*-* at
a

CJ
CO
CM
-X
d

fd
t_)
d
= 30
*jt
a
C O
CM
1
C=>
1
r*>
*
i
Q)
c
CJ
ca
CM
ca
**.%
Hill
-M
% a
a
ca
tMC
1
C O
1
c-
e
1 0
C M
C M
CO
<*%
CJ
c a
M
C3
d
~C3
-J
kc*
c
-*-* -3
a
o a
B
u n
C3
CM
<=> eo
*-

<=>
*
*
M
CJ
CJ
CM
ca
ca
CM
*-S
o
-J
d
ca
d
-
-*-> a
ai
CJ
aa
i
ra
^^
j*
<=
**
"^
i
o
un
-
CJ
CO
CM
O
a
d
uO
* J .
=1
o
co
t*
1
QO
un
CM
<r-
1
1
o

B
ca
*-

CA
E*
Q O
c
I
"
m-f-
OF*
1
1
en
- Ml
CJ
CM
a.
ca
CM
-<
CI
O
d
CO
* J
Wl
l
un
M
CD

^
C O
cn
u n
CJ
ca
CM
c
o
<d
a
u
o
*- tVrt
a
SB
"^
1
<=>
* C3
CSi
^"
1
t
c=>
c a
CJ
ea
CM
e
a
o
0 *
ca
u
-
tj
3
a
d
u>
tU
<aa
d
dl
-v
d
-
- 3
3B4
VI V *
Table 7.9 Coal qualities of the Kabau Seam from the Bukit
Kendi Area (after Shell, 1 9 7 8 ) .
GROSS CV (D.A.F), ICAL/IG 8400-3850
[NHEREHT MOISTURE (A.D), I < 2.5
VOLATILE KATTER (D.A.F), X 27.0-34.5
ASH (DRY), X < 4
TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), 5 0.3-2.3
7I7RIMTE EEFLZC7AHCZ, I 0.3-1.22
Table 8.1
The differences in calorific value among the
three main maceral groups for four German coals
determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin
et al., 1983).
SEAM VOLATILE *
MATTER
(daf)
Vitrinite
CALORIFIC VALUE
cal/g (Btu/lb)
Liptinite Inertinite
36.13 7925(14265) 8680(15625) 7841(14114)
Zollverein 31.97 8109(14597) 8696(15652) 8038(14468)
Anna
28.36 8343(15017) 8619(15514) 8343(15017)
Wilhelm 23.50 8368(15062) 8360(15048) 8216(14788)
* Volatile matter determined on vitrinite only.
TABLE 8.2 COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BETWEEN
LURGI SEMI COKES AND BUKIT ASAM SEMI-ANTHRACITE
COALS (AFTER TOBING, 1980).
THE BUKIT ASAM THE BUKIT ASAM
CHARACTERISTICS LURGI SEMI COKES SEMI ANTHRACITIC
COALS
MOISTURE (%) 2.1-7.4 1.21
ASH (%) 6.7 - 16.9 0.41
FIXED CARBON (%) 69.8-80.7 57.98
VOLATILE MATTER (%) 5.5-12.2 6.56
CALORIFIC VALUE (kcal/kg) 6314 - 7395 6038
SULPHUR (%) - 0.25
- 11.4
7.09
83.44
- 23.34
8164
- 3.36
Table 9.1 Maceral composition and rank from MBU-2 samples.
No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max
(m) %
DOM Coal Sh.Coal
VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
22917
22919
22920
22923
22926
22929
22933
22936
22938
22940
22941
22942
22944
40-45
170-75
250-55
495-500
705-10
975-80
1348-50
1644-46
1800-02
1878-80
1880-82
1887
1968-760
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
ABF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
0.31 62 5 33 87 4 9
0.33 - - - 83 5 12
0.37 34 1 65 81 4 15
0.39 52 tr 48 84 7 9
0.40 92 2 6 56 12 32
0.42 83 2 15 - - -
0.47 70 30 tr - - -
0.57 99 tr 1 - - -
0.72 99 tr tr - - -
0.74 - - - 97 1 2
0.73 96 tr 4 97 1 2
0.87 - - - 97 1 2
0.82 99 tr tr - - -
Table 9.2 Maceral composition and rank from PMN-2 samples.
(m)
DOM Coal Sh.Coal
% VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
23676
23678
23681
23683
23684
23686
23688
23690
23691
23692
23693
23694
23695
23696
23697
23698
435-40
550-55
722-24
838-40
916-18
1128-30
1218-20
1488-90
1568-70
1660-62
1737-39
1812-14
1820-22
1866-68
1886-88
1920-22
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
ABF
ABF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
TAF
LAF
LAF
LAF
0.30
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.36
0.38
0.39
0.47
0.47
0.48
0.50
0.56
0.54
0.54
0.57
0.58
82
79
84
85
76
71
73
98
92
86
88
86
96
43
83
5
5
3
1
2
5
tr
tr
tr
6
5
tr
2
tr
tr
13
16
13
14
22
24
27
2
8
8
7
14
2
57
17
87
80
81
88
91
8
8
2
3
4
5 -
12 -
17 -
9 -
5 ~
- -
- -
- -
- -
Table 9.3 Maceral composition and rank from GM-14 samples.
No. Spl.No Depth Form. R
v
max
(m)
DOM Coal Sh.Coal
% VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
23271
23273
23274
23276
23277
23278
23280
23281
23282
23283
23284
200-
300-
330-
566-
758-
794-
1248-
1258-
1264-
1274-
1280-
-05
-05
-35
-68
-60
-96
-50
-60
-66
-76
-82
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
ABF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
LAF
0.34 83 5 12
0.38 84 4 12 63 14 23 - - -
0.36 80 2 18 ------
0.41 80 2 18 ------
0.40 84 115 ------
0.42 88 2 10 ------
0.51 86 68 -------
0.49 85 3 12
0.53 --- ---81118
0.53 --- ---85 4 11
0.50 45 1 54 87 4 9
Table 9.4 Maceral composition and rank from KG-10 samples.
No. Spl.No Depth Form. R ma
(m) %
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
23560
23561
23562
23563
23565
23567
23568
23569
23570
23571
23572
456-61
544-46
602-04
736-40
838-40
1090-92
1248-50
1300-02
1430-32
1526-28
1566-68
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
ABF
GUF
TAF
TAF
0
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
.30
.32
.35
.45
.44
.46
.41
.50
.51
,44
54
DOM Coal Sh.Coal
V I L V I L V I L
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
71 10 19 84 3 17
- - - 8 3 4 13
64 2 34 72 7 21
- - - 7 4 5 21
74 5 21 - - - - - -
79 4 17 - - - - - -
65 9 26 - - - - - -
83 1 1 6 - - - - - -
94 1 5 - - - - - -
99 tr 1 72 7 22 - - -
95 4 1 - - - - - -
Table 9.5 Maceral composition and rank from KD-01 samples.
(m) %
DOM Coal Sh.Coal
VIL VILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
23536
23537
23539
23545
23547
23548
23550
23551
23552
23553
23557
535-
590-
715-
1165-
1270-
1325-
1558-
1642-
1726-
1746-
1802-
-40
-95
-20
-67
-72
-27
-60
-44
-28
-48
-04
MEF
MEF
MEF
ABF
GUF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
LAF
0.32 49 7 44 56 9 35 59 10 31
0.37 79 7 14
0.41 83 5 12
0.45 73 5 22 ------
0.52 79 15 6 ------
0.51 64 24 12 ------
0.52 61 31 8 ------
0.54 99 tr tr ------
0.57 99 tr tr ------
0.63 81 tr 19 91 1 8 - - -
0.61 99 tr tr ___-_-
Table 9.6 Maceral composition and rank from BRG-3 samples.
No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal
(m)
V
% V I L V I L V I L
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
.5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
22950
22952
22953
22954
22955
22957
22958
22960
22962
22963
22964
22965
22967
22969
22970
22971
22972
22973
22974
22975
22976
22977
22978
610-20
720-30
800-10
900-10
1070-74
1206-10
1252-56
1402-06
1548-52
1654-58
1706-10
1710-14
1886-90
2042-46
2106-10
2150-54
2182-86
2190-94
2222-26
2238-42
2241
2254-58
2266-68
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
GUF
GUF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
LAF
0.38
0.41
0.47
0.47
0.50
0.49
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.66
0.65
0.67
0.67
0.70
0.71
0.75
0.81
0.83
0.84
0.87
0.87
0.82
0.82
90
60
90
28
90
95
94
96
98
90
92
96
99
93
98
99
98
91
99
99
98
99
83
2
5
3
2
3
tr
3
2
tr
8
7
4
1
tr
2
1
2
2
tr
tr
2
tr
tr
8
35
7
70
7
5
3
2
2
2
1
tr
tr
7
tr
tr
tr
7
tr
tr
0
tr
17
92
70
96
79
89
87
97
98
96
99
48
73
1
17
1
10
2
3
1
tr
tr
1
3
7
7
13
3
11
9
10
2
2
4
tr
49
20
Table 9.7 Maceral
No. Spl.No Depth
(m)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
23584
23586
23588
23589
23590
23591
23594
23595
23596
23597
23599
23600
446-48
492-94
698-700
798-800
898-900
1000-02
1254-56
1296-98
1314-16
1336-38
1488-90
1518-20
composition and rank
Form. R max DOM
v
% V I L
(m.m. f)
MEF 0.34 95 1 4
MEF 0.36 96 1 3
ABF 0.33 50 1 49
ABF 0.40 82 tr 18
GUF 0.40 60 tr 40
GUF 0.42 98 tr 2
TAF 0.56 90 1 9
TAF 0.50 98 tr 2
TAF 0.51 86 3 11
TAF 0.51 91 5 4
TAF 0.53 59 tr 41
TAF 0.57 72 tr 28
from TMT-3 samples.
Coal Sh.Coal
V I L V I L
(m.m.f) (m.m.f)
81 3 16
84 3 13
88 2.10 - - -
69 10 21 - - -
96 1 3 - - -
74 tr 26 - - -
92 tr 8 - - -
Table 9.8 Maceral composition and rank from L5A-22 samples.
v
max DOM Coal Sh.Coal
(m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
23614
23615
23616
23617
23618
23619
23620
23621
23622
23623
23624
23625
23626
23628
23629
23630
23631
23632
130-35
430-35
628-30
748-50
848-50
952-54
1110-12
1274-76
1332-34
1778-80
1804-06
1816-18
1840-42
2008-10
2070-72
2168-70
2224-26
2272-74
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
LAF
LAF
LAF
LAF
LAF
0.36
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.41
0.49
0.52
0.53
0.53
0.66
0.68
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.78
0.81
0.82
0.81
56
72
87
72
85
80
89
98
87
90
49
97
90
62
68
22
91
1
4
1
5
10
18
11
1
tr
3
1
tr
1
10
tr
67
9
43
24
12
23
5
2
tr
1
13
7
50
3
9
28
32
11
tr
83
97
81
75
85
92
2
1
5
2
2
3
15
2
14
23
13
5
Table 9.9 Maceral composition and rank from BL-2 samples.
No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal
{m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1. 23286 798-800 ABF 0.44 64 16 20 - - - - - -
2. 23287 902-904 GUF 0.48 67 20 13 ------
3. 23288 1098-100 GUF 0.51 78 4 18 ------
4. 23289 1198-200 GUF 0.53 91 1 8 ------
5. 23291 1394-96 TAF 0.53 99 tr 1 ------
6. 23293 1430-32 TAF 0.55 99 tr 1 ------
7. 23294 1530-32 TAF 0.63 97 21 ------
8. 23295 1576-78 TAF 0.65 --- ___9
15
4
9. 23296 1584-86 TAF 0.72 98 1 1 97 1 2 - - -
10. 23297 1602-04 TAF 0.68 99 tr 1 96 1 3 - - -
11. 23298 1606-08 TAF 0.72 99 tr 1 94 1 5 - - -
Table 9.10 Maceral composition and rank from BN-10 samples.
v
max DOM Coal Sh.Coal
(m) %VILVILVIL
(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
23166
23168
23169
23170
23172
23175
23177
23179
23181
23182
23185
23186
23187
23188
23189
23190
23191
23193
23195
200-
260-
320-
370-
500-
700-
810-
1150-
1355-
1654-
1866-
1910-
1984-
2048-
2112-
2180-
2268-
2396-
2452-
-05
-65
-25
-75
-05
-05
-15
-55
-60
-56
-68
-12
-86
-50
-14
-82
-70
-98
-54
MEF
MEF
ABF
ABF
ABF
GUF
GUF
GUF
GUF
BRF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
TAF
LAF
LAF
0.32 86 6 8 84 3 13
0.30 80 tr 20 97 2 1
0.31 81 6 13 - - -
0.33 77 16 7 - - -
0.32 73 1 26 - - -
0.36 42 15 43 - - -
0.38 76 4 20 - - -
0.49 55 4 40 - - -
0.55 80 18 2 - - -
0.63 99 tr tr - - -
0.59 95 1 4 - - -
0.62 99 tr 1 92 2 6
0.66 - - - 89 1 10
0.74 - - - 93 2 5
0.83 96 tr 4 - - -
0.87 - - - 99 tr 1
0.86 99 tr 1 - - -
0.93 98 2 tr 98 2 tr
0.92 98 tr 2 - - -
PLATES
1-61
Plate 1. oil stain associated with cracks in vitrinite.
Sample no. 23628. Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%;
field width = 0.41 mm, in reflected white light.
Plate 2. Thin layers of telovitrinite (TV) in claystone.
Sample no. 23628. Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%;
field width =0.41 mm. in reflected white light.
Plate 3. Abundant pyrite in carbonate rocks. Sample no.
23620. Gumai Formation. R max 0.52%; field
width = 0.27 mm, in reflected white light.
Plate 4. Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumen (B) showing
desiccation cracks in shale. Sample no. 23694.
Talang Akar Formation. R
v
max 0.54%; field width
= 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.
Plate 5. As Plate 4 but in reflected white light.
Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite
minerals (Py) in shale.
PLATE I
PLATE 2
PLATE 3
PLATE 4
PLATE 5
Plate 6. Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumens (B) and
some exsudatinites (Ex) in shale. Sample no.
23595. Talang Akar Formation. R
v
max 0.50%;
field width =0.15 mm, fluorescence mode.
Plate 7. As Plate 6 but in reflected white light.
Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite
minerals in shale.
Plate 8. Bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex), yellow
colour, infilling vitrinite fissures. Sample no.
23594. Talang Akar Formation. R
v
max 0.54%;
field width 0.23 mm, fluorescence mode.
Plate 9. As Plate 8 but in reflected white light. Talang
Akar coal showing telovitrinite (TV) and
detrovitrinite (DV).
Plate 10. Abundant bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex),
yellow to orange, infilling vitrinite fissures
and sclerotinite (SC) cell wall. Bright yellow
fluorescing oil cuts (OC) indicating liquid
hydrocarbon generation. Sample no. 23281.
Talang Akar Formation. R
v
max 0.49%; field width
0.46 mm, fluorescence mode.
Plate 11. As Plate 10 but in reflected light. Talang Akar
coal containing abundant detrovitrinite (DV),
sclerotinite (SC), and pyrite (Py).
PLATE 6
PLATE 7
PLATE 8 PLATE 9
'W
rÂ. .
*#"2
%~* "*-*- v
D
_ ^ ^ ! ^ P y ^ ^ f l
'"**& * .4m\
kferfw, /^#*23
BHEIM^^^
1
' ' 1
* well XflMHnOBF"TV ^B
Bv SGrti *>3idJBdB ftdB
B||. . _Z, (9 SP>;. (fl
arw -J 1
PLATE 10
PLATE II
Plate 12. Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and oil cut
(OC) infilling vitrinite fissures. Sample no.
23695. Talang Akar Formation. R max 0.50%;
field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.
Plate 13. As Plate 12 but in reflected white light showing
detrovitrinite (DV) and mineral matter (MM).
Plate 14. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled
from scelerotinite and dark yellow sporinite (S)
in the Talang Akar coal. Sample no. 23596.
R max 0.51%; field width 0.41 mm, in fluorescence
mode.
Plate 15. As Plate 14 but in reflected white light showing
abundant detrovitrinite (DV), inertodetrinite
(It) and sclerotinite (SC).
Plate 16. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled
from telovirinite cracks in the Talang Akar coal.
Sample no. 23596
mm, in fluorescence mode.
R
v
max 0.51%; field width 0.27
Plate 17. As Plate 16 but in reflected white* light mode.
PLATE 13
DV
î
-Tk ** "- TV
PLATE 15
TV
PLATE 17
18 Greenish yellow to bright yellow fluorescing
fluorinite (FL) in the Muara Enim coal. Sample
no. 23702. Râx 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in
fluorescence mode.
Plate 19 As Plate 18 but in reflected white light mode.
Plate 20 Bright orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the
Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23273. R max 0.38%;
v
field width 0.27 mm in fuorescence mode.
Plate 22
Some gelovitrinite, texinite and semifusinite
macerals in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no.
23562.
reflected white light mode
R
v
max 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in
Plate 23 Abundant fusinite and semifusinite and some
gelovitrinite macerals in the Muara Enim coal.
Sample no. 23613. R
y
max 0.41; field width 0.41%
in reflected white light mode.
PLATE 18
PLATE 19
PLATE 20
' <*rtV-
LTC,
* **
t ^>
j*m
^'flflM
SF^jtL-flj
-^JT^MH
\
GV I^^Sjj
PLATE 22
PLATE 23
Plate 24 Abundant sclerotinite (SC) associated with
detrovitrinite (DV) maceral in the Muara Enim
coal. Sample no. 23678. R
v
max 0.36%; field
width 0.27 mm in reflected white light mode.
Plate 25 Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) associated with
sclerotinite (SC), inertodetrinite (It) macerals.
Well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH) is present in
the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 22927. R
v
max
0.31%; field width 0.27 mm in reflected white
light mode.
Plate 26 Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in
the Talang Akar coal. Sample no. 23694. R
v
max
0.58%; field width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.
Plate 27 As Plate 26 but in reflected white light mode
showing abundant detrovitrinite, sclerotinite and
well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH).
Plate 28 Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in
the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23608. R max
showing texinite maceral.
PLATE 24
PLATE 25
PLATE 26 PLATE 27
^mmW ^k _ W
h WFLT. * M y ____ L
^ ^< ^ ^ k ^ i>î
flSSSSfl^SSii'^^HK ^

t>

___*
v^
PLATE 28 PLATE 29
Plate 30 Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in
the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23705. R
v
max
showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and pyrite
(PY).
Plate 32 Bright yellow fluorescing cutinite (C) occurs in
the clay/shale of the Air Benakat Formation.
Sample no. 23545. R max 0.45%; field width 0.27
mm in fluorescence mode.
Plate 34 Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in the
field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.
Plate 35
As Plate 34 but in reflected white light mode.
PLATE 30 PLATE 31
PLATE 32 PLATE 33
PLATE 34
PLATE 35
Plate 36 Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in
claystone of the Muara Enim Formation. Sample
no.23614. R max 0.36%; field width 0.27 mm in
fluorescence mode.
showing some detrovitrinite and sclerotinite.
Plate 38 Yellow fluorescing suberinite (Sub) occur in the
field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.
showing some gelovitrinite.
Plate 40 Bright yellow fluorescing exudatinite(Ex), yellow
suberinite (Sub) and sporinite (Sp) in the Muara
Enim coal. Sample no. 23678. R max 0.36%; field
width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.
showing abundant detrovitrinite maceral.
PLATE 36 PLATE 37
PLATE 38
PLATE 39
PLATE 40
PLATE 41
Plate 42 Yellow fluorescing bitumen and exudatinite occur
in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23538. R max
0.35%; field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.
showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV).
Plate 44 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and
orange fluorescing sporinite (S) in the Muara
Enim Formation. Sample no. 23539. R
v
max 0.41%;
showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and
inertodetrinite (It).
Plate 46 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) in the
Plate 47 As Plate 46 but in reflected white light showing
abundant detrovitrinite.
PLATE 42
PLATE 43
PLATE 44
PLATE 45
PLATE 46
PLATE 47
Plate 48 Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) showing
desiccation cracks in the Muara Enim Formation
Sample no.
mm, in fluorescence mode.
23543. R max 0.52%; field width 0.27
showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite
(DV).
Plate 50 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in
the Muara Enim coal. Some desiccation cracks are
present in the sample. Sample no. 23543. R max
0.43%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.
showing some detrovitrinite (DV) and
telovitrinite (TV).
Plate 52 Greenish yellow fluorescing fluorinites (Fl)
occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23704.
R max 0.38%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence
mode.
showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV).
PLATE 48
PLATE 49
PLATE 50
PLATE 51
PLATE 52 PLATE 53
Plate 54 Thin layers of telovitrinite associated with
gelovitrinite in the Muara Enim coal. Sample
no. 23562. R max 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm, in
reflected white light mode.
Plate 55 Telovitrinite in the Talang Akar coal. Sample
no. 22940. R max 0.79%; field width 0.20 mm in
reflected white light mode.
Plate 56 Orange fluorescing bitumen (B) and bright
fluorescing orange oil hazes (OH) in the Talang
Akar Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%;
Plate 58 Orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the Talang
Akar Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%;
Plate 60 Orange fluorescing bitumen in the Talang Akar
Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%; field
width 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.
showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite
(DV).
-I -.
-I ' .
r**r
2L SSftSR" j& *
*
-v, (flV
- *-
v
ir* a
flflBr'
PLATE 54
PLATE 56
PLATE 58
APPENDIX 1.
'/ELL MAKE : KBU-2
t;pr7 nooni pnoi/iiTTnii a ... u n r j c ^ a r o ^ r n u
daflluu uot ill LUMlniiuii t. .u* U i / u u w t . L I I L U H
SO.
mi
)ta\1 'fl..!? i.,. ?.;-, ft '" vS j:'^r'.l.i.rr.iii/i -j'.- Jh RfilRt .
tr\r\r M'-;i '-'i r-;i. ]
I'U'I. \ I -'1U . m-m.lu j i.
m
m } j - - lm I
'-. --* u 11 \j oi. j ' U ' i \ '
U |
) W * J J * ~ f j
I 1 V(. i.Ulky, HlljUl isW UWU UUUii k* ]
-n.iir*iiflt-.nir-* ir,|ii""ir *3 "^ JS T* *? f
1
M W- -. b U U k W l iJUi.1, :i U U tlUU.il C >3 yCli. 3 W
GWiiii.lUi31.14 1.bC , JVlbkUlilUiVWW , WUliWUil
! Bfniri+imii M tr > . rti r. f fl
L L p U U V , l , l L l U ^ | J W 1 1 W * V U
LIU
nl lM' i/iiinriK ni f n/iii .ft
j b l i U r i c W V I I I A U U U I V U U H . I I | ij 1
Tf A llrt*.I r-^ -I A I 1 <-> I..t rt. -*t 1% *m fl n / > ! <* ft rt
/wixurr -u ;uxiu*T v/uuiiiuu -i.a/ uuw
it J. J u
y; t .1.1. tfiuv>k(ili3i
iiUiJ iiw-iiD fiUarc* Lift 13 y*i v*if ''b/i \-vrj, u-i**f i"|
' Hii.,iH.iw nuûi,) VoWtUICV/li
ntf.t r>iiriiri(>iifri
ill WW J CH.UliUjLUI.1,
1
. |
1lTlr'<ti4r\f'r>tit-r\ g-nrtWl'nif'A 7i* ' ' f!tf *
i- 1 W W U U W Cri lill WW f Jj"Jl.UlVl-| J****"* '
nmiiirl/ii nnnwrtu *n i fl i t- .""hjl!
r
!" .
U l U U t U ) ûuiitUiI LUdlllLUWI VliwLllL-i* |
rr* 1 ! rt r.i /*i w k i frntl/m ? TPT* SB
I - * 1 u < t WUUlftUU rfit/UUWil) glV.WtiA.i3U
fy I 1 /M (* 1(11 il"' .ifUlip/* f>1i
,
ri
j C l i G w *u j C n u * ) jwttibw w f v x v w .
22920 250-255 Kuara Snia 0.2? 20 ClaystaaOsiltstaEC, doa eoaaon,
r Mr.r iT-rft .IK '.';'< T - T J .
abundant, V>L'I {V=S!
f
L='5, 1=4!;
sajor to abundant vitrinite; oc
! w rt r *" n i * rt iKiinrt^ri'"
L
*J W I A W
L a w i viULV-w | nuuuuikUi' - wumuawu
* . ' . - F - . - ' r t C T t ' n i r - t "T fi I ! rt T " ^ t w A n ,-r rt
iipicsc'r.nicc, ;Ci.i.c mm -.^ji.,
* * * . * rt n 1 A ^ rt i r* i *" rt T A ' \ /\ f.f -> A * * rt n
CGilnGu "iwGrkiiLs.W} jw..u) W M I I U U
.iif? ni'-n * 1 **M r- irsm?!*
v U W l U J L ^ W , ;W11U. h,W ViLUUgW)
fluorinite, bright ycilov,
suberinite, yellow ts dull yellow;
sajor to abundant bituaen, ijrecnisc
yellow to yellow; eosacn oil eu:o,
OTlftHW 7C*i0tft jli uiwwS, ; W * * W P 7
r>rrt *' f 1
uyimnuii y / t i i#w
?<>09i /ocsnn u c,; 313 25 Claystonc)5iltstone>sar.dstone, doa
. . .
""II
eoaacn, 7>L>I (7=52, L=49, I=r
eoai, '/>L'[ (V=S4
f
L=9, !:); sajor
to aounoanc .ii.tirij.ov., t>u
iner.inite; abundant liptodetrinite,
yellow to orange, abundant sporinite,
eutinite, yellow to dull yellow;
eonaon i i u v m u v . , ut.tjui. ;>"'i
rare suberinite, dull yellow;
abundant bitumens, jrcenish 7"li-
w
i
r> kn ,-* ft t* i i !
'IWiiUJ'iil b
-**'Q Muara Snis. 0.40 20 Sandstone)siltste.,e>c!aystone, don
onunrisnr V\l NT f y = a? 1=5. 1 = 2 !
UMUIIUUI1 U ) I / W< 1 \ t'-.c,| W W | 1 W > j
U M NT ru-:s i
:
22
I / U/ * \ I - " , L.-VI1. |
r rifaS/"
1
-ri ra- S3 TOT
r
i
U
-101
'.'1
ifnniro
I U I M i l W W
HOOK
fninpi.c-B)roa 'RBrtlHltfi'
UW MINIUM JpUl f . I llCl . t H ' M W ,
i nrnrlarri nira
I LfbWWW UI I'll UW ,
ye ilea to orange, ccmrrscn to abundant
sporinite, cutimte, yellow to dull
orange; ccaacn bitusen, greenish
yellow to yellow; ccsson to sparse
nvr ifa
p J I I WW f
22929 975-930 Air Senakat 0.42 20 Sandstcne>siItstcfsOcsrborrate, des
ahnnn'anf fn Anmmnn W\(\T f V 32
tfUUIIUUIIU UW WWillHIWII ) > ' -. L ' * 'J w i
L - i 3 , i t- / , u J u i i w u n u uw WWHIIHWII
rfafrnwifrinifa enjrep tfl
r
3.
r
9
UVWI Wf I VI IIIIUW. U W U I W W WW I U I W
inorfnrtafrinifa erlarnf iitifa
I nCi uuiiSli i 11 i ww j w w i wi w w i n i uw ]
eonifiieinifo" ^niMinn 1 i nfnnafri ni fa
5 5 " i i w w 1 ti 1 ww , wummwii I I U W W U W U I i n i ww j
J W I U n uw w u i i / m. ( i w , w w u i w w
ennrinifa . /"Mifinifa ^>j!l V a l l e y
wwwi i n i w C ) w w u i n i u w j w w i i J W I i w n ,
rara etikar i n i fa nranna* ^ftJiHnf!
I U I W W U W W I I II I UW f W I Uli 3 W , WWMiHIWM
nvriffl
p/i i w w .
22933 1348-1350 S u a a i 0.47 20 - Sha)8>ssndstcne>si1tstGn8
y
dca COSSSOR
fn enarca \ / \ T \ I fV-7f. T-Oft
WW JÎUI WW , l / l / L \ I - I W ) l-uw",
I -rgpol" wifrinifa ahnnrJanf fn
L'llil W / , lllil ! it l UW W WWII WWII U uw
rnmmnn' inorfnriefrinifa {*$*'[ fn
WWUIH1WH j. llIWi U W W W U i I II I UW WWIIIIHWII WW
enarca linfinifa rqra &??*?' rora
I UI W ]
nwrifa i*nimnn
u j i i uw WWUIIIIWII i
l^flê CJ i 'eie
fl
ii M < i A 7 1 *? C.hala\i*~arhnnafa\cilfefnna n* n M enarca
L Z W W U I W 4 4 ~ { W 4 W w. W * 2 l W . W I IW WIIU I 5/ WUl UWIIUUW/ W I 1 WWUWIlC, WWIll WWW. v-w
fn n r a l/\l\T /tf-QO 1-1 T r f a r a ) .
UW I U I W ; l / W / 1 \ I - WJ j L"l | 1 "I UI W j |
enarca n'afrni/ifrinifa" rara
WWUt WW W W W I W f l U I 1 It 1 UW j I U I W
inerfnn
,
afrinifa* rara llpînifcp
i iiwl U W M W U I I H I U W ) i u i w i i ( * g i i n w w |
nronna t*n /iarU nrinna* nn*mnn nyrifa
ui u n j u ww udi n ui uii^W] wwmiiiwii wji i uw
1000(1 1Qnrt-.tO.T3 Qafnraia 0 7'J 1 rt I i waefnnoS e i 1 f efnna Anm enarca
riaiifww i w w w i ww V u S w w i u j 2 w . w i W w t iiiwwuwiiw/ w i i W U K U I I W j ww HI wuwi w w f
WVT-I /\/"Q0 T-rara I -riral- enarca
1 / * - u v 1 "ii W j i'l UI U ) L." I Ul V / , UWUi WU
fn rara Haf rny i f r i ni fa rara
WW I U I W U W UI W * I UI I li I UW f I U I W
i narf nriaf r i ni fa enarca fn rara
IllWtWWWWWI I II I UW j w w u f w w UW I U I W
1 i nf nWaf r i ni f a plari/ nranna' rara
i l u u w w w w i III i U W ) uui n wiuiigwj I U I W
nWwf nnl ant-f nn ahunrianf fn '*'>nr'
uiljuwuiuiinuuii | U U U I I U U H U ww wwuimWii
nuri fa
UJ I I UW
ll-M 1 Q7Q_1Q0n J.].nn Aliar fl TQ m Chg ] y ___} /SI)T (7:97 [ = 2 1 = 1 !'
L L - tu I U I U i w w w l u l u n g riAui w i t w ww wtiuij w w w tj f / u / i (<"/( | i."*.; 1
m
J f i
mt-inir fn ahiinHanf Hof rnwi f r i ni f a
IIIUJUl UW U W U H W U I I U W W W I W 1 I U I i ll I UW |
ahnnH*nf falnwifrinifa enarca
U U U I I W U M W U W i W V f U l III I U W ] W U U I U W
nnrinalinifa enarca fn rara
UWI IJUI IIIIUUi W W U I W W UW I U I W
inertinite; sparse sporinite, dark
orange to brown; cosiaon pyrite.
T)Qi1 IQfln.lQQO 7.]. nn Kii.r ft 71 1(1 Canrlct-nna S r.r hnrtar-aniic \ e i 1 f crnno rlrjin
arinnrliinf tn 'nmmnn (/MNT fU-OR I ;i
WWMIIWIUIIU mil V.WIHIMWII , \ f - / k \ I ' . H , l. * T ,
; . . , r o ) . r n , l oKiinrlsnr WVINT CJ'-I
. - I U I W ; , U U d l UUUIIUU1IW, l / U ' - . * ~ * ' ,
"l.'* "tainr
fc
n aniinnanr
' ' I I H U J W I U W W W U H U U I I U
rinifo ~r\mmnn nnrino
1 I ll I W W j -. -i IMIllW , i u W t 1 - v,
e
.n3.
rca r
" fare "norf mif a- enarca
W U U I W W U W I U I W I I I W I U I I I I U W , j M U I o "
! iutcdstrini ta -^nnri p i "f* nranno m
I 1 W W W W W W I 1 11 I W W W W W ! H I I U W | Wl U M jW U W
hrCWfi" ahU.Ttinf *"
n
nnmpinn hifnman
Wl W M ll , U W U M U U H W U W W WUIIIIWIi U I U U III Wll i
/wiiuniwn UIUIIJW uw ui uii^w, UWIIIUIUII
Gil f[jrS V
fl
! I
rt
if "^ nri nnf .or anna-
W l l W U U W ) j w i i w n u U UI I K I I U W I U I I M W ,
onnnnanr nvri f a
u u w n w u u u w jr i i u w
S33T Taians Akar "> 37 cwaiu mai MMM M;-Q7 T-? i-n<
' w w i i u i u 11 j nhui u w i wu UHUIJF uwuij t/i/u v * * ' j * <M L " " y j
mainr fn annnHanf Aarnuifrinifa
'MU J Wl w U U U U I I U U I I U U W U I U t l U I I II I W W <
annnrianf f a"l nu i f r i ni f a "nmrnnn
u t / u u u u i i w u w i u t i u i in I U W , w w m m w i i
nnrina]i n i f a
w w i i g w i i ii i u w ,
i norfnnafri ni ra ^nmmnn
I IIWl U W W W UI III I U W ) wWMIUIWII
linfn/iafrinifo nranna fn n a r [/
i I U U U U V U I I I H U W ) u i u i i g w u w U U I I X
?na rca aveiinatini fa nr
ahnnrta nf Kifnmon up I 1nwi eh nranna ^n
U U U I I U U I I U U l U W I H W U , / C l luff IUII W I U I I M W U W
nranna* rr\mmr\r\ * n enarca nil nnf e
Wl Ull <JW WWHIIHWII U W W W U l W W W l l W W U W j
1 nw nnmmnn nn art anrt nurifo
u a i
/w.
mi nan 1 e
III I II Wl U I w
iw nnmmnn mi arf * arm ny r i
4n j W W I I I U I W I I u.wui utw u n w u / i i
110U
LL u T T
-mi.
1 w w w
!Q7f1
I U 1 u
Taiann .lL-ar
i u i u u 3 n nui
fl 30 1C Cha t a Veannef nna \c i 1 f ernna Anm
W * U 4. I U U l f U I W / W U I I W W W W I I W / W I I U W U W U W ) U W U I
enarca UM -T 'tf-00 ! - r a r a T-roral
u u u i u w | I ' f ; , i - -i -t * W T U i W f i*i u i u | |
i n o r f i n i f a rara fn ârran linfinifa
I 11 W '. W I \\ i U W ) t U l W W W W U l I Wit t \ W W t ,\ i U W i
n*a ri/ ironfla
w u i r \ ui uiijjWi
U U U ilftOO . \"" m-
u n n i u u
HO.
ful
FORMATION
D ...
n r. . i i n
w w a i j /i/
,
u \ i - u i j j.-V) u ~ y / ( Jtujui
f-n umiBri/inr /i^rwritn' f-tinif/ rtnnvi/iAinf
m-mi o w u i i u a u u ww ui w T j. wi m i uw } a u u i t u u u u
(rllAlTlfTillllfn rt -\ rfl m rt * -IrtW-t.-tAl'intr-rt.
U W l W f U i All A WW t W U U W Wll WUl A a W A A l i A U W
rt rt r m --1 n rirmuiifmi tn CIA Inorif iirn' fn '
WUUllllW 11 dWUli.lU0LliJ.WW> I 3 U A W A U U A 1 1 A U W J
<\ nn n A -\ n r Mnf/l/irifr>ivi l-fl .- rt m m rt r>
a u uiwu.il u i A u w w u w " L L I I U U J wwwtAuii
nitftrii>i>n rn nYvnitinifn rtiif mi f n
<3UUW ! llli. UW J J W U 1 1.U1UU) WUWi.111. WW J
rrrt 1 I nw r-n ii n I I n n i\ii n CT^**c
j v n u i i uu U U A A wLUiigU) a p d i a w
#tptniifn /lit ll nininrliii n nn rt nl A n *- n
LWUilllUlyf U U A A WlCHlfjWj t i u u u u a n w UW
n n o m n Hifnnnii rf KAIÎVI nn tr n I 1 n M '
wutaiBWll yj.i/uiiwj| g i w w u x d i i / W A A U J
-^ rt m rt t> .inn pf IT anrl /> 1 i tr in Ap> I n
W U I K W U U w u u i uu a u u wj.u; miiiw i t t u i
U W U I u w w w %f w u
(1 1 f t OR
fliwpfntt/iNci'lfrffniirt n/iw unimiiAiif f *
wiu jr J wwuw/ 3 l A w<3 uwuw j uwu ai/iiuuuuu uU
nn i/\r\r Mz-a
1
) r-n r
:
ci* ***]
wwumuti) / u/ i \ i * v u | u " i ( i - w / j W U U A
nhitt./4nnf v\r\T fv=3
ft r
= P [=3!'
duuuuanv) t'u/i \ "iy u j u"iu| i-w | j
M :riK fn i\!ntif\f4Anf 4nfnirif'iiifn
mujwi. uu uuuiiuuiiu W W V I W V I U L . I U I . U W )
nrni\/trif f n I niri f >)ilTn' nnmmn n
CiUU IJUtlll U U W A W C A U J . J. il J. U W | WUIUUUll
! nnnrrifi/ifwi ni fn run mrn
L J l W l W W U W U L A i l A U W j 1 UOLlliUW )
mIrtrnf i tiif" \nrinnrtnf
J W A W I W U L I I A W W ] iLUUHUUU U
linfni^nfTtitiifn nnf ini f n onnwinifn
l i y w w u w u l i i l i w w ) wuwi.UJ.wW) o y u t u i u u ,
nfll lnr.i fn iln i 1 nrt I I AW i nnmrann
V W A A U W uw U U l i ) v i i U * | w u u m w u
nn c i i f 7* llfii.1
L W r J A H A O W ) J U A A U * '
UuClU<llfW| JfWIAUltj ftWAAWU/WAtlAAUW.
n'minrlAiif fn nnn nifittwnn .1 Afl i f fj
ciuuiiuuiiw uu uuuiauu uiuuiawii) g i w w u i d i i
tTftl 1 nr.i fn n i n* h f n n i 1 n M nnminnn
j W A A u * uu U I I Q I I U jv-iiuw) w u m u u u
IMT* t r n
K i i D A R A !/> f
n i l uw u'itti* c
Wl(iyt3UUlJW/OtliiUOUWllW* i mlilt WU 11 HUll ]
*r\r\T 'u
=
7Q r-ifi T=î' etui
l / U / l l( 1 - 1 J ) li"lU| 1,-mf I ] WW Oil
uuuiiuuuuf i/u/i ( i"ui| u-n | L- u / ,
\ KliTirt n W f nrtt BAirif 1 ni tn
/
"'!l!Sr.?l
'j, wu H U U I I u uwui.wfiwiiiiiuwf wuiaisun
-fnlniri'ttiKifn tnlnirifft'nirn' nAiflri
J w i G V I u t i i i i u C ) uCiwtj.witiii.ow, w w m a U u
?iipi(titn flnm> Pun i * i f n IfUVr^ti?
L U O l t l l U W ) 3W Mil 1 UO Llk 1UW } a u n u v i
'nlnnnti nit n< AtMininnf tn nnmrtnn
i v i w iw w i u i w w , duuuuiiiiv uu w w * w n
miknoini tn nut iinrn nunfiiin* nnmmnn
S U u C i lit i. ww t C U wliii ww , u u u ^ , wumiiun
ClUUllUClUW
I I n r - A n n t n i n i t n w n I 1 n M f n n>.-n<
L l p U W u C C l l U l U W , JWJ.1WP UU ULail^W;
rikun/innf nitimnn n* I 1 n M i n n IUAAIA'
U W U U U U U U UlUUHV.il) J l - U U l i d l l Q I W W M ,
U U U U U
a 1 0 _ Q fl
u u u .J i u
Air Benakat
rt 1 7 1Q Sandstoac>claystcr.c, dos abundant to
WUIklHWU) I'U'L ^ l"UT| U IW) L ** I )
abundant detrovitrinite; ccsaon
iacrtodctrinite; eoaaon sporinite and
cutinite, yellow to orange; censer, to
sparse resinite, orange to dark
orange; cesser, liptodetrinite. yellow
. ULigO , Jj.tl.Jl. J
ar:
rilirifl"!
sparse fluorinite, bright yellow;
abundant hituscn, greenish yellow,
_ . - . m .t A 1 11 CrtaloNcllfcfririQ rinm rnmmnn \t) j ) }
IIKOi 31B-01J AIT SSfluK't C.JO Wl WHU IS/ 5 I I WWWWIlS, W UtmilllWU) I'ml-
i i - u g , u - l * , J.-./, uuu.iufinw
rlof rnwil-rinif o- nn^rea i norfi ni to
- w u i u . I u I I II I W W , d r U I J . I H W I W I I I I W W ,
r-mtimnn cnnrinifo jn/i /-11+ j " j _o V P I . 0 W
. u u n W W~WI I II I W W W...W W W W . l t . W W , ; ^ ' W>
rn nr.nno- entree fPlinitS CTuMSS!
ww ui uiigw. w w w . w w . w w . h i w w , wi .113.1
rnmmnn 1 i ntnript ri nyf a nrarjng fn nafk
WWI.KMW.I I I U U U U . . I I II I WW , WlUl.gW mil WW. (\
orange; abundant bitumen, greenish
yellow to yellow; ccsson oil drops,
ye!loss; coair.cn pyrite.
IQ 1112-1120 Air Benakat 0.38 20 Shale)sandstone, dorr comr.crt; V>LM
u u u u u
7C I-00 T-Ol ahunrtanf fn nnmmnn
' , L-ilt , i-u / j SBUIIGSIIU uw uwmmwii
(V=7
detrovitrinite; sparse to rare
inertinite; cosscn liptodetrinite,
yellow to orange; cor.ir.on to sparse
cutinite, yellow to orange; sparse
rnnrim'ro anrl "pcinifg nr2n36 tO
O W w l i il I Um U K U I WW .... WW , WlUl.gw WW
oar,, orange, spsrss . I-WI miww,
bright yellow; abundant bit-sen,
greenish yellow to yellow, cosson
n w r i f a
W ) i I U W I
23583 1218-1220 Air Benakat 0.39 25 Shale, dorr, abundant to cesser,; \')L>I
(y=71, L=24, 1=5); abundant to cosson
rlofrnwirri nita- <;ri2,
r
S i n S r t m i t e !
u w w . w l . w . it.iww, w w w . w w >..w.w...ww|
rnmmnn 1 i nr nrlofri ni fo VSllOW tO
WWI.....W.. i . w w w w w w . i n i w w , / . i i w " ww
orange; cosson sporinite, yellow to
dull yellow; sparse resinite, dark
i/o 11 A W * r^ninmnn kifiimpn h
r
lGRt
; w i i wn , UWIUMIWII u i u u m u M ] UI I g n u
j S i i w n , I W I W U I I wi w w w , ; w i i wn ,
rnmmnn fn enarca m/fita
WWIIIUIUII uw u p u i u w y) i iuw<
r\t\*ftt\ 4 i fl p < J nn n r, - rt - i"i i 7 00 ChaleNnarhnnafo nlnmnnmmnn* W \ [ \ j
22590 1 4 8 5 . 4 2 0 U li " 2 i wi4( wu uNuiSfwuruwiiuww, uwm wwrnuwu, W W / I
fV-7 0. I -07 T-frana^* ahnnnanf
[ l-llj, L - U I | i - W I U U U j , U U U I I U U H U
riof mi/if rinif a enarca fn r2T2
uuwi u n u i n n u w j upui uu uw I U I W
inertinite; ccsston liptodetrinite 2nd
sporinite, yellow tc orange; sparse
mifirtifo nrsnflO' rara racinifa dSTk*
U U W I I I I U W ) w t u i i g w , I U I W I W U I I I I U U ) uwilv
nranno- rara fl iinr i ni to b T 1 G ht
W I Ull g w , I U I W I WW I IIIIUU) ui 1311b
wollnw* rnmmnn niftiiiian Vfil 1 Qltf "
t w 1 1 un 1 wuiintiwH u 1 U U I H W 11 ) ; w 1 t wn ,
rnmmnn nwf i f a
WWItlHIUII uy 1 1 u w
10Cni t C C C 1 C 7 A ^11*9 i Ti i7 OP. ChalaSârhnnafa n n m n n m win n f n
L U U W ! i u C w i u i w W U l7 U I UiTl IV UIIU I W/ WUl UWIIUUW, UUIII WWIIIIIIWH WW
enarca- V\l \T M/-0Q j ;? T = tr2CSi '
WUUJ WW , l / W / 1 l l " U U | *- ^ j i - u i u w w / ,
enarca nofrnwifrinira* enarca fn fOfg
j p U I U U U W U I U 1 I U I I H I U W ) W WW I Ww UW I U I W
inarfipito
1
cnarea fn rare cnnrinito
I I I W I U I I I I U W , U U U I W W U W i u i w U U W I I I I I U W
9nn nnfinifa wollnw fn nfannp-
u n u U U U I I I I U W , j w 1 1 wn uu wiuiigw,
enarca 1 1 nf nn*of r i n T f a *r?f!2S tC dlfk
w w u i w w I I U U U U W W I I I I I W W , ui u n j v uw uuir>
nranno- rara rocini'fa rtarl; f! T 3 R G P '
w i u n g w , I U I W I W U I I I I U U , u u i r uiuiigwj
rara hifuman nrannp' rara nil n>nn.
I U I W U l U U U I W I I ; W 1 W M 5 w , I U I W W l l U I U W U ,
uallnw* rnmmnn m/r'to
} -. * I w | WWIIIHIWM W ^ I I W W 1
23592 1550-1552 Baturaja 0.48 19 Lisestone)snale, dor. sparse; V>LM
{y=92, L=S, I:trace); sparse
OOP, CO
0 7-1 "1 i anfl '. I/ a r
i u I u 11 g - n .. i
' C 1 0 - '. 2 1.1
'. !ea f
n :n
1 ; p
tn
f r a m a r M n i r a
1
<*
,
ara
e n n r n i *> a .->, r a n n o r ? r a
: i n r nfior r i ni r a
. I W U W W W U I l : i i u w .
-nmninn ni/ri
/ \ i \: ; w - o : - o * - 5 ' .
/ Li" A \ - W W , - - U , i. " U / ,
e n a r e p i i n t n n a f r i n i f o . i n n n a fn H a r i/
W U U I W W i l W U W W W u l M I I U W ) w i u n g w U W J U I (\
oranna rara n i r rimon . enarca nwr i f a
u i u n g w , I U I W U I U U I I I W I I , w u u i w w w JM ' uw .
n
. n a l \ C h a * o Anm i h n n n a n f w M \T
U U U I f U I I U I U i W W HI U U U 11 U U 11 U l / U / 1
f w - a Q
r-C 1 . m a i ;' V-Qfl
* * U | | W W U l \ I U U |
* - 0 1 > f i j ' n r f n annrtrianf f a l n u i f r i n i f a
. ~ \> I , H I U J W I - W U U U I I U U H U * W t W f I UI M l I U W
c n l a r n f i m f a a n rt i n a r f n W a f r i n i f a -
W W I W I W U l l l l U W - I i W H I U I U U U U W I I H I U W ,
nnmmnn ennrimfa nranna T n nart
WWIIIIIIWII u u u i 11 i u w t w i u i i g u u w w u i r\
nranna enarca /'iinniro nranna *
J I Ull g W , W U U I W W W U U I I M U W , UI U I M U i
mmmnn ! i^f/iriaf rmiro nranno rn nia ri/
w WIIIIIIWH I I W U W U W U I i II i u u ) u i u i i g w u w w u i o
n r a n n o * a n n n n a n f f n
u i w u j w | u u u u u u n u uu
flon.
I u w u
\
f
.
f
.
T a l a n n * 1/ a r
i u i u 11 g A iv u i
Kit C h a l a S r n a l n n m a h 11 n n a n r ,' U - 0 fi I - M
W I I U I W / W W U I , W W U l U W U I I W U H U \ 1 *"U U J t ' I T |
''Mral' r-nai M/-0.1 i -C T - <M
c . - U I U . W W / j U W U I ^ I ** W i | L ' U | i. "*' / j
matnr *"n ahnnnanf n'of rnui f r i n i * a
llUjgl U W U U U I I U U . I I U U W w t U I I U I i i I I 'w w t
enarca -alnwifrinifa- enarca
U U U I W W M W I W I I U I , I . I mi w , W U U I W W
en 1 amr inir:
W W I W i w w l l l t W V
rnmmnn ennnnifa anri "tirinifa nranna
WWIIIIIIWII W M W I III I U U mm I I W W U U l l l l U U , Ul Ull J U
o v n n a f i n i r o /a 1 1 niii
l
<
W A U U U U I M I U W ] ; w i i u n
ahnnnanf hi f union i-ai Inu f n nranna*
U U U H U U I I U W I U U U I W H ] ; w . i w > u w w i u i i g w g
imae iflcciofia
I u w u u u w
1 r tfl
i/ST-l (\I--R T - 1 I -t\ sniinrignr
' ' 1 ~ -. \ I *" wl U ] . "" L ( _ * L y , U U U I I U U H U
n'arrnwifrinifa* enarca I norr i nifa
U W U I W T ' U I III I U U , W U U I W W M I W I U l l l l U W ,
nnmmnn fn enarca "iitinifa nranna
WWIIIIIIWII u w w u u i w w w u u i i i i u u ) wi u n g w
haritr nranno* enarca ennrinifa a n n
w u i iv w i u i i g W f w u u i w w u u w i I H I U W uiiu
lintnnarrinifa nranna rn na rt/
I I W W W U W U I I I M U W , w i u n g u u u u u i <"*.
i f i n n u o n r a n n o '
r o c i m f o ri a r i/ n r a n n o * n n m m n n nuri
I W U I I I I U U , wui iv w i u n g w , WWIIIIIIWII w/i
a ro
u t w
f Q
T 0 S Q 7
loop.icafl
n l a v / e f n n a ' n a r h n n a r a n'nm e n a r c a ^ n
W I U / W U W I I W f W U I U W H U U W , ml w III W U U I W W u w
rara* l\V\T M-C7 \l <0
r
:*-ranol'
e n a r c a - * a r r n w i f r i n i f a * r a r a
W U U I W W W W U I W f l U I I H I U W f i u i w
inorr-'nifa* enarca ennrinifa nranna
I IIWI U l l l l U W , W U U I W W W M W I . H I W W ) w i u u g w
" n na ri/ nranna
uw uui i\ wi un gw i
' O W - i $"">
iO 3ha!e;sanaswcne ;ca.
r
w-cna.e>siits-cne,
V>L)I V=83, '.:!7, I=tracs); scarse
dors; sparse cetrcvitrinite; trace
iner.im-e; sparse to rare spcr*n'-a,
3
ran
g a
_
z a 2
rk orange; rare cuuiniss,
orange; rare res.niie, da.-K orange;
sparse tc rare cituaer., yellow.
HVTT MXUV fTU- T i
P I U U U H O H u u a I T
u n n i ui. I/DI ui l U i w n u u n ib n a l 11
f u i
I"/
o r, n . -j," -
r
I U U L U ^ 1,
:--oi r - M
* U M lljU.ll
T I O '
7
" i ft. ft _ i f> >
UtJUl'u U U U ' " - J W I
(J 1 Q n J *J 1 1. _ *J *7 T 'iw
ni.. j^.iaiiu.
in
' n i inftr i M f n > i h M i n r,ir r ft m I A v
3 W i W i . U U A i l l U W j 1 U U U U U I I U --I .illi J U 1
,:i..,
i . l W U W U ' - w l i . l l l U U , J ^ l l U r i U W WLtlliSjWi
rtrt*rrtn r!nf"inifft i-fnnnnioh HA, l I /\r; <
w u Uitnu 11 - J. U U L , I I J. U N. t jl'-k.iiLuil ; - * x w * ;
-. '/\i\ r\A -\ ni~ hi
k
inifin :1/iriMnn n/\] i ntj
A W 'J ti'J U II '- W 1 Iw WiIIW.ll ) Q 1 W W I 1 1 J 1 1 ^ W A 1 W It 5
j.'jmvi.i v i a J 'Jt ll w u j I
fl
M,\r!n(inf
yufil'Wittj Jtui
.1 nr-si r-o
1
)
7 - 1 l i - ,t/ii. ,',i>.il.i.r M ' - J i
- , u - i u j
-4 \ > rm/i i n n . f ei A h i i n n n n f
T j j i i a ^ u i u w - t U U U U U t l U
i n r-fi l f i i n f i B i f >
, .1 U W J. U * 1 U i, I n 1 W W |
i / t n i l A n ^ / . i r t i r T r n i n i f n ' /* n f in i"i FI
rift I n n r 1 i r/i i\ rtiifif,f
J W A W L ^ W k U L U w , U U U I I U U U U
! int fl/inf m' B i fn TT n I I n i-f fn -i * <* n rf /i
H ' W t , U U w i H i , l i l - i . \ , | ,'V-*iUfl J W jlifcllfijW!
lUfinrt^Fif i" " A-inm/*. nfifini RI *n nnl 1 ny
'1W U IJUUIl U U W VUiltilU U J - U l i - l i L V U | J W 1 J.U N
fn, rtnl . nn ilriui fiwft rni i rn
wU J U J. _ j l H U * i W WUltilU ii w U U w U l i U U |
rrn 1 I A r.r / n. n m i- niii'i ni i-fl /in i. j nn i :.ii.l
' w J. J. w " . J'jlHUtWli v u u l J U V w ) U U 1 1 J m. j. - -J *
! flt,r> rtrtrummri trrîr"rt <> f\ fi t I n n
. * u i , w u m m w u u j i . u - w,Uu -i.ci;
l l l i w l U U I
JUL WW UU.WW w w J JllUl - T HUIJ w 1 >vU l u u u u u u i
- * Q - - ' ) !
LiiC.luuuniniliiwi u w u u u u . n u w j - u u i u n v . )
i vi{.jil i/uimiuu wuviUiuwi j , M MV >* ,
luUnWUlIU L 1 M WWW W W t L.l 1 UW J J\.^-mmif VW
rt * nrfrt - hnn,H * n r U I ( u r * T\ U . ' ;f h r
wTlllllgW, U u a u W U I l U W 1. U Ulcl W 11 J W i. L fc li -
rr/, 1 1 -IT- -rr*i f .-. ****
J W l l W " , U j l i - u s . -,UIi*UU.
22275 566-56.-, Air Benakat
. :i^t- <\ .n in
UllttiC'SttllUOUUIIW.WWIAH-; Jll(*lv. *u j Wl
- ,RRri,f i-. -r\r\r iy-jr-
r
:!0
u u u w u n u u . i u u w m , U ' i \ ' -i/ v w - . j f
"* -0 W RrînriR *f fl/lfKrtirif *i
_ - 'J i i U U U I I U U H U 'J W v L 'J ' 1- - l L '
' rt rf I n i (" > f.fnin ; i f " fi f
L IlC ,. U Lil 1 U W ) WUIUU1W ll l l W U W W * -
. W . J f i L i J l ,
y C i i w * uw u d i A wiuiifcw J U U L J W
IHRKI ni'f ,,., - nil'
1
i n n .1 .
J u U L m i l
l U K ) W L Ullijw . 1
i W O 1 11 k v W ) U U l ' l ^ L **V1 fe W
liuui niiuui L w w i. id n ;v,iiwi
,K ..
'CQ. uw \T n/-ai
r-i \.
*' 11
riofrnv/ifrinira* enarca
W W U I W I I U U W ) W rJ U i m. W
i n r n n a r rvnita
I u U W W W ill I I' I U W t
e n a r c a
W U U I W W
* 1 nnr i n '
1 1 U W I 1 H
h n n'n
ui i gn u
i fa
I u w ,
\'i,11 TO-l-TaX Air uoml/cir 1 10
*-./... . .. -ill U W H U I 1 L 1 U J . T (_
n r a n n a <*" n n
1
a r t/ n r a n n a
1
wi u i i g w u u w u i iv wl u 11 g w ,
niit-inifa nranno* rara
.. w u i 11 i \J w < wi u i i g w f i u i w
i/ul'flu' nnmmnn nifnman
; w . i un , UWIIIHIWII u i UWIIIWH ]
i/Oi Inu' nnmmnn n w r i f a
j w i i w n , UWIIIUIWM u / i i ww
"ha 1 a \eanricf nna ."nmmnn tn enarca
WIIU I W / U U I I U U U W H W , WWIIIIIIWII U W W U U I W W
'Um*
;
,/\! \ T M/-0.Q I - * fl 7-1 W nnmmni
uwili, t / w/ I ; V - w S
T
L- i u , I - L / , WW Wl
Aarrnu.trinira cnorca fn fara
u C w i w f i u l IIIIWW) w p u i w w UW I U I W
i narr-i n i r a nnmmnn 1 i nrnriaf r I ni fa
II W I u l . l t u w , U W HIUI Wll I I U U W U W U I M I I U W ]
i/allnu "n nranna* enarca ennrinifa
Jul iun wu wiuiigw. w u u i w w w y u i i n i w w ,
mtf mi f a ann t.unr i ni f a i/pllnw f
fl
W U U I I I I U W U I I U i u w i ' it i u w f ; w . . w n
n r a n n a * r a r a rac-.nifa n r a n n a * c n o r e
w i u n g w , I U I W I W W I ll I U w , ui u n g w , W U W i W
Kifiian HrTnhf i/allnw* ?P.?
A
rc? ByMffi
U I U U U I W I I u i i gn u ; w i i wn , w u u i w w u / l i u w
n n n a n < 1,! C * 0. E P. T-jlann \l/ar fl C1 10 C h a ' a \ n a r h n n a f a \ e a n r e f n n a e n a r c a
w w t w u Iw-rw-IuSw luluiig n h u i u . u . I L U I I U i w iuui W U I I U ww / w u u u u u u n w , w u u i w w
Anm \l\\ \T M/-QR I -fl T-.g]
W Will , t / W / 1 \ I " J U | W W ) i - w j
-M I
fief rnwi f ri ni f a r a r a i nPTTl"! f! 11.2 " f2f
U W U I W l I U I M I I U W ) I U I W IIIWI W I II I U W j UI
' i nf nrlaf ri ni f a \>?}^(
y
H *"fl 0
r
2.
n
.CS'
I r w W U U W UI I I I I V U ] ,' " ' ''
w n w k / w
3 i
n n m m n n nyrif a
wwiimiwii p / i u w
n -j rj n * 'OGQ 'IRA Talann '.bor fl .(Q *? K fno i l/M\T fV-flC ( - < *7 ?;-?! **-jnr
L u w u i iiluu ! L U W iuiuiig nl\ui u . 4u ww w w u i , i / w / i \ i - v u j *-- ' **-| ""*/ ""J"
1
f-n ahiinrianf rlafrnuifrinifa* nnmmnn
U W U U U I I U U H U U W U I U f I U I III I U U | WWIIIIIIWII
i-alnwi f r i ni f a* nnmmnn fn enarca
U W I U I IUI I I K U W i - W m UIW 11 U W W U U I W W
nnrnnnalinifa* nnmmnn fn enarca
uui u u w w > i II i uw , wummuii uw w wui w w
fucinifa anrl eomifneinifa* nnmmnn
I U U I H I U W U H U W W i l l l l W W I H I U W j WWIIIIIIWII
ennr. n i f a nranna f n Harif nranna-
uuui iiiluwf w i u 11 g w uu uui n uiuiigw,
ria ri/ nranna
U U I l \ UI w 11 g w ,
a hn nrianf Kifnman wp11nule
U U U H U U I I U u i uu ill w u f i G i i w n i i.
nnmmnn avnrlaf^nifa wallnuieh nranna*
w wii tin w II W A U U U u l l l l U W j , I w I i w n i w I i w i w H g w ,
:C1C1 tOSi.tOfiS T a l a n n Atar fl El /(fl C K a i l u n n a ] - V >
, N
I f V r ^ 1 L_!S
T
: 1 ! '
_. ukui. I W U T I I - W W I U I U . I I ] nnui w . w w T U W I I U I I / w u u i , i / w / i ^ i - w i ) W - I U J * iy,
mainr * n ahnnrianf rJafrnuifrinifa*
m u j w i w w U U U H U U I I U u u u i u t i u i I I I I U W ,
rnmmnn faiiti/ifrinifa*
UUUIMIUII U W I U I I U I I II I U W |
i norf nrlaf r i ni f a nnmmnn ennrinifa
IIIWI W W U W u l . I I I w W , WUUIMIWII W p U l III I U U |
nranna fn rJarl nranna* nnmmnn
UI U i i g w W W W U I I- Wl W - H g w , WWUIIIIWII
linfnnafrrnifa wallny fn n'ary
I I U U U U W W I I 11 I U W i J W I I W f U W U U I 't
nranna * nnmmnn avnrJafinifa Krinhf
W I U I 1 M W ) WWIIIIIIWII W A U U U U I I I I U W ) UI g I 1 u
nranna fn nranno* ahnnrianf Kifnman
J I m i j u mfm4 w I wt i \ g w , U V t f l l U U I I W u I u UIIIW n i
hrinnf nranna fn nranna* nnmmnn
ui i g n u ui uii]w uu wi un gw , WWIIIIIIWII
30.1 l07.f_l07R T a i a n n A1/ a r fl H T Tfl C W a i l w nna 1 './\(\T M / - A C l - H I;i]
uu i w . f iwiw I U I U I I ] .II\UI U f u u uw U I I U I I ; u w u i , i / w / i \ i - w u j w - i i ) I - T J ,
mainr fn ahtmHanf Hafrnv/ifrinifa
IIIUJUl U W U U U I I U U H U U W U I W ( I U I III I l/W|
ahnnWanf f a 1 nu i r r i n i f a mmmnn * n
U U U I I U U H U U W I U I I U I I I I I W W , WWIIIIIIWII U W
e n a r c a inarfn/iarrinifa* n n m m n n
W p U . w W IIIWI U W U W U I III I U W , U UllllUW 11
n n m m n n e n n r i n i f a
w w m m w n uuui i II i uw j
n r a n n a fn rlari/ nranna'
Wl u u g w U U u u i i- Wl u i i g w .
rac i m fa
I W W III I U W |
qifuman "rinnf nranna * n nranno-
,. i uu.itwn j wl g n u w t u u g w u u w i u n g w ,
^nmmnn nwrifa ,"inart
r
7 ann n'aw
WWIIIIIIWII ml j I u w i U W U I U 4. U I I U w l U f
T i ntri 1 c
'1/-4C
:
- ^ T - H
' " I - - W T , t - I ,
nnmmnn nna 1 M/-<3 7
W W I I I H I W I I W W U I I I U I i
a hiinrtanr
"- . \ ma ,nr
L"r f I '"UJ Wl
ahnnrianf ennrinifa
U U U H U U I I U uuui n n u u ]
Tf*HGP *"
n
n a r L* nranna* ahnnrianf
wl u i i g w U U W U I IV UI w l i g w , U U U H U U I I U
'intnnafrinifo nranna n Aorv
I I U U W U W U I ' I I I U W j UI U I I 1 U U W U U I II
nranna nnmmnn nnfinifo nranno-
ui u II g u , WWIIIIIIWII W U U I I I I U W ) w i u n g u ,
nnmmnn raeimfa A or if nranna-
WWIIIIIIWII l W W I ll I U W ) W U I rv ui u u g u ,
i/a i 1 nu f n nran
Ij / U I lUrl U U Wl Uli
nnmmnn nil mire hri nhf itx I 1 nu
WWIIIIIIWII U I I u u u w j m-1 i g n u | u i i w n ,
nnmmnn nwr i f o
WWIIIIIIWII U j I I u w
a m r v.uo ?r!_in
.'lil
CnDI/lT'Tnil
l U i H i n u u i .
lie; i;;..! K 1
ri in
u u i i U J u u u u ' Oi.j.uuUuiiW'wuai)
f-r 11 x-uft r-iai. ,.,.,...
I^'-'J.} l ' i | li-lU | | WW ill ill Wl.
(tf-<3il 7-1 f -1 -7 1 ^hnnrU*
,, " U T ] 1 " V <j li" 1 r i j CIUUIIUUII
iFBmn n * ft i
. Ill 1 WW 1
!if\fn/iftft*iifft TTftllnr.i fn ft^rtwrfft-
i l K U W U V u l l i l i U W ) / W 1 1 U H wU ulCilijU j
ftnmwnw f- ft ,--n * i* n ft fiihflii nifn null
w w in ui v a WW J w U l O W j U i v . i j i i u t , U U H
if R^fl nw<inrfft.
4 U 111 1 WW ) WlCbllgW]
fiflflllfin .TlflKHItfrt' Ifil Ifirj i*ft ft * ft TI ff /
w WUl 111 V* 11 JVU1 LiUVVi) J m. M 1 mi n WW UlUilfcl
riT4/itrft hi f iiffl?i ri T*/!/i i n n nnllnt.i
3 WUl J W UJ.WU1HWU) 1 W W U 1 u 11 JLiiUHi
) 1 P P 1
UUVUl
u h > 7 u
ft r i
Â
jiiuiij w w a i ( i 'i u j i"t i u - i u f , uttju
uuuuuaii
U U l l U | w w u it u 11 - m, .
r*ftm i '
wWiituuii i.ik^wuuwvx
A m r*T\ft i
j r w x i w w u u w i a i i f c w j
rr ft I ft M t- ft fturtnrfft-
J v i i u * w w w i U. it w t
J U U L 1111 U W iSp*\T.rtftTftT.ft wftift** r
w u V/11J* J Uw UW < WW 111 ' u U U U J U W U W H U j U l
,m,^r,-f ,-{,, Cf-^ r
:
p r
z
ti \
(1WU U U U L L U U U U I t
-
' J T ( I ' U ) U " if T j 1
.u,......- /..! iv-il r-7 r
=
o11
riuuiiUUnu wucii i *' u | i i | u *-*/)
imifti" f" ft ihiiRfinnr An t -nn tr i f f i n i r
mujuj. ww uwuiiuuiiu j w u i w r i u i i i i i u w .
rlniiiMF m ni'f/" n n A Tnft
J L l U l l u i v l l l b U i j u a i c w
I fiM
i
-.'Jfiri>i i fA' w-.ft I*
11
!!
|,
'!Cir 1 f." '
I . U W 1 . W U U W U 1 . 1 1 I 1 U W , l U l W J w . l L l U J l L l l v |
I ' U U I l ^ 1IIU O W i
U W U I1UU11 m.
- W W W v 1 1. .1 1 - W , J W i i - W * * ^ w
*. It ft *-* ft ftrMiB/iir.*' riRfnifn .if rf *" "*
JiUiiijWj a u u i i w u u - tuoiiiiui-i w i uii w ww
U U I A U I U U 5 - 1 O f U U L J m / v t . l l l l w ]
rt.ftn/tft< ftftiiwriftni- '* i p' I" n " *<? f f* "** !\ "t *? H
G l U l l l t W , duWllUu.il U U U U I I V . I I gjl.WwUl.Jll
rift I 1ft...
|i.iiu."
IIKmTI.
ll 'K
CUllr. ,/.; Mf-71 T-f. : - 0 1 \ . Uj.>
bo abur.da.r,t -ic.r3vitrir.itc; ahur.dar.:
r-rt^-irifwiwifrtt , rt m m A n ,1 ft I ftif i f f i * 1 * ft '
v C I u l H i U l l U U j WU1UIHW U J U i U I H I U I U I J U )
J W d L w W L U W * I/I
11 j w J. w t w v
I, 1 U w w U W w. *
, ! ' . . .
:
1 11 n r i n 1 r a i r a a n i e h a j ; n u
i i u w i t i i i u w j g i w w i i i w n ; w i i w n ,
f*n enarca ennrintra Hf2^22 !
I Wi I I -
U W III III W l i W W W p u I mi w U U U I l . l t U W ]
nari/ nranno* nnmmnn raoiniro. nrar
w u i i W l W i i g w , w w III III W l l . W W I H I W W ) W l u i
annnnanf nifnmon nroonien uo j ; nu
U U U H U U I I U -i i u w i n W . i i g l W w H I W I I / * * ' ' u
hrinnt* wa]1nu a nnnnanf ** n "fJ'J'.'I'nn
n i a u inn n u n r a m i n a r a i c
w i u j uiiu p y i i u w H I I I I W I U I U I
.im Air aenakac O . U 31 Shai'eJsaRCSMne; abundant den CV=74,
1=5, 1:2!); abundant detrcvitrimta;
ccTison i nertoaetri ni ts, sclsrct'mte;
annnrionr ennrinifa nrjnno *;n Horiz
UWW..WW..U WWW. ....WW, W . W . I JJ V m\l WW...
w.w..3w, wwrniuwii WWW III IUW, W.Wt.JW,
rnmntnn * n enarca racinifa ./fl I ] fly '
Ouii.liivii.wti wfiw. w w . ww... iuw, /wiiwit,
i-nnir.n Kirnman 'nrtriWf yailnu. nnjimnn
WWI.....W.. w . u w . t . w . . , wi . . u w / w . i w n , w w w . i . w u
n\iri r a
w ; . i w w .
S9Q- 092 Air Benakat: 0.45 25 Shale,'sandstone; major to abundant
Anm fv=79
;
-4 L-!7!" saicr to
w Will ^ 1 - I W . A "* J L ' N (, IllUyUI U U
W W W V W L. n i l WUUW.INW.U
abundant detrovitrinite;
telovitrinite; sparse
i n a r r n n a r r i m r e - f?ra er- ] a r n f pi fa
I . I W I U W W W W . . . . . W W , I W . . W W W . W . W M I I . I W W ,
eami f tic n i f a * ahnnrianf e n n r i n i f a
w w i i i l i u w l u . u w , U U U I I U U H U U U U I M l i U W
n n r i n i f a n r a n n a r-n Aorir n r a n n a -
U U U l H I U W * W 1 U I I W W U W U U I l\ UI U H J U ,
snrl
w t l l U
a h n n n a n r 1 i nf nriof r i ni f a y & ! ! c S *Q
i u u n u u u u i I W U W W W U I I I I I U U J J w i i un uw
Air ir n r a n n a * e n a r c a f 1 n n r i n i f a
u u i n W I U H ^ W , w u u i w w I I U U I M I I U W J
n r i n h f J O ! irtw ahnnrianf h i f n m a n
u i i , it u ; w i i w n ( U U U H U U I I U u i u w m w n j,
n r a a n i c n \/a 1 1 nu rn ftrinlnf y o ] ' n w
3i S U I I I U I I j w u u t i uw U I I J I I U ; W I I W
n n m m n n n w r i fa
UWflJ'ifVM W J 1 I U W
1
248-'25G Air Benakat 0.4-1 31 Shaie)siltstone; abundant dos (V=55,
f-u i -OS 1 ahnnrianf riafrnuifrinifa-
t - w j U - U U / j U U U H U U I I U U W U I W T I U I I I I ! U U |
nnmmnn . rrari
w w n u n W 1 1 I I I W I I
ennr i ni fa yaHnu
f
2 nrSnGS* SfcufluSiit
w u w 1 I I I I U W J > u i i w n u w w . u 11 w ] U U U H U U I I U
f n nnmmnn li nf nrtof r i n i f a ya] ] nu -n
u w UWIIMIIWII I I U U W U U U I 1 11 1 uw>| y w i i w n u u
nranna* enarca fn rara nnfimfa n'arv
w j U 1 I 3 W , W J U U I W W UW I U I W W U U I I I I U W ] U U I II
ryronna' ahnnrianf ni firman
W 1 IJ. 1 1 W , U U U H U U I I U U I U U U I W l l ]
i/al 1 nu f n wal 1 nu nnmmnn 1
i w i i u n u w > w i i w n ( W U I I I U I W H >
wa11nu nnmmnn nuri f a
nu
w ft ,
F w 1 1 w n , uwmmwii w j 1 1 uw <
H CA 11 C h a i a \ c i l f e m n a * ahnnrianf W n m ' W-fl *3
U , W W IW W I I U I W / U I I U W U W I I W , U U U I I U U H U U W U I \ I ~ W U J
r- 1 I - 1 R \ ahnnrianf Hafrnwifrinifa-
1 * l , w " I V / | U U U I I U U H U U W U I W l I U I M I l u w ,
n n m m n n . i nf n n o f r 1 n i f a wo l i n y fn nari/
will III W 11 1 1 w w w w w . Ill I U W j / U I lUfl U W U U I l
n r a n n o -
wi utigw,
n n m m n n e n n r i n i f a n r a n n a fn
w w Hi III W l l W W U l I I I I U W J U I U I I J J W U W
nor'if n r a n n o * e n a r c a fn r a r a n n f 1 n 1 f a
U U I I V w i U 1 1 -. W , W U U I W W W W I U I W W W W I H I U W ]
n r a n n o -
Wl U H J W ,
i/a 1 1 nu -
J U I 1 u n |
ahnnrta nr
4 U U I I U U I I U
ahnnrianf
U U U I I U U l l u
K i f n m a n n r a a n i e h
U 1 U U I I I U I I ] 3 1 W U I I 1 W I I
ny r ifa
l- _/ 1 1 U W 1
* il 1fl -1 i *J *3 r 11 m a i fl C 1 3 C h a l a \ n a r h n n a f a \ e i l f e f n n a * ahnnrianf
! t U I t U L U W UI U I W . W I W U I I U I W < W U I U U I I U U W / W I I U U U W I I W , U U U H U U I I U
fn nnmmnn rlnm M/-Q4 T- 1 I -C1
U W W W U l III Wll W W U l \ I
#
U T | 1 " I | w * U / |
flihnnn'anf riofrm/ifrinifa' cnorcn
U U U H U U I I U U W U I W l l W i l l i I U W ) W U U I W W
inarfnHafrinifa* ahnnrianf fn nnmmnn
I I I W I U W U W w l t l l l U W f U U U H U U I I U U W W w HI 111 W H
linfnriafrimfa* enarca f n rara
1 I U U U U U U I i n i u U | w u u i w w w w i u i w
ennrinifa anri ^nfinifa r-ronna' rara
U U W I III 1 U U U I I U U U U I I I I U W ) w I w i I W , I U I W
ii '|/or
CoaDsftaisJsa.iwSuCns; abundant; zz:
M/-70 : - T i -oo i
s './ - 0 Q T - r r a n a
i ' " U U | ."UI U U W j
1
1 m a i n r
' / , n i U J W ,
a nnnrianr
U U U I I U U H U W W U l U
'or rni/1 r - n i r a
l i n i f r i n i f Q
# I W I I U I I I I I U W ,
e n a r c a n o i n w i
- w u i u w v
r r i n i f a
e n a r c a : n e r f n n a f r i n i f a ' z.nnnnonT
W W U l W W H I U I U W W W 1.1 III I U W , U U U H U U I I U .
^LihSfini^S nranno *-n riari/ nranna-
wuuwt n n v u | W I U H J W u u u m n W I U H - I W ,
?hUP.P?P.
r
"
n
^wtmnn 1 i nf nnarr i n i **a
U U U H U U I I U U U WWIIIIIIWII I l U U W W W w l I ll I U W t
n r a n n o
w i w 11 wj i.
*n r*ia rit n r a n n o
U U I l\ UI U I I H w ,
nrnun
ui un II ,
e n n r i n i f a Aorii n r a n n a * r
J W U I III I U U ) W U I f V W I U I I M W w U
f%n
,W.
mnin r n
enarca n i r nman nronna
U W IIIIUW II w U W W U l U W U I U U I I I W H ) U l U I I J U l
:;;;
i a n n W/or
I U I I - n f \ u i
on
C h a l a N n a r n n n a f a ^ e a n n c f n n o * a h n n r i a n f
W H U I w - W U I W W H U U W f W U I I W W U W I I W , U U U I I U U H U
fn "nmmnn n'nm M/- OK T *< s -1 1
U W w W III til W 11 WWUl y l * U | . - T j u - I i .
ahnnrianf rn rnmmnn riaf rnwi r r i n i f a *
U U U H U U I I U U U WUIIIUIWH W W Wl W ( I UI I I I I U W ]
nnmmnn nart-nnof r i n i f a enarca
U W III ill Wll IIIWI U W U W U I i i i l U W , W U U I W W
eniarnrimfa* rara eamifucinifa
1
W U I W I W U I I I I U W f I U I W UUIIII I U U III I U U |
"flwiunn linfnriarrinif
WUHIHIUII I I U U W U W U I I II I I
i ni f o, nranna " n
ui U 11 _ w w>w
h r n u n * n n m m n n e n h o r i n i f a
UI Willi , WWIIIIIIWII W U W W i I II I u w .
n r a n n o
Aorv i r a n n a * r a r e e n n r i n i f a Wari/
wui."- ui u n J U | i u i w w w w i I H I U W , u u j n
nranno* ahnnnanr h i f timan nrinnf
U l U I I J U , U U U I I U U H U U I U U I I I W H * Wl . j h u
nranna* ahnnHanf nwrifa
w I W H * w , U U U I I U U H U u j I I U W
upr r uiup . irn.ni
tiuu ..a".. . u u u i
\
a
(
m o s -"r.,-jn ii r ; , .1. n 01 -; >---,,.,;,.,.. ,!,. i
,i-..,Prt.nf 7\r\r M ' - I Q r-î --ti.
. u i i i i ' . U n . . . / u ' i. . . - T V , U - T 1 , .. ~ ' / j
,,,... ..!,/,;,. i ifsrsr M'-*Q r II
r-'1|. ^r.mnn -...; '!M'.T fir-Ks
. * 1 y I , vk.l.HU.1 <~ W U i. . ' ' u ' L i * V U |
r-ir r - o >. ,*,'**.
u - y W J L-> | j tiiUjUl
fifirwninrnmifri frtlrrrifniwii-/* n/. r ru n n
a w u i . w ' L W L J . n i . u w f u w i . u i j . u i . x i i i . u w r u u m i u i i
"ifi riffi .Tftm>rti-*init-ft i->ftl,-iftt-inirn
. a O J . i l J . U W f J W l - . i l . U J L 11 J. U W | J U l v n J " i . U l / U |
irsifft i infrtflftf * \ i r
L U 1 V L f i l J I t U U L l i i L U L U ' . , j
iiftftrfft' f n *i in ft
J L U l U j w , J U t t l O W
1
'i K 1 rf k f TTft I I ft (.1 '
W l i Q l l W / w u w - i
niir.-t .fnfuni nn rrrt I 1 ft r.r V- ft -rnli/
w U U d f j u n n a u ) U i J . U H V U < W L i \ .
"> ft fit m ft T\ .1 I ri f) | I
1
n ^ \ /*. IMTnl tfl
w-uuuuwii o i u w i i u w u > n u w j l i i i L i
rtiiftftîtiifft ft T* ft n rl n * *ftn f i ii n n t n i r A
J U U W .. L 11 J. U W ) W L U U Q W } L l l t l L J. U W J. Lili. U W |
Tiro? rcn.noc u"ftft ?*; n i? OP. . ^ I
f
.
T
\r\r M:-7C r - u r
=
71 -sain*
Umtmf/ I mtmiVU-IU 11U tt 1 1 U ll 1 V . M I U U u U r i j l ' U / L \ * - I U c f U - l i ) . L - l / ) i O C * , J U I .
a W w i. W U l LliJ-Uw * UUUllUfJtilU
ifl ifivi t-iti nif n> ftftmffiAt f- ft i AII*. f*i
C . U . L U > L U L L t i L U U , W U Mill U u
r\ nn n ft f t" n ftftfifftft - n n i *. i * ft
iiuuiniiin w w w - w sum w ii i O l i i l , u U ]
ft ft W fit ft "ft ftT\ ft Wf ft
w W I U I B W ii w w o u a i w w
fluni r:ici M ffi rutMnfihuirfl' ^ kii nfi i n f
O W t U L L U O L I l L U W ) S U l L l U U l i a i r U i 'AUU I1UC111 l
UW WWikiiulI uUUWJ.LUi.uW) UUI/UULiiliaii'i.
n ft
1
^ ft I.t '"ft 4 11 M TtftilftT.lt ft ft f* ft* ft ft
Jwj.Lv'"' ',U U U J . L J W L J . W W J W W IU ill W It
finfttil'ftl't-ft Kfl P 1 I f fl Allf 'KlTrl ft I 1 f
J U U i . t i U . w j . U i i U ^ i V U W f - U L U W ) ' W L A".
i- -, - ., r, ,-f -t Akiminnr r\ i h-iB/in n n fl h r
U W v i a i H j w . U U U H U U I I U W L U U I l w H ) U L L 6 11 U
' r- ^ J '
W W W W IUIU U L
I2lm)i ill/- 'wu riuuia L u I 3 u . t i oO w u i i . . - u/ L . - - J U
U U U I I " ' U / L ', * '
-\ ft l. ft ft ft ft 1- ft - ft ft t
l i U U U U U U u . <. i, w J
f ft ' ft u -' f ft i T. ' r ft
6 . W L U L UL I . U U U ;
* 'J J 1 ml "
M ' r- Tt -I ft i
' L w- L i.lli
ft ft TBrH f> n
wwiuia w li
L U )
uw ,
L
Jm.
1
t " 1 I ,
- J'.I.U
3 v i t r
i U U i n i d h l . U U U L I l L W w j O U U W i L l l L u u ) j -^ , ~ U
hft ft n ft r rf ft * ftftfjrftft nftnin'*-ft
U W W l U l l g W , wUiaiUUll ( . W O L i l L U W f
JwCrluLUW) ;wiiu wW UlUUijUt wWUl.w'W-
-*
1
lift ti r. ; ("ft Ki.fV>(- Tftllft.., l-ft ,'MM':
L l U U l l l l l v U | U U l j I I U / U l i u n U W J j i w ^ U L - w
rrft I lft(.* ftftrtmftn frm*.! Innifti ^ft
J W i j. U * j W W I U 1 U W U J W.*L L U J Lll L U W |
nfiTtffi.-irtf M" I ki Aftun-rtftT't* -ft ft i ni ft.ft
LllC L U W W W U L Lit A U W ( d u U U W U l l U U U W W l U l U W U
SlwulaCuj juiUUiJn J w i A u ww jWi4.w]
-.ftmmftn ftTrnit-n ru 1 n .1 ft . n
'.. 'in IM W 11 w j L ^ U W d l l U U L U U l
,1 O r 1 A (*> i * ft n n H . . " '. -m ^ ' C 'JP. C i ' t - f ^ f t n n ' i f t i f t n n r f t w n
-si
WWUIIUWII) l / U ' L i_ ' ' W J U l U j 1. J J f
i t r \ r v
T
1 \!-
n
0
r
-\
n
:ajcr ccai, v>L/1 ^v-.u, u-ii,
U l U J U L -JW ( l U U I l u t t U U
aburiduuw ^ciovirriuLuCj ccsscn
LncrtodcwriuLtc; sparse s c a L i u s i n i u C ,
;_,'*.- rr n 1 1 ft 1.1
L
ft n ft ft r rf ft '
w U L U W ! J W 4 . J . W W U U ' J L U I I Q W ,
miifi nnf ' n j *" ft
il wll L U W J W U U L . 1 L U W 1
- )nnr.nifa r a c i n i f o h r i n n f vaI * nu
I I U U I M I I U W ) w w i ' i i w w , ui i - n u ;ui IUII
* n niu 1 nail nu enarca c unor n i r 5
J w u u i i ; w 1 1 w n , w u u i w w w u u w U U |
avctmafinifa .to ) 1 nu - n An] ] ;o ] 1 nw <
WA.WWUWU IIIIUW) J U I I U M ww W U I I ; w . 1 w fl ,
3 nn nn a nf n -nmmnn hiri'inon irinnf
U U U I I U U H U U W W WlfflMVli U l l y U m U I I ) UI ' - ' u
I'ol'nu' nwrifa "nmmnn
; w 1 w n r uy 1 1 u u WWIIIIIIWII <
! C K _ \ \ r. 7 'ir 3anai/af * J C * fl Cilfefnna'icannefnno ^ n m ahnnnanf - n
w . T U - U W l l U W U W H W / W U I I U W U W n W ) W W III U U U I I U U H U w w
nnmmnn 'JM \T ,"./- 7 1 i -00 T - Z ' -
U W U I III Will 1 ' W 1 . , ! - ' , W W W ) L - W / g
i-9 i n r
m i j wi
* 1 n n r I n 1 f a /a i * nu
I U W I I I I I U W ) I I 1 u ll
1 ntndafr1m fa
. 1 U W U U W UI IIIIUW]
nronna
Wl W 11 3 w ,
i/allnu m -,ol^nu* n w r i f a
jrwi iun - w 1. w 1 1 un <y w J l I U W
nr *nnf
wr i g u v
*> *3 C X 7 1 07fl_1070 i .1 m a i fl **3 1C C i l f c f n n o S c h a i a S c a n n ' c f n n a n"nm
. w W T I I U I W i ll | li J mi ill u i J . v l l i u W I I U U U W I I W > W H U I W / W U H W U W W I I W ) WWUl
enarca '/MM f U - T Q *:1C ! :5 \
W U U I W W ) l / L / W \ I ~ I W ) L - I W ] W * U | |
*nmmnn fn enarca wi fri nifa* nnmmnn
WWIIIIIIWII U W W U U I W W I I UI I I I I U W } -J W Hi III W 1 I
ennrinifa
W W W I I I I I U W ,
rocinifa 12
I W W I I 1 I U W ) w u
ra 1 1 nw *
;C . iwfl,
OOCIO * O O R - ^ 0 7 n m a i fl 1 11 C h a l a S c i i f c r n n a N c a n n c f n n o n n m
f. w w W * U 4. W ' W w i J U III 'ml I W i U I II U I I U I U ^ W I I U U U U I I W / U U I I U U V U I J U ) U W U I
ahnnrianf fn nnmmnn W\T\I M/-R4
U U U H U U I I U U W W WU1II1W II; ' ' m. 1 w '. ' ~ U T ,
7 * 0 i< 1 - 1 0 ^ ahnnria n*r rJafrmJirrinifo
i n a r f n n a r r i n i f a
1 II W 1 U U U W UI 1 II 1 U W j
r-i.f
U U U
inifa n r a n n a
1 11 1 u w , w 1 wi 1 3 w .
n r a n n o *
Wl w 1 1 * W ,
n v r i T a
ena rea
U U U I W W
ra ra
1 1 UI w
nmmnn hi f 11 man
WWIIIIIIWII U 1 UUIIIWIl ]
nnmmnn
WWIIIIIIWII
r
J -
U W U I '
i n o r r n h a f r i ni fa-
1 nf nriar r 1 n 1 f a
I U W U U W wl I II I W W |
n r a n n a * r a r a e n n r i n i f a A or if n r a n n a -
w I U 1 1 - W , I U I W UUUI IIIIUW) WUI IV W I U I I W W J
nwrifa nnmmnn- enarca hifnmen
wi j 1 1 uu wumiuwii . uuui w w w 1 UWIIIWH
.*o 1 Tnu
; w > 1wn
OOft^fl CJ3-1CRfl fl it m -3 i fl 0 11 Cha ToSnarhnnaro nnm enarca 'ATM
L . W W W W t U U U w w w U U i l I U W . w U II W I l U I W / W U I U W I I U U W l UUIII W W U l U U | I ' t ' L
f\/-R1 T - 0 1 i -u\- nnmmnn * n enarca
\ ' - U 1 j L ' W l ) W ' U / | WWIIIIIIWII w> W W U U I W W
n'ofrnwifrinifa* enarca
w w u i w r i w i I H I U U , u u u t w w
inerfnharrinifa* rara ennrinifa
IIIWI U W U W U I IIIIUW) I U I W UWUI IIIIUW]
'infnhafrinifa nranno f n rlari/
I I U U W U W U I i n i w w , W I U I I ^ J W uw uui n
nranna* nwrifa nnmmnn
ui U I I ^ W , w ; 1 uw WWIIIIIIWII 1
IICEt IRAO-lfi-M Qafnraia fl ^ 5 ! i mecf nno\ cha 1 a nnm enarca *"n rora
L U W U I I V t L l U T T U U UUI UJ U W l W T W U I IIIUU U U H U i U U U I U | WWUl W U U I W W UU I U I W )
m a i n r
HIUJ Wl
i nor*" 1
nur1ta
u / t . U W
' 1 f r i m f a
u w ,
r a r a f n
I U I W U w
n i fa ha rran .
i i i u u , u u i 1 V I I
n n niflrt n
U WUIIIIW II

na r ran
UUI 1 Wll
i n f i n i t e
i p u i i u u u i
nra n n a
, u . u i . 3 w
o-jcto 170R-'
W W W
',T)m
' wU
Tn
1 U
1 a nn
u i t 3
Al/ar fl ft7 07 Canîcf n n o \ n a r h n n a f a rlnm ^ n m m n n "-n
W . w i WI UUIIUUVUIIU/UUI UUIIUUVj UWUI vwnimun WW
enarca *./\ I \ T f'J-QQ i-rara
W U U I W W ' I / U> A l l " U U | W - I U I W )
[harran'i* nnmmnn riafrnwifrinifa*
1*UUI I U H J | UW III III Wll U W U I W t i U I 1 1 I I w w ,
horron 'narfinifa* rara
U U I I Wll ' II W l W i l l i U U | I U I w
linfnriofrinira nranna
fc
n hrnun-
1 I U W W W W U I I I I I U W ) w 1 w 11 j w ww uiwnii)
nv/r i fa nnmmnn
w j 1 < Uw UUIIIIIIWI 1
lie;
' i i : n n \\i - r
ilCKT It ~.
i f r f n n o ^ c a n n e r . T t a nnm -jhnnnanf
i U W U U I I W / W U H U U U W I I W t WWill w W U I I U U I I U ,
W M \T fv-oi ' -ta
I / W , L \ I ~ 'J , , _ - w
- n m m n n '/ \ ' \ T
WUIIIIIIWII , I / W/ J,
- r a r a i
- I - - W i .
/-01 i-a
" 2 -, [.?.{]?
nr
'
1
a f r n \ / i * T i n i f a * -nmrnnn
"
J
U l W f l v | l | I I U W | WWIIIUIWII
j W iUlillUUII
Q i f l u i r n n i ' f l ' e n a r c a r n r a r a
j w i w i i u t I U I W V J w u u i w w u u i u i w
uG CCSffiGf! - n n
r
"
, n
'
i r Q
l i n f n h a f r i n i f a
U W WUIIIIIIWII W W U l I I I I U W ) I I U U W U W U I I I I I U W )
Tr3f?CP "" C. ^1.!'' nranno* "nmmnn
ui u n g w - W U U I i w l U H J W , WUIIIIIIWII
racinifa null nronna > rara
I W W I I I I U W ] W W I I W I U H X W j > U I W
eiihariniro narl/ nranna "n hrnun
w u u w i I I I I U V ] u u i n w t w, 11 3 w u u u i w n i i i
rara ayennaf'nifo nranno- rara
I U I W v A U U U U U I I I I U W ) J I U I I J U , I U I W
hifnmon hrinhf nranno- nu r i * a
W I u U ill W I I ; UI I gilU w I w I 1 - w , U J M I U W
* a n h e r n n o \ c i i f c f n n o H n m n n m m n n
v
n
. U H U U U U I I U f U I I W U U U I I U ) W W III WWIIIIIIWII w u
e na r e a ;' \ i
U U U I W W ) t / i
V - O Q -ra ra 1
i i n r i n i f a ^ r a n n a * a n u n n a n f n\tr'
I ' W U I I . I U W ) W I Ull -J W , U U U H U U I I U w / I i
m
cii/Dr D
u nu . u u
SO.
.'III
ll
n P c r t o r a T r n u
Ll L) U -J I. L 1 1 L V > > 1
;ara
, L u w i.a .. . i a w n
W W U L
r -7
' ' i U U U U U U l i ) I / U f L ,
r-nnt*iftirft IT /i 1 , n i.r f jft ft n A ft rf n * ft ft 11 nrt *i n f
J U U L U I L U V ) ;'w * j. w ii u w Ji.ii.iij'w . luiiii'j'iiiv
Kif-urwrtft 1i/ifininl\ vr ft i I ft r.t i i ft, n /i v i n ft
U L u u m W i i ) ; I W ' . . . I J I I ; U 1- A -mi n , i i u n U A 1 U U
ft 1 ipn n n m r/i ft n "em n
J U L O W ) j/ jr L L
- w m u i u u , uidj v
Lli A U W ) W WlllilV 11
o o o c o 7 ) n _ ? *) n
u u w u u w U ; u u
.1 UC11 w> ULILII
Cftnnnt-ftn/i t n i 1 f n t* ft ft ft '
j a i l U w l / U l l U ' O A A U O U W L 1 W '
!.m, *mA ftllT'n*"ftftn>ftftftftftftt'ft rtftm ^ h u r i r t f t i n r ?- n
. / A U J O W U I l W ' W U A U U l l U t U w ) U W U I O i U U I l U U t l U u u
ftft-.ftn 7\r \r Mr-fin r - - K r - : i.
W W It III W l l ) ' U ' L I l " U U | U * W K | L - ' J f ]
,1
...,... i ' \ T W M.r-'tn
W W IK M W Li) ' i. -' U i ' ' U j
LU , - L l / j
tft-fimftft 1 i n f f t n n f n - . A i f ft
s U l U U U 11 ^ . L U W U U W U A L l l A U W )
JtliEjW) WWlMlilUll WUULllAUWj
.ulllllrv) ÛllUn UU UUAA
,i n n n if /i > cn ft nr* ft .-i*hft,*"*lft*f"rt ft ft i-t rt ft '
W A U I l g W ) J U U L O W O U U W i. Ail A U W ) U A U J I I J J W J
nftnnriftftf ftifiTmftTi rfurtfimi nh finl Inu
1
1 U U U U U U U U A U U U 1 U 11 ) A w U il A O ll J U 1 1 U |
w w w w m i H W l i ) 'UUj .
, ww turn wii
I I Q f 1
U U U 1/ u
Oilil.CIf
Tt f* ft
L U ^ O U w H W / O U I i U O U U l I W ) U U UI .u li J w i. u w
.7 7.11.
- I , i-U , , ( i U U l l U U I l U ) f ' U ' A \ l - u U
.ft ft 7 n k n M n n f 7\T \ 7 M.'-o^ r -o
. W U L U U U l l W U i i U j I / U ' L l l - w U ) U - y )
J ) CjbU<i 1 J U C 4 U u
i r ft ft ft f i n i
:
i
!
w w miaw n w u u L ii A u
m. L L W ' v W W U A i\
i,,: i
T W L A U * j vWIIIUUIl O U W L L U A U W f W U J. A
nn
1
,
1
ft.L
; W L A U " ,
3 rankc i
ft fMTiin ft ft H A M I M ! 1ft. .f*
WW1KIUW1I ( . W O L U A U W ) ; w J. 1 w
" W L A U
fftfti pr <"! Ift ft ft ' .tfl
1
^ T A ft 1 f 71 H ft if T*ift ft 1
C J L W W U . u l l U l J w W A U U U I W U ) g A W W U A
rf n ' 1 ft i.i ' ftTT-irft ftft-ntuftn ni*ftft**ifft
I W i 1 W , U j L L U U W W II l W II ) 3 A W W L . 1 . W W
ftftmmftn* rtiniftt r-ft flftiiftftftmr r.-1 r - i
w W U l l . w n , ' U j w l W W U U U I I U U H U * L U L L
n ft. ft H ft ft I ft ft ft f 1 T\ 1 f ft
,.r.i rjr,n.:in ll.n< ft .1 f
Sand3tor,c)siitstcr.c>ciaystor,c, dor.
,,, m. *,, MIN' ;r-yn u
:
')Q
w w . i m w . i l/U J U t f c i J ^ , U ' ' L \ u ' ' t -.U'
r-il. .-.] ,umAr ir.r-.r n'.yg,
r-H T-llll. .I....J..I r ~r,mm*m
u-l 1 , L - i y j , u u w u u m . w ^w wummwii
I p C S u w C t LI1LWW , JWJ.1UK UW Ulllllj.
i-n ,1..; i
. ^ U U l l
.. u i. IU u .. L ^ J i . U L ^ W , f ' W ^ x
i E S S {lliC'LullC , j'i;i.i'w.i.iii
6-i
1
1/
Srciul.^. J W U . J W JUU^.illll'V, u u i .
jciicv, sparse DLÛUH..., J^HUO..
..." . ,. , nrrwiVA ^^..nrtnrtf. wrti/.n i" n
y C L i C V , p ; i L ^ ^ a"..u.ik| I U U J W L ^w
,L..J.. ir.'l-n.'nif-^' ,-nmAT\ * 1 e.mr, mr. f
r>uUr.waiiL . i u L U U ^ I wuisitfwu ^w jwd.j.
f.ftft- ift-r, *ft7i '!,,-* " , *, "A * Q * : 1 f cr nna \ eanhcf nna \r ' awcf nna nnm
TI Q 5 -* fl i fl - ' fl 7 ' aiiara - fl ] JJ" J . w J uu w i i u u u u n w / w u i i u w u w n w / w i u j r u u u i i w ) u w HI
ahnnnanf '-.'\ I \ T i \/-;QA ! ; 7 ' ~ 1 j '
U U U H U U I I U ) ' / W / A ^ l - W U ) - ' ) -
w
/ |
MI enarca 7\|_\T [\/:*aO i :0 ? = 0 ^ '
w u u i w u u i w w ) i / w / A y i - u u j - u A *;)
fn enorca n n f i m f a ennriniro
U W W U U I W W W U U I I M U W ) W U W I I I I I U W ]
wal 1 nu f n nranno* "nmmnn rn en*.
; w i i w n ww wiuiigw, W W H I U I W H uw wpi
ni f n man nraam eh up 1 1 nu * n\ir . \
u i u w niw 11 . 3 i w w 11 i w 11 ' w i i w r t ) w i i'
w-ifrinifa mainr -n
I I UI I n t U W IIIU J W l W W
ahi i nnonr* nnmmnn *norfinifa
U U U I I U U H U | W W III III Wll IIIWI u i u l w w .
;2957 'm.-'l'-m ^:: loz ;.:3 .;" :, i;3;:nejsaRdstone>cl3ys:ane,
M i n lin-><** " ; A IG 1 C i 1 f cr nna \ canrief nna \r 1 aye
" 1 Z i w II i*u f 2 Cului w.-ru wi u i i w u u w u w / w u n w w u w i i w / w i u / w
enarca 1/MsT (tf-OE ! -* "irSfS!'
W U U I W W ) ' - . / * 1 , 1 - U U , W W , A - I U I W / ,
nna I mainr f n a hn nn a nf V)')I ( If" 5 7
u w u i iiiujui uw U U U H U U I I U ] t u / A \ I ^ ' J
!-ifl 7-*M nnmmnn fn enarca
L- ' U j i " u j . WWIIIIIIWII U W W U U I W W
rac'nifa ennrinifa i
nr
nHarrinifS
! W W I II I W W f J U U I I I I I U W ) I I U U W U W Wl I I I I U W )
wallnu -n null nranna* nnmmnn
f U I IUW UW W U I I Wl W.U-JW, WWHIUIWH
nnfinifa nranna* nnmmnn hifnman
w u u i ii I U W J w i u n ^ w , WWIIIINWI. U I U U I H U I I J
ira M nu nnmmnn ni i nnfc hf. Gilt
w i i wn , uwmniwii wll w u u W ) u t i g n u
i/ollnu* nwrifa rnmmnn mainr rn
;w!iwr, w/i I U W WWIIIIIIWII, :nujwi uw
ahnnnanf 'if ""i nif a* qUapSS tG TSTw
U U U H U U I I U M i l l III I U U { W U U I W W U W I U I W
i nart i n i fa
IIIWI W i l l i u w
22955 !252-!2a5 Air Senakst D.52 !0 S3ndstCRe>si7tsrons>cl3ysto,'!8
f
CM
L . u U
l/\l \I f U = 0/l I ;2
l / W / A \ 1 - U T j U " U ]
T-'M* nnmmnn ; i nf nriaf r i ni f a VfillOW
, - w / ) wwiimiwii I I U U W U W U I I I I I U W J /ui iu
enarca racini fa nranna-
W U U I U W I W W I H I W W ) Wt U I I J U )
nnmmnn hifnmon hrinhf "'a{]nu nVfitfi
WWIIIIIIWII u i uu KIWI i j ui i g n u ;wi iwn j JUJI iuw
ahnnnanf
U U U H U U U u ,
narfinifa enarca
IIIWI U l l l l U W W U U I W W I
(irtn.jine ,i r Canal af fl *3 Ofl Canhefnne\eilfefnna\1imoefnn
i ! .'/! {Li I i. ii i F T.P-1.J.Y. 1. ,..n i r, u u n u u utwiiw / W I I U U UWII W / I I III W U UWII I T W m. s T U U
U U I I W U U W I I W / W I I U W U W I
AT-- M/-QR 7-0 l-OI-
I / A - W V I - U W , * - ( - , - . - ( . I ,
nnf i
W W W !
wal T nu fn nranno-
; w i i u n uw wi uiigw ,
enarca hifnmon hrinhf wal fnu- nnmmnn
w u u i w w ui U U I H U I I | w i i g n w ;w i i wn , WWIIIIIIWII
nil nnfe nil nrnnc wollnu* nwrifa
W l l W U U W ) W l l W I W U W ) J W I I Wll , U j I i u w
n nnmmnn wifrinifa*
IW WWIIIIIIWII f i ui < n I U W )
enarca inarfinifa
W U U I W W IIIWI U I I I I U W i
IIQffl 1 Gil C 1 CEO Air wanai/af fl -1 1 G Cann
r
efnna\eilfefnno Anm ahnnnanf **n
Lli-iCi. iUTW IUUW All UWliuftUW U i W W IU U UII u w U W11W / W I I U W U WIIW , UWIH U U U H U U I I U uw
nnmmnn ./M\T M/-0Q ! -0 T-rara\-
UWUIIHWII ) l / W / A \ I " W W , W * L j A * * 1 U I W / |
enarca linfinifa nranna fn null
W U U I W W I I U W I H I U W ) u i u n g w U W U U I I
nranno* enarca hifnmon wa1.nu
Wl Ui I tj w , w W U I U W U I U UIIIW i I j J W I l W )
enarca T n rara nhwfnnlanl/fnn
W U U I W W U W I U I W U H / UU|I I U I I I I U U I I |
nraanich wo 1 1 nu. n\/rifo
H I U W I I I U I I ; w i i w n , w ; i i u w
i n o r f i m f a
{ K K A - I R G Q ^ u m a i fl "fi 07 limpcfnno\cha]o Hnm ahnnWanf rn
{ O U T I w u u vi u ui u i u . u u it w i m C w u Wll w/ w n u i w ) UWIH U W U I I U U I I U uu
nnmmnn U\TM (U = 0A 7:0 I -? 1 -
U U IIIIUW 11 J l / A / W \ l - U W ) i ' U t w. - L , |
VI1
infinifa rara Hull nranna* nwrifa
ipwiiiiuw I U I W ) U U I I w i u u g w , u;i iuw
710E>( .'71fl ChalaScanhcfnnoS ' imocfnna n'nm
W I I U 1 W / W W H W W U W H W ' I U I I W W W W I I W ) W W HI
nnmmnn
WWIIIIIIWII ]
/ > T \ I M/
=
09 T-7 I - n -
I / A / W \ t - u u ) A - i j w - i y ,
Vifcr^nifS 3nUn^3n
r
*"
rt
nnmmnn-
I I U I . Ill U W U U U H U U I I U U W w w m iuw I I .
i narfinifa nnmmnn fn enarca-
IIIWI U l l l l U W w w in IIIWI I j w W W U l U W ,
I infnHafrinifo nnmmnn * n enarco
i I U U U W W U I I I I I U W ww mm WII uw w u u i ww j
nranna fn rinll nranna* nnfinifa
wiuiigw uw w u i i w i u n g w . W U W I H I U W
enarca
W U U I U W )
nranna
wi uiigw,
nronna
ui u u g w ,
^nnrin i fo raro
J U V J I I H I L I L . i tt > r:
hif 11 mo n rara
U I UUIIIUII I U I W J
Hrnnc enarco
U I W U W W U U I W W
Ul w ,
\f a I 1 nu nil
> w i i w m , wit
nranna* nwrifa
Wl U II 3 W , w / i I uw
:OQSG ! 7 i n _ 1 7 M fl C7 10 Cha1 a \ 1i macf nna nnm nnmmnn \l \ T \ I
U I I U I W / i iinwwuwiiw) UWIII wwmuiwii) I / A / W
(V-Gfi T-A !-raral* wifrinifa nnmmnn
^ i - w u ) i " t j w- i ui u j | i I U I I U I uw UUIUIUUII
rn enarca-
UW W U U I w w ,
enarca* linfinifa rara nranna
uuui W W ) I I U U I I I I U W i u i w ) w i u n g w
Aorii nranna* ni . n..f rare
uui u wiuiigwt W l l w W U I U I W
nuri f o nnmmnn
p i t I U W WWIIIIIIWII
wallnu
/ W I I w n )
0OOR7 1G Canricfnna'scilfefnna'inarhnnafa rJnm
IW U U I I U W U W I I W / W I l U U U U I I U f U U I U U I I U U W ] UWIII
enarca fn rara \/\l\T 'U-OQ f-t
W U U I W W U W I U I W ) ' ' L i I \ i - J W , w - ' |
f-ra ra 1 - wifrinifa enarca* linfinifa
i
enarca
T-ra ra 1
k-i ui w ; .
OOQPQ
L L U U U
*)rwo_7rua
- U T 1_ U U T U
Safnra i a
U U U U I U .J u
fl 7fl 07 I impcfnna\canhefnna\ci1fcfnna
L. I HI W W U W I I W / W U I I U W U W I I W / W l I U W U W I I W
rinm
UWIII
snared l/\l \T fU-0
1
! I -7
W U U I W W ] t / U / A ', I " J U , W - I )
I i nf nriaf r i ni f a
I I U U U W W Wl I II I U W )
hifnmon enarco rn
U t WUHlWIt W W U l W W W W
rara wallnu
l u i w j jui i wn j
nwrifa rara
W ] I I U W I U I W I
nil
rirnne rare waI 1nu'
wi w w w I U I W ) ; w i i w ri ,
9 0 0 7 M
L m. W I W
Ta1anr .Jrar
inui
CR ChalaSeann'efnnaSnarhnnafa rinm
U U U I W / W U I I U W U U I I W f W U I U U I I U U W , U W H I
ahnnn'anf \l \ T M M/-0Q T-0 I -nrol -
U U U H U U I I U ) l / A / W \ ' " W W ) * *- f w " ' U I w i ,
wifrinifa mainr fn a h u n h a n f >
1 I UI I I I I U W niUj Wl U W U W W I I W U I I U ,
inartinifa enarca* 1infnnafrinifa
IIIWI U I I I I U W w u u i w w , r i u u w u w u i i n i u w
rara nranno fn rinll nranno* nwrifa
I U I W ) w i un 3 w uw W W I I w I w il 3 w , |l]l I U U |
11071
. k . i i
O U f l - U K i Talann I h r
w.ww W . W T I U . U I I ] nnui
il 7C 1ft
W U
Ganriefnna\ei 1 fefnnoN 1 i mocf nna hnm
U U I I U W U W I I W / U I J U W U W H W / I I I H W W W W H W ) UWIII
ahnnrianf
U W U I I W U I I W )
l/\T\l fV-00 T-1
/ A / U v '
J
* | ' |
UM \T f u-ao I
I - r a r a \
L - I ui w y )
7 T-01-
i , A - w y ,
IUI I II I uu
?na,
uuui
U U U I I U U H m
ennrin1fa
w w w . IIIIUW)
flimrinifa 1infnhafrinifa fSfa.
I I W W I I I I I U W , I I W U W W W U I I I I I U W I U I W )
orange to dark orange; bitusen .
r
3r<
yellowish orange; pyrite cosaon.
W W W I L
11QO-0I0S Ta1ann
I U I U I . m
Akar
r\ ai
11
-1 I-rara)
L- I UI m j |
rn.] u\r\i (V-99. I
W W U I ) t / A / U I " " J M ) *
aajor to abundant telovitrinite,
ccaacn to sparse seaif-sinite,
sclerotinite; rare to trace
liptinite, aark orange; pyrite
rnmmnn
/inn*'' I I G A - ' M U J I Taiann 'l/9r fl DO * 0 PlawcfnnaVeilfernnaveanricrnno
^ J / J u t U U - I w -F I u i u n 3 n ft U I g . u u W U U I U ) W U U I I W / W I I U W U W | I W / U U I I U W W W H W
) UWIII
nnmmnn '. \ I \ T :'u*-y1 ' - '
UUIIIIIIWII ) ' ' L. / * I l * J I | U " I
r-0\- nal mamr './M\T P./--37 . -0
A " _> / | W W U I 'IJUJ Wl | l / U / A ; C J I | ' - ' - I
7 - * 1 iitjinr -n ohimrJanf wifrinifa-
L -* t y , . i u j w i w w U U U H U U I I U t i u i I I I I U W )
nnmmnn fn enarca erlarnfinifa
UWIIIHIWH W W W u W, I W w W W I W I W W I H I U W )
. narfnnorrinifa*
IIIWI W W W W U I I I I I W W )
rocinifa nranno fn nor it
I W W I II I U W ) W l U I I J W U W U U I
nranna* nnmmnn hifnmpn wallnuien
u i u n w w j WWIIIIIIWII u f u u w t w II ) j w i i w n i w II
nranna- nnmmnn nil cfain* nwrifa
U I u n - U , u W U H I I W H W l l U U U I I I i U ] l I W W
nr,Q7* 0000-OOOS' Taiann 'tar fl -/ 0C farhnnaro
,
.eiifcfnne\nJawefnna
U Z U ' T .(-(-*. W U W W I U I U I I 3 rifvui U . u T L U W U I U W H U U u / W I I U W U W I I W / W I U / W U W I I W )
*. norf . m ra
, IIIWI U l l l l U W
harran* !infirn*-a frana A*r\( nrSHCS'
w u i 1 - n , I I U U I H I U W u i u u W f w u i r. ui u n 3 w ,
nnal ahnnWanf \/\l\T M/-0Q ! ;0
u w u 1 U V U I I U U I I W ) r / w / A ' - J w j u 1
7-rarol* wifrinifa mainr rn ohnnrtanT-
i. - 1 u 1 w , , I I U I I I I I W W 'iu J W 1 W W U U U I I W U I I U ,
nnf i ni fa
W U U I H I U W )
linfnnafrinifa nranna fn Air it
i i p u w u w u i I I I I U W ) w 1 u 11 3 w u w u u i i\
nranna* nnmmnn nlau annJ nwrifa
Wl Ull 3 W , UWIUIIIWII U I U J U U U . U J I I U W .
00 0 7C 0003.C0.JC "sisnfl .!hr fl 5 7 31 f*or hnnor a \ci 1 f cfnno \n 1 9 ycf nna nnm
. t - i w m. L. w w U A . T W i U I U I i g n f t u i U W I w l u U I U W I I U U W / W I I U W U W H W / W I U J W W W I I W t , UWIII
/ i f r i m f a mainr-
' I U I I'll u w m u j U I )
linfinifa harran
I I W U 1 I 1 I U W U U I I Wll ]
Aorit nranna
1
'nal enarca V ^ ' ^ *
u u 1 n w 1 u 11 3 w f w w u i w u u i w w ) f / W / A
fW-Ofi I -J 7-raraW wifrinifa mainr*
I I * U V f. *-"""**" A - I U I W / ) < I U I I I I I W W -MU j U I ,
racinifa linfnriofrinifa nnmmnn f n
')
I W U W U W U I I I I I U W wWirilllWIi
Aorit
u u i n
inarfnWofrinifa rara* nwrifa
IIIUl U U U U U I I I M U V I U I W ) U | I i U W
00Q7R 00/11 Talann <lar fl 37 01 Cilfefnno nnm ahnnnanf \/\T\l fV-afl
U W u l U C A. T 1 ' U I U n 3 H IV U I U U l W l U I I U U U U I I U ) UWIII U U U I I W U I I U } I ' A / W . I * J w )
7-0 1-rarai* nnal ahnnrianf '/\ T \ I
A - L . ) W - w I W / , W W U l U U U I I U U I I U f l / A / W }
wifrinifa ma mr inarfinifa enarca fn
I I UI I I I I U W .11U J W 1 , IIIWI U l l l l U W W U U I W W U W
nwrifa nnmmnn
fJ J I t W W WWIIIIIIWII
00077 0OC^20G2 Taiann ', l a r fl CO ^1
n
1 awcf nno ^ e . 1 f cf nno \na rhnnar a
L, W W I I L. A. W T U W U U r u I - i 1 3 " / \ U I U t U W b I W I U J U U W I I W / W I I U W U W I I W / W W I U W H U U W ]
11373 11SS.117,1 I . h . - ft 31 10
U . W W I U m. U - W . w . W W U I I U U W l U W iu
enarco wifrinifa mainr
W U U I W W , I I U I I I I I W W .MU J U ' |
raro
T
i nr <. m *>a rara riaru* nranno
r U I W ) 1 I p U I I I U U r 14 i w ) W U l ft W l Ull g w )
nnal ahirnrtanf I \U\T f I - k 0 V-ifl
W W U l U U U H W U I I W ) W / I / * ^ " ' J | I ""tu |
*-*)) . . nr i f a \n 1 ar i f a * mainr rn
I ' U ) j 1 i w w 1 u w * w 1 u1 I U W ) 11 u j w 1 U W
wifrinifa* enarcarara
I I U I I I I I U W ) W U U I W W , U I u
i narf i n 1 f a
IIIWI U l l l l U W )
linfnriofrinifa nranno fn Aorit
I I U U W W W U I i l l l U W ) U I U 1 1 - J W U W U U I II
nranna nnmmnn nnfinifa racinifa
w 1 w 11 3 w 1 w u n 1 ni w 11 W U W I H I W W ) 1 w w i n t w w )
ennrinifo nranno fn rin 1 1 nranno-
W U W I I I I I U W ) w I ui 1 3 W U W U W I I W I u 1 1 3 w ,
nnmmnn nil rlrnnc nranno* nwriro
11 u n j w , r* J ' ' **u
Conn'efnnaScilfcfnno Anm enarca
W U I I W W U W H W / W I I U W U W I I W ) U W U I W U U I W W ]
U\I V T M/-A1 I -<7 T-rarol- rn.]
I I ,. I J. ( t " U U ( W - I * J i. * ' W w I f U W U I
nnmmnn UM NT M/-70 . 'Olfl T-71
UWIIIHIWH) I / W i i, \ " 1 w , W " t V | A ~ ' / )
1 . nr i f a S nlarifo i/ifrinifa mainr *"n
I I W W I U W / W I U l I U W ) I U I I I I I W W 'UU J W l U W
: n a r c a * i n r * n i r a - n m m n n n r a n n o **n
U W U I W W ) I W m, I , I - - m, WWHMIIWII) W 1 U H W W WIW
iii; ""ranno- nifnman rirc callnuien
*mt i i W I U 1 1 3 W , w 1 uuinwii 1 ui ,. , ; w 1 t w * 1 u n
1 r n n e ^nwimnn . 1 a i 1 nu
1
1 ' 1
:nn nna nr
:oa:fl
:n
" h a i a S e a n h c f n n a ^ e i l f r f n n a "nm n **m*nn
U H U I U ' U U I I U U k U I I U I U I I W U U W I I W ) WWUl UWIIIHIWH
fn enarca na-'nr u 1 f r 1 n 1 r a
u U W U U I W W ) .iUjWI I I U I I I I I U W ]
"linfinifa rara
\l\. /-0Q M f r 1 n i f a
ft n n r *
i :R
l i n r i m r a r a r a n a r v n r a n n a " n h r n u n -
i i p u i n i u w I U I W ) u u t r v ^ 1 w . 1 3 w - w u i w n i i ,
n wr *- f a snnnrJanf ~ n nnmmnn
w y 1 I U W U U U I I U U H U u W W W III HI Wlli
% h a 1 a rinm a h n n h a n r
W I I U I W ) W W Ml U U U I I U U H U ]
p
-0 i -0*
A - L f w - U ,
>/\r-
'U-Of;
-nmmnn -n e n a r c a * : 1 n f n h a f r 1 n 1 f a
J W III III Wll U W W U W l w w , I J U U W U W U I I H I U W ]
rnnrinifo nnmmnn nranna -n Aorv
J u w 1 111 1 u w w u u i 111 w l l ) w 1 u H 3 w w w w u i n
1 i f nman enarca /(
. 1 uumun wuuiww) j <
1 nu o w r U a
1 W ft , M > I I U W
tfRrr Mkvv . TUT,';
SAHPLS DEPTH PORKATIOJI n c c r o r o T r o u
5 0 A" 3 **
iijj U.i ft * ! ? i fl 1 4 Ifl ^ftft 1 \ n , I (--.1-ftftft \ r n f i n n f n n n -ft ft I M i ' - O ,
~ '> t l U U A W . UUAIIt U l U T ijv W U U l / d l l U U U U U u / w ' U U U w W W U W i . - W U A \ ' " '-> A ]
i" - 1 ft T - 1 i n h n n / i n n f ,-i ft m M f - 0 h l" - ,(
J - 1 J ) i - U | | C A U U U U t t i i W U U U I \ I - U U | U - T )
'-I I -aft
L - l / , iBCA,
fiftr-T-ftifi f i ni fft ftftiin/lftwf
U W w L ml I L U A Ail L O W ) CAWU UUttll W
fftlftirifwinifft* ,-. ft r n ft ft r> n A I ft fft fini fft
I / U 1 U I A U L i U l t w . WWIU.IUU U J W W j . W L U U L W i . U W I
nAwfft/lftf-ftl ft 1 fft '
11 W L U W U W U L A i l A U W ,
n. r\ii r\Anr.t~ rtnA m n I f n rrn I I A t.r i- A ft r>-. n rt r.
H U U U U U U U O W U L All I U W y J U i l U B U W U L ( A u < w
i c i >\ i f A r r n l l /
- J L .1 I U w j J w i. J. i
l i n i - f t r t f t t - w n n i f f t rr/\ I I rtM fft
w I l t / W W U W W A L U I W W ) J U 1 1 U N U U
fthiinrJftTif hi tiiniflfl rfnifinmli
' i U W U U U I I w ml L WUUI.W 11) g L W W i l A u U
ITrt 1 ! flf.l fft TT ft I ! ft t
J W J . A W I T U W ' 1 1 1 U I
JISS^ 401.404 Vi.^-r. Pi fl 1S 11 f i Sct'i rr-f ,. *! M'-fll f - T f
L . V V U V t u w T U T I . U U 1 U U.lill V . W U U W V. W th X / J t J. V O V W 1. W j W W ut J. p ' U I , LJ - 1 W ,
--11. .k....i (V.-R T-1 r-i I.
. * ) | 'ii/Jllwliilv >* W til \ l - v W ) U * * U ) L - l / j
n A ; A * fft fthtift/tftnr irtfrifirn fin ni f n '
iilUj'Jl U W U U U H U U I I U U V . W J . U l L I / U U l l i U j
*ft lA ft* A 1 /
L C A A W Q W L U
n i r t r n / l / i |
,
i i i i f
,
A t ihiiTrtfti>f n n r t w i n i f f t
LI1W L U W U W U i . L l l A U W ) 'AW U u w U ii U w i r W L L U A U W i
nn I l ft ci fthitn/Jftnr I i r\f fifirtr' riini ffi
; u L. j. w * 1 i w w i i w t i u i , A A W U U U W W L J L I I A U W )
nftiiftcr frt ftf*ftn/fft* ftftmmftn Af i m rn
J U L A W W U W U L u i i d U ) W W U I I H W U W U W J . 1 1 1 U W ]
QT\ *. r-nn ftftninifn
J U U, L O w L W J L H A U W ]
1 fill I 1 ffrtl IrtU
- j U U A 1 J U I I U R
hi f nrirtri Kni.U
U A UUlUwll ) U A L g L
Tfti 1/ir.l -ft r
;*-Ai.ui . w JI.
."/ '
0 0 C 2 Q Q Q _ ? i f l n ii't. Dniftftii-ftf A 1 0 Ifl ; U U i n n M i . . / ) M \ - i H i - r / w i n . 4 l m n r i
U V 1/ W W J W W -J u i~.Lt. U V i l U A U W 'J I XI U U U J I I U l W J U U U tl W U U U / w L l l / i l W U U U 1 (AUUJ1U
w W. U
7\r \r nr-KM r -/a r-ii. M .A
l ' U / L ^ F - w U ) U - T U ) L " L J , 1UU.JWL
Tft T A ! n n f f 1 1 ffi 1 T r 11 r ft *i n r
L U L U U l U i - W i l U W V . 1 A u U W w U n W
Iinfftf1ftfiftit-ft ftf*ftftrfft fft f4fttir
L L I U W U U U U t A l l A U W ) J i a n t w W W w U. L ;i
ftWftnrfft' ftftmntiftiri iMif 1 n 1 fn A ^ ft n rf n
W L U l l g W ) wWIKUIW 11 W U U A 1 1 A U W ) Ulllllijvi
ft fl/fn t*fi i4ftTlr
. Ullg W W W W U A .1
n \sn n rfft '
U A u n i , w t
1 W L L U ]
Hn..,.
J W i J W . ,
r*ftift t 1 n/ M n 1 i"/!
L U A W L L U W A A H A U W I
ki f inrifi ^ftuwnftftf
jLvuiin.ii a u u n u u i i w |
r-riftTtftft ft-mi-^
O p U l w v |/j 1 1 U W
'.W.'l.U
V L X 6 . . V
n i C O f l OflO 0 fl fl Kin Onftfttfftf fl .tfl 0 0 CMfrrr-ftftftvftftftrln-ftnftSnUftlft.
l i u u w u jijli-r/jj A l l uwiitt-Kuw u . 4 w u u O U W O U U 1 I V - O t t U U u w w u w . a i i u i u ,
wW U U U 11
Arm '.I\t\T IV-ml r = t Q
u w i u j r ' u f i. | i " ' f U ) U " i u |
-ft r - n f t f ^ n .inf ft,r,'f ,; -.' f ft
, w w U U A w W U W U L W V L U A A 1 L L U W )
. U All A U W , WWIMIUW 1.
|,'nrn^|.n;n,'fA ft ntft n /f A i n r n r < f < r T i i n i r n ft TJ m /f ift rnftT*rft
U y v U U U u L L l U W U ) W L U U g W ) CJ W Ci A J W
niM ftftftftffft
1
T.*Hf1 fTlfl 111 n 1 r n
1 I A U W ) W L U U Q W ) L U L W J U W A L H L U W )
rf/i fft rtnnlr 'Ajnilt' nnftunft rn nftftft
b W U W U U 1 A W A U l l g W , J U U I J U U W 1 U 1 . W
i ?ft TA rf ft r !
/ L U l i f l W U ^
f l n A i t i r t i f f t h i i ' , f h f r i n l l / -
L l U U l . l i l . l - U I U L L l i U U J W L L - w
kifnpuftft ft*
U A U U H l W i i l W l
oc:r\
.'TV ,
, -** r a n a 1
. - Wl U W W f .
rara * n ha r r
: n o r f i i
I I I W I U 1 1
<a t 1 n u
; u i i w II
*! r a n n a
Wl UIIJW
n r a n n o
w. uiigw
.; o 1 i nu
;wi wn
.<a 1 1 n u
; w i i wn
n f fl- n n m m n n i n f n n a f r i n i f a
I I U W ) WW ill 111 Wll i l U U W U W U I IIIIUW)
- n n r a n n a * e n a r c a r n n r i n * r a
UW UI UII
U
U| w u u i w w w u wi IIIIUW
ra r o r
1 r U 1 W 1 '
' e n a r c o
, W UUI w w
e n o r c a
, WUUIWW
- e n a r c a
, U U U I W W
a c i n i f a n r a n n o ~ n n
' U l l l l U W ) w i ull 3 W ww w>
f l i i n r i n i f o h r i n n f
i 1 U W I rill UW f U 1 3 " U
h i f n m o n h r ** nnr
u i UUIIIWH ) u i 3 11 u
n w r i f a
U/l 1 u w .
r.r.i n d
-in* ')\l S T :'I/-0B i - 1 T - * r
U W I I I ) I / W A I I - W U J W " L ) A - U I
enarca riafrnwifrinifa* rara
W U U I W W W W U l W I W I I III U U . I U I W
ra ra
n r a n n o fn nari/ n r a n n o '
ui *. 11 3 w u u u u i n wi uii*jW)
l i n f n h o f n n i f a
I I U U U U W UI I II * W W .
nnmmnn nun fa
v w nun w n w j i I u w .
?"t.w>J ffl 19 1
U U U I I
-*n
. - I u ,
i n f n n a f
I I M U U U W w
u l a N C S r i r i f f n n a
1
4 I U / U U I I U U U U I I U |
-0 1* ahnnAonr A
~ f. I j U U U H U U I I U u
a 1 n r fn ahnnhan
i J U l U U U U U I I U U I I
hrinifa- nnmmnn
UI I I I I U W ) W WIIIIIIWII
en Iarnf i n i r a "
J W I W l W U I ll I u w , w
af r i n i f a ena re
w w l I I I I U W ) W U U I W
f fn nnmmnn enn
U U W WWIIIIIIWII w u w
nranna * a hnnha
U I U l l - U , u U U I I W U
nnifa nranna
I I I I I U W ) W I U I i g w
nnmmnn rae i n i f
-I w min w II i W W I ll I U
>narea avnhofin
J pu i w w w n w u u u i i i
rara enharinif
I U I W U U U W I I I I I U
- hifnmon wa11
I W I U U I I I W H ) I W l I
nhnnrtanf nil rl
U W U I I U U I I U U I I u
-nal M/-:il
U W U I I. I - w u )
nm .'W-0n
u m \ i - w u j
-0
a eami
r i n i f c
t r a*
I U W )
nronr
, Wl u n ;
WW
a
- i
i r o
1 WW
a
" I
cu
n a r v
UUI fl
n r a n n a f n
U 1 Ull 3 W UW
hn
. *" '
H a ri/
uui n
n h f
311 u
n r a n n a
UI Ull JJW ,
rn h r i n h f
J w ui i 3 11 u
r n n c </Q
I w u w ) ; w
1 ! nu -
. . wn ,
rnmmnn nwr1 fa
WWIIIIIIWII v> J I I W W
I K w K ' I I S .
. W U U W ll_wU
n n j*
' 1/ a r In C a n n e f n n a ' i e i T ^ c ^ n n a S e h a l a * a h n n r
U U I I W W U U I I W / U I I W U U U H U I U I I U I U | U U U I I w
Anm '/MS T .
!
7-0fl ! -0 *-*-ranal-
UUUI ' / U / A . l*JU| U " w ) A UIUUW/]
nroma enarca n 11 r 1 n 1 r a nor
1
; irinrw:
w 1 u 11 3 w T w w u i w w W U U I H I U W ) w u i r \ w 1 uit 3 u
rara racinifa Aorv nranna fn hrnun-
I U I W I W W . W I U W , U U I t\ U . U I i J U W W U I W I . l l ,
3 mi nnanf hifnman hrinhf nranna*
U U U H U U I I U U I U U H I W H ) UI ' 3 ll w U I U H 3 W )
nnmmnn nil rirnnc wallnu* nnmmnn
WUIIIIIIWII W l l U I U U W ) 1 W 1 I u n j WWIIIIIIWII
nwrifa
KM **
JOECS "alann Sit or
u I U I I < J n n u 1
O n a i N e a n h e f n n e S
W W U I / U U I I U U U U H W /
' -01 T-ifU * an
- - L l ) A - t W / , W U
! -< T-0 1 mai
W - I I , L - W , , H.UJ
Aar rnw i f r i ni f a
W W w i W I i U l I I I I U W
e nnr1m r
J U U I I I I I U
n n n -
un wu
nr "
"fta 1
W W U I
H n m !\l
U U "
I \l-i_
i_ I - W U |
-OK
- a 1 n\t i f r i r
a en 1ar
* , U W I Wl
jhnnhanf
1 U U I I U U I I .
W ) u
nra
ri a r i/ i r
W U I IV w '
a n n a * ahi
3 W ) U U K
nnmmnn
n fa
I I U W j wi
h i f 11 ma t
U I UUIIIWI
i r a n n a
UI U H J W
hn
ft,* 1
'-I A A
n h f
3<.u
l
1
If- a r *, C 1 * Q > h a r a \ r " a i \ e a n n e - n n o . a h n n n a n f
I', vi i J i w I - w W I I U I W I V W U I ' W U I I U W U W I I M I 4 U U H U U I I V
M/-01 -'
n m m n n * a i n w i f r * n i f a e n a r c a
WWIIIIIIWII U W I W I I U I III 1 W W . W U U I W W
' n o r r n n a r r i n i f a - r a r a ^n ' z m r
'. I I W L W W U W W l t l l l W W ) y n r a n n a
W W HI III W II mi w W 1 . 11 1 U w ) w u i " . w 1 U 11 3 w
rif'Hjn ""imiflp
:
*. nf n n c f r *. n i r a
W I W I I I I ) WWIIIIIIWII 1 W U W W W w/ 1 I I I I U W )
* n r a r a
J w . UI W
i m f a
, u l W W ,
~ n
J u
n r a n n a
wi U H 3 w
h n n a ri/ n r a n n o * r a r a niif i n i f a
U W U U I II w I U I i 3 W . > U I W W U W I H I U W t
nranna- rara rccimfa Aor'j nranna * n
W I w li 3 W , I U I W I W W I I I I U W ] W U I I A W I U H 3 W - W
hrnun* enarca hifnmon hrinnf nronna
-
w 1 w n 11 | w u u i w w w i u w m w i i j ui 3 11 w w i u n w u )
il 1 n u *
n 1/ r i f a
u; t 1 u w .
,(CC. . .. uTi "*a 1 a n n !l/cr fl ; 07 C h a l a
l
i e a n n e f n n o \ n n a i - m a i n r -n
T W W . T U U i U I U I I U r.tlUI W I U W k. I W I I U I W - W U I I U U U W H W ' W U U I ) 'MU J Wl u w
a hiinnarif
4 U U H U U I I U
n n a l Mi
u W U 1 [1
-1
3 h n n h a n f
U U U I I U U I I u
r a 1 n w 1 f r i
U W 1 W 1 1 UI 1
nnmmnn
UUIIIIMUil
n r a n n a
Wl Ull 3 W
e n n r i n i
W U U I l 11 1
r n
u u
'- n
i u
fa
uw
r a c i n i f a
1 W W 1 11 1 U W )
a hnnrianr
U U U I I U U I I U
ahnnrianf
U U U I I U U I I u
nnmmnn
UWIIIHIWH
A rnnc
U1 W W W )
n w r i f a
u j 1 1 U W 1
m
w 1
i/a
n n m (' U - E G
W W III | > " W ml ,
X i - O K T
T , W - U U , A
h a f P H I / i f r 1
U W U I W I 1 UI 1
n I f a r a r a
II 1 U W ) I U I W
a h n n n a n f
U U U I I U U I I u
! - < 1
L - f 1 ,
- f r a n a
" u 1 u u w
ni f a
II 1 W W ,
i n a r f
1 IIWi u
T - +* r a n a l
i " U I U W W ( |
\* m a i n r f n
1 . m u j w i u w
e n a r c a
U U U 1 W W
n h a r r i n i f a
1
W U W U I I I I I U W )
N n f n h a t r i n i f a
[ I U U W U W U I I I I I W W ]
Aorit nront-a' a h n n h a n f
U U I H UI U.I13W , U U U I I U U H U
n r a n n a f
) Wl W . H 3 W m,
n h r n u n * a h n n r i a n f
W Ul U R I I , U U U H U U I I U
Aorv n r a n n a " n
u u t n wi wi 1 3 w u u
* n nnmmnn
U W U WIIIUIWII
hi f n m a n w
ii 1 UUIIIWIl, j
1 n n f e w a
1 w U U W ) J w
n n f 1 n i
w u u 1 11 1
a 1 1 nu
w 1 1 w n
1 1 nu
i . w n ,
1 1 n u ahnnria n f f
1 1 w n ) U U U I I u u n u u
h r n u n
Ul Willi )
f a n r a n n o
u w wi u n 3 w ,
fn n r a n n a *
U W U 1 u 11 3 w ,
rnmmnn ni1
WWIIIIIIWII U 1 1
n nnmmnn
W WWIIIIIIWII
ir*ft r -. n ' f t l o n n ', L a r fl * 7 0 1 C h a l a \ c a n h e f n n o \ n n a i ' a h n n r i a n f rinm
l u i u ^ ' w u v ' l U I U I l Q n i ' u i W . w i U I WIIU I W / W U I I W W U W I I W / W W U I , U U U H U U I I U UWIII
M/-70 1 -0G T-*>ranfl. nno 1 M/-Q0
\ - I U ) W - W U ) J . - U I U W W J ) W W U l \ l " 4 t ]
; ..3
T
-*raroi mainr fn ahnnnanf
u - ' J j * - ui u u u y p :nuj ui u w u w u n w u n u
rlafrnwifrinifa' rara fatnuifrinife-
U U U I W f l U I I I I I U W , I U I W W W I W I I - I I I I I U W ,
rara fn harran . narf - ni f a shnnriani-
I U I W - W U U I I Wll 'IIWi U l l l l U W ) U U U H U U I I U
linrnhofrinifa wallnu * n harv
I I U U W W W U I I I I I U W ) y u 1 I U w W U U I -l
nranna* ahnnnanf - n f 1 n 1 f a nronnc.'
wi u i i g u , U U U H U U I I U W U U I H I U W J ui u n g u ,
nnmmnn ennrinifa nranna "n A\\\\
WWIIIIIIWII W W W I I I I I U W ) Ul U I I J W U W W U I 1
1 nranna- nnmmnn racinifa norv nranno*
Wl| U I I J W , WWIIIIIIWII I W W I I I I U W ) w u i 11 wi U 1 1 3 W ,
ahnnnanf hifnmon hrinhf /ol1nu fn
4 W U I I U U U U U I U U I I I V I I ) ui 1311U ) W I I W H ww
hrinhf nranna* nnmmnn nwrifa
ui 1311U U I U I I J W , u u m m u n u;i i u w .
" U u u n n u o
rEi-00
un i\i\
O O C U I l l f l - I O E 1 / I I A v O T U U U U l i , ! W U U I I, I " 1 | i . * L U | U * 1 T j j
n hii r> ft r f A t A tn f *A i i f A i A
( I W U U U U l i U U W , A U I J . U k l U A > U W U.11U
ififurtiiifninirri ' ftftmrtiAft ffl luni f in ni rn
U U W L W T L U L l l , I U W * W W U H K U l l - , W L U A U L A i i A v W
fifinmfl n i riAntfi/ifif ni ni rfl ' ft mi n A i n f fft
WUUIUtULl A U U A U U U U U L A 11 A W W j ' A U U 1 1 U U 1 I U U U
ftftumftft fflfj i TUP1 ni f;
wUlilliKJU J U U l L U J l l i l v l
r>AlfttAr'nifA n n/i 'nnirti M' fthunrtinf
J W A U * . U W L U A W U (A 11 U i v I G l l l l W U ) [ A U U U U U U U
I 1 Tvf'Tflftftil IM frt Tf A I i A t.T fft A * A *L ft ft '
L A U W W U W U L L H A U U ) J W 1 A W I * U U W A U l l g W f
t hn nnft n f nnATinifA IM I 1 ft t.r f n A n w Ir
l i U U H ' i U l i v w U W L A U A U W ) J U L A W * W U j v t H
ftTftAffft' A A ni* A n ftitf i in ffi A * A n n" A '
W A C A I l g W ) ^ U H U I W i i W U U I 11 I U W ) U L U U Jj I- j
fiflimri rmk/iTii n ffi TTAMAU f A A *. I*IT
J U O L J W d U W W L LIl A U U ) J U L A U K U W U U A Q
AT*ftnrfA fthnw/iftrif nflfiinif/i nntlAcr fn
W A U l l f i U T CAU w I1UU.11 U L U W L U 1 U W ) (r w A i w i u w
ftT*ftrtrfA nhnrx/iinf Vi i f um *. rtn/ifiiii nh
U l U U f c U , C 1 U U I J U U 1 I U U 1 W U I U U ll ) I L v w u i w i l
nr.ll nilft-.i* AftiiTvrtAftf n 1 A T T A n rt T M I T H f f
U A A W I t . ( l U U I I U U I I W W i t t ) U l l U U ^ L I U U
) 0 (J *I *: /(<!(} ( I E l/irftftft
n
n . n fl 0 3 Of) C k * I A\.fti H p f f t F t f t ^ f t w A n f f t n A * m ' A n f n
l i y C i O 7<)u T U U J l U U A U . Ltai.T* U . U W W W U l l U L U / J A A w w W U U W ' J t t U U C U W I I W [ m a j W A u w
fth.iftAftft*- AA-. Mr-;R r-i r
:
ni.
U U U U W U U W U U U j " V U f A - A J U - "T U / )
rkhiinAftrif .-IfirTifiiri rui ni f n e r\ i * f- A fn
U U U U U U i l l / W W U A W V L U L I I I L W W ) J U U A w W U W
i/mr/ifl/iriiini rf ftniirmATii- HA
I W L U W U U U L A U L U W ) U l f U l l U U I l U U U
n/Mnn \ . nrnilnf i n f A rtfl 1 i fi f A
WWIlilMUU A A V U W U U u L All A U U ) J W A 1 W * U U
ftwnn/tA* firtrifln tiifi ni rn AHftWrtft'
W L UltS) U ) V W H H U I I U U V l i l l ' U V ) 'JLttliijW,
r- r> ft n n A TAninifA A * ft n A
1
n t-ft A ft T i/
J U 'J. L J w L U W A U A U w ) U L U U Q W U W 'Jttia
C*\n " \ A I _. Cftftn'rfftt- fl 0 Q Ofl Ckft^ft\nilr-ftrAT*A\nftnr'rt-Arl .-i'
buwOwi/ ALT bCiukal J. ww -/u wuaiuf o n u S u w u w / c uaiua vw;.w ,
4A- MN-70 r-4 r-on* I.I'M fn
UUIIft l - ' U | * " " ) W - W T j , lULhJUL w U
* h>'
rt
* "f i if wftf'i f TI n i f" ft TP.rtfnA f n
U i U U U U U l l W U w u L U ' L U L A U l U W * J f t t l J U U U
r > r A A A f f 1 * A l f A A A Mrs A A T A
. U W U W U L l l L A U W i '- w nl.a u 11 U U
' 1 * f ft ft 1* ft 11 ft A "A .4 ft t i(
1 1 U U ) UlUlliVv. W W JUL.."!
ftTArini-lft* pTftftUnn f i T \ M , i f * i ft * A *yrt A * ft
U L U l i r i W ) G W U A w U J W U L A U A U W ) W L U11 g W U W
Aniftir ft * ft * rf A nniurm ft 11 f i ri i *- ft ft J n J* <*
UttlfY U L U l l f j U , 3 WttA J U w U W 1111 W W ) ULUrilfjI.
ft wi ,f h f
W l l f j I I U
riA 1 1 AM ' ,->TVft**AA Ail Ait f r ftT*Tf*hf-
/ U A A W ) J J / U A t a w U A l W U U J ) U l L l j i l W
lifil ! f i u ' A A r m A n ^ T T H i-fl
/ w L l U , WW1MIIIWU f/J t *wlw<
23S1? 743-750 Air Benakat 0.23 25 Saridstonc>siltstsr.c>carbor.atc;
abur.aaat des (V-s?, [=1, L=I2j;
abundant ts CCKOI. actrovitrir.itc;
f. o r> ft TftATlfftAAf
J U W U L A l l A U U , WWlll IUW 11
liptodetrinite, orange ta dark
Cut/iuLwC) erar.jCi
sporinite, dark orange; ccaso-
r. ;i-.,r.n UrJii.t' 7r!Ia*i". coisso"
L v w u t w . l j U k l f t n v ^ ^ J . A W r , ww.uu.wt.
I"""
2261S 948-350 Air 3enakat 0,*! 35 SancatonOshalc/siitstGac; abur
des <V= 72, r=5, L=33!; sajor tc
acuncanc iecrovicrinice; spars;
rora i narrnAar r i ni ra* nnmmnn
i u i w i n w l u w w w u i I I I I U V ) w w H i til w n
linfnrJofrinifa nranna rn Aorv
I I U W W W W U l I I I I U w [ W I U H J W U W U U I A
nranna* enarca racinifa nranna* rara
w i w, 11 3 w , w u u i w w i w d i n i u w ) W I U I I U W ) I U I W
nnfinifa anrJ ennrinifa nranna-
U U U I I I I U W U U U W U U I I I I I U W ) W I .* i I > w ,
nnmmnn fn enarca Kifnman hrinhf
WWIIIIIIWII u w w u u i w w u i w u i i i w i i ) wi i 3 n w
i/al 1 nu nnmmnn ni/ri ra
; w i i w n , uwiiiHiwn U j T l l u w i
01R10 QftO-QKi ri n m a i fl VQ 1K Cha 1 a\/arhnnafa* ahnnrianf Anm M/-QK
U U U I U U U W U W f W U U I U I w , T W I U U H U I W / U U I U U I I U U U ) U U U I I U U H U U U U I \ I " U U |
T-1 fl I - 1 * mainr fn ahnnrianf
A - I W j w - w i - , W l U J U l U W U U U I I U U H U
rfaf rnwifrinifa' nnmmnn
U W U I W l I U I I I I I U W , w U U I III W I I
ina.rfnn'afriniifa' enarca mi/*rinifa-
I IIWi U W U W U l III! W W ) W U U I W W 'IIIWI I I I I U W )
nnmmnn 1infnHafrinifa nronna* enarca
WWHI/IIWHI I I L j U U U W U I J I I I W W j w | u I I J W , W U U I W W
fn rora ennrinifa nranna* rara
U U I U I W W U U I III I U W ) Wl ull 3 w T I U I W
nnfinifa nronna fn Airit nronna*
w u u i n i u w ) u i u 11 3 w u w W U I IV w i u 11 3 w ,
enarco hifnmon yollnw- nnmmnn
w w u i u w w i uwiii wi i ) J u l i w n , W W I I I H I W I I
ptur i ra
u ; i u w .
22520 lltQ-1112 S li !B
a
i n C0 P, Chala\narhnn*fa\ei]fefnno* nnmmnn
L w w I. w I I I V I I I (. W W III U I U , w i. u w i i u i w / w u l u w i i u u w / w l l u w u w i i W ) WWIIIIIIWII
rlnm fV-flfl T- 1 0 I-01- nnmmnn
W U U I \ I - U U ( i - i W j w - t - / , WWIIIIIIWII
rfaf rnui fri ni fa ahnnrianf rn nnmmnn
W W U I W V I Ui (III W W ) U U U I I U U H U U W WUIIIIIIWII
.narrnAarrini f a cnorea minrinifa*
IIIUI U U U U U l I I I I U W ) W U U I W W III I U I I I I I U W )
enarca Tinfnriafrinifo nranno r n Air it
wwui w w I I U U W W W U I f n i w w j wi un 3 w uw wui n
nronna nnmmnn nuri fa
wi uiigw, WWUIHIWM M/I I ww
2352! f 2 74 T 2 76 SStUraia Q
C
3
ff
f imaefnno\ehala\eann
,
efnna- enarca fn
L W U w l l l_ I T I k l U U U U U t U J U W . w w U W I ( I I W W U W I I W / W I I U I W / W U I I U W U W I I W ) W U U I W W u w
rora Anm /U-flO T-M- l-franal-
I U I W UWIII v - W W ) A - I I | W - U I U W W / I
enarca rn raro rlaf rm/i f r i ni f a* rara
W U U I W W W W I U I W U W U I W l I U I M I I U W . I U I W
i narf nrlaf r i ni f a frana rn harran
lilWI U U U U U l I I I I W W , U I U W W U W U U I I W I I
linfinifa* nnmmnn nwrifa
I I U U I II 1 U W , WWIIIIIIWII U J I I U W i
22522 1232-1334- Tala.lS Ak2.
r
0 52 2! Pirr.r.n.iraSecinriefr.ria. jrlnnnanr rlnn
> mi v i i. ; w W L I w W T I U ( U H > | flAUi W W W W l W U I U U I I U U U I U U I I U U U U I I W ) U U U H U U I I U UWIII
fl/:0fl T-1 1-11. ihiinrlonr
', ' * w U j * ' I * " W j U U U I I U U H U
rJof rnv/i f r i ni f a enarco fn rara
U U U I U l I U I I I I I U W ) W U U I W W U W I U I W
inarfnrlafrinifa* enarca
IIIWI U U U U U l I I I I U W , W U U I W W
? i nf nAar r i ni r a nranno fn Airit
I I W U W U W U l I I I I U W ) Ul U I I J W U W W U l n
nranna nnmmnn nurifa
Wi W I I J U , UWUIIIIUH U J I I U W
22522 1773-1730 TalariS Akar 0 55 2' Cr,*la\c.c>r,rlerr,.,aSr..>rr,r,rir
0
\r.Al.
h u w i v u i I i W I I U U I U I Ull 3 flhUI U t w U U U U H U I W ' U U I I W W U W I I W / W U I U W I I U W W r - W W U I ]
nnmmnn rJnm f V * *3 7 T-frano 1-111'
w win nt w 11 w w u i \ i ~ w i , A - W I U W W ) w - I u / ,
enarca nnal /V/-Q*J 7 -Q* I - f G " .
W U U I W W W W U I v I - w u , l - ( - t W I W / |
ahnnnanf riof rnwi f r i ni f a enarca
U U U I I U U H U W W U l U l I U I I I I I U W ) W U U l w w
ffilfiVl tr\ Hi
r
? '
r
3
r
-"n harran
U W I U I I U I I I I I W W ) I U I W U W W U I I Wll
i J\9'f
T r
ii^
aTr
i i t*Q enarca fn rara
U l U I U U U U U l I I I I U W ) W U U I W W U W I U I W
1 1 nf P.Hpf T,
n
'f
Q
Airit nranna fn
I I U U W W W U I I I I I U W ] U U I IV W I Ull 3 w U W
brnwn* rar? rp*?*ff'^ kmyn* rara
U I Wlfil , I U l W i W U I II I U W | Ul Willi, I U I W
^nnrinit'P* Aorit nranna rn hrnwn*
u p u i i 11 i u w T u u i ii w i u 11 3 w u w ui W I I I I ,
nnmmnn nuri fa
W WlltlllWII Ujl | | U w I
22524 ia04-!S05 Talang Akar 0.58 20 Coal>Shale>car!sonate; abundant caal
fV-97 I-! I;
1
)'- f-omwnn rlnn fU-Ofl
i, r u j ) A i | m," t. i u u m in ult u u u i \ i - J u )
1-3' Ll71 "SIT fn ahnnrianf
A u, u-iyj ma j w i uu wuwnwuii u
tslOVltrini
ra
* ahnnHanf
u w i w f i Wi i i i i u w ) U U U H U U I I U
dfiuTCVi trifll *"
a
* nnmmnn enlarnfinifa*
U W U I W l I U I I I I I U W , UWIIIHIWH W W I W I W W I I I I W W )
sporinite, dark orange ts drown;
sparse resinite, orange to dark
nranna* nnmmnn r n enarca
Wl u I I 3 W , WWIIIIIIWII U W U U U I W W
I i nf nriaf r i n i f a nranno rn hrnun-
, I M U U U W U I I . I I U W ) w i u i i g w u w u i w n i i ,
nnmmnn nu r i fa
WWIIIIIIWII w / I I U W I
22525 !8!5-lS!8 Talaris Akar 0 75 20 Caal}sh3ls)'
,
'"
,,,nn
"-=- "ir"- ''
m. w v i. w I W I W I W I W i u i ui i 3 n r \ u i w . i w u u u u u i r U I I U l u / u u i u u i i u u u i I I I U J U I u u u i
"V-8! 1:5 I 1 A 1 - .himrt.nf Anm
\ i ** w i j i " U | w. - i t ; , U U U H U U I I U u u u i
M/-^Q 7-1 l-Knl' mainr fn ahnnrianf
l l " T U | i * l | U ~ W W / , IIIUJUI U W U U U H U U I I U
riafrnwifrinifa anri folnyifrinifo-
U W U I W l IUI I I I I U W UIIU U W I U I I U I I I I I U W ]
nnmmnn fn enarca i narf nriof ri ni f a anH
W W III Ml Wll U W W U U I W W IIIWI U U U U U l llll U W UIIU
. ,ra- enarca eamifneinifa*
W U I W I W U I I l l U W ) W U U I W W UWIII I I U W I II I U W j
en 1arnf i ni fa
W W I W l U U U I I U W )
ahnnrianf linfnrlafrinifa nronna rn
U U U I I U U H U I I M U W U W U I I I I I U W ) Wl U I I 3 W U W
hrnun * nnmmnn racinifa rlarlr nranna
ui w m i , w uiiiiiiw 11 I W W I I I I U W , u u i n w i u n 3 w
rn hrnun* enarca ennrinifa anH
u w u 1 u n 11 , W U U I W W w p w i I I I I U W U H U
nnfinifa Airit nranna fn hrnwn
U U U I ll I U W ) u u 1 n w 1 w 11 3 w u w ui wtin ,
22526 1S40-1S42 Talang Akar 0.17 25 ShaIe>carhcnate>ccaI)saRdstane;
nnmmnn Anm M/-07 T-frana I -"J 1
WWIIIIIIWII UWIII \ i - j i , A - U I U W W ) W - w i |
nnmmnn nnal (W-7C T-9 \-
/
)
l
i)> nnmmnn
UWIIIHIWH U W U I \ > * I W ; . - L , W ~ W w I , wWniuiW I I
Wafrnwifrinifa in rJnm * nnmmnn
U W U I U l IUI I I I I U W III W Will , W UIIIIIIW II
falnwifrinifa in nnal* enarna fn rara
U W 1 W I I U I I U I U W 1 U W W U 1 ) W U U I W W U W I Ul w
inorfnriafrinifo* raro en 1afnf i ni fa
I II W> I U U U U U l I I I I U W ) I W I W W W I W I W W I I I I U W ,
rnmmnn 1 i nf nHaf r i n i f a nranno rn riarlf
W W III IUW I I l i p U W W W U I M i l U W i Wl till J W U W U U I ft
nranno* enarco rn rara racinifa Hart/
w f U H J W , w u u i w w u w i ui w i w w I H i u w f u u i n
nronna rn hrnun- raro ennrinifa Wart*
wi w 11 3 w u w w i w n 11 , i u i w w w u i in i U U ) u u i
9 9 ft-JO OflflQ-Oflin I a h a f n 7Q 01 ChalaVnnal* ahnnnanf n'nm M/ân . T;1
L w W u W (.WWW w. w I w L. U II U U W ' W L. I U I I U I W / W W W I ) U U U H U U I I U U U U I \ I " U U j A l ]
I -Q ) mainr fn ahnnrianf nnal \/\ I "I T
\. ~ -J I , UIUJ Wl U W U U U I I U U H U U U U I ) l / W / A
/V-C1R T-0 1-111 mainr fn ahnnrtanf
i, < - U w , A * * U ) L ~ i W / , UIUJ Ul U W U U U I I U U H U
rlafrn wifrinifa* nnmmnn fain wifrinifa*
U W U I W I I U I I I I I U W ) WWIIIIIIWII u w i w r i u i I I I I U W )
rara i narfinifa* nnmmnn fn enarco
I U I W IIIWI U l l l l U W ) WWIIIIIIWII u w w u u i w w
ennrinifa Air it nronria r n hrnun-
w u w i I I I I U W ) w u i r. w i w n 3 w u w u i w n i i )
nnmmnn fn onirca racinifa Airit
UWIIIHIWH U W W U U I W W I W W I I I I U W ) Ulil II
nranna* rara nnfinifa Harlf nranna-
w i u 11 3 w , I U I W U U U I I I I U W ) u u i ft w i u 11 3 w ,
nnmmnn linfnriafrinifp nf anna f n fjarif
w wui ill wii i I u u w w w w i I M I U W ) w i u n 3 w U W U U l A
orange,
22522 2070-2072 Lahat 0.78 22 Coal'shale; abundant coal (V=32; 1=3;
l-Cl* ahnnrianf fn nnmmnn rtnm (U-f*'J*
L - w / ) U U U I I U U I I w U W WWIIIUIWII u w m v I - w w ,
[-IP,* 1-001* ahnni-Janf Hafrnwifrinifa
1 - l U , W W W / ) U U U l l w U H U U W U I W I I U I llll U W )
rnmmmnn f al mi i f r i ni f a enarca
WWiiulllllWII U W I U I I U I llll U W ) W U U I W W
rnmmmnn f al mi i f r i ni f a enarca fn TSfS
WWiiulllllWII U W I U I I U I III I U W ] W U U I W W U U I U I W
inorfnriafrinifo* enarca enlarnfinifa-
I l l C l U W W W U I I I I I U W ) W U U I W W W W I W I W U l l l l U W ,
rnmmnn ennrinifa Hark nranna *
WWIIIIIIWII w u w i I I I I W W , W U I ft U l w n - w t
enarca nnfinifa Airit nranna* enarca
S p u l w w w U u I II I U W ) u u i I* Ul U l l - w , w p u i u w
racinifa Aor\t nranna fn hrnun*
I W W I I I I U W , W U I M Wl W U I J W U W W I wrtn ,
abundant to cor.scn oil h3zes, bright
yellow.
2158-2170 Lahat 0.81 23 Sh3le)carbanats)sandstcne; sparse don
MI-GO T-frflra l-TlM' rnmmnn
[v-oa, i-irace, L-WW/, .i
detrovitrinite; rare inertinite;
en.reci fn r_r_ !jny222."i&ItS, dark
W U U I W W U W I U I W llf/fwtwww-'t - i
orange to brown; rare sporinite, dark
nra nna fn
w i w 11 3 w w w
hri nhf nranna-
mm I I 311 U W l U I I J W ,
nun* enarc
wn 11 t uuui w
rca hi fnman
rara racinifa Aor'u
I U I W I W W I I I I U W ) W U I "
TK-31
"JOOJ-OOO-G
n an it Cha 1 a\omAar nna enarca fn rara nnm
SJ.iJj*; }> UIIUIW/WUIIWWWWIIW) WUUI WW UW IUIW UWIII
fU-OO T-fi7 1-111* nnmmnn rn enarca
[ i - u , i-u / , L - * l > ) WWUIHIWII WW W U U I W W
rlafrn wifrinifa* nnmmnn
U W WlI U I' I Ul I I I I U W ) WWIIIIIIWII
inarfnrJafrinifa* raro linfnriafrinifo-
IIIUI U U U U U l I I I I U W , I U I W I I W U W W W U I I I I I U W ]
Airit nranna fn hrnun* ahitnWanf
U U I U Wl U I I 3 W U W Ul Willi) U U U I I U U H U
n u r i f a
W / I I u w
111 .-llll n . r fl Q1 10
m U I IU
Sandstone>sh3!e>carbonate; sparse das-
(V=91, 1=9, L=trac9); cession to
An*3iAft A&t rn wifrinifa* rnmmnn fn
S p 3 i w w u S l i i u i I Ul I I I I U W , WWIIIIIIWII W W
sparse inertodetrinite; rare to
barren liptinite; abundant to ccmracn
nwrifa
UJ l l uw
tfRr r U A U P . ar.o
u u u u n u u . u u u
if n L i u
ful
1"/
lb iM.C-.--m. H
i w . : r. :i ft 11 ' o
J I 1 ( . . U ' O t* Ji w J . .: - I-L .. J w
J U U L w <~ j, L W
.HIAUW, j.
A L W W U W A U A
I ! 1 A W rt* /,
.* A w n ) L u i w
r n A n t n i f A rr^ , | ^ j,r I-A A T> nrf A * \ r
w W W L A l . L W W ) JWilWII WW UtuVUJW , LUA
hi f TI n A r* IT A I 'ntrinn ,f n A A n r rt nrr/i
U A U U 111 w U *. J W ^ i W I L w l . 1 i - w w i l ] w W I A A O W
0 1 0 Q 7
w 4 LU CA
Jini/ir'tfinfi\ni if fii-Aiifi'' nluilrt ,- n i * A A
J U I l U j U U l l W / J A A U w U W U W ' wll CLAW) JWCALtJW
-1AM tf\r-. r /INK
1
r-on
r
-ii!. n-nr.Ao
j w m i * / L / u v ' - 'J ' * A - U U ) W - A U / , JJlUiJW
*.A"A ^ -i A *i ** ir ni"inifrt' A* A
L i_ w. W W W U L A W A U l i g W t I U I W
J U W L *. il
rti'f I I I A B Ur-irfrtf rt/
JlWUIJUll) U A A Q H U I
r> A */! HI A r
9-J00Q 1 0 0 3 . ' 1.1,1 fl !
U V U U W l U w W i 1 U U U J
Cfui I fl\finTthfinfl ("fl i A > i n A *> n I- A A A ft A ri
U U U A W ' W U A u W l I C A U W ) ' A U U 1 1 U U 1 1 U U W WULUIUU 11
UU1U) l/w/A |I'!U) U-IU) L-7/1
i KiiFi/iinf f A /* A m m A n ^rnin i-M ni rrr
L A W U l i U U l l U U U wUUIIUUii U W U A U I L U L L i i A U W ,
iilLW^ L J I l U W t L U U J U U
nn/inrtfi rt n f n ' f A t T* n n .-* A '
J U U L J W W l i U L i U C W j W l l t l l J U )
-..I 5 - , : u i i
UU W .. Ll I i. J. W
1 ; ,
M Q Q , * *) n P,
? k i Ift'iftf. ith/Dirtr^ > .' * * rJ | - - 1 /
1 ft-A
U L W
W W U
i n r /i
U L W W
j
LIH.
w w t
:
L
t-
n
L
i
1 A U W ) W U W H 1 L U W )
\ 1 f- KrlA n fl <*A
U U U I I W H I U L -- I
1 ,-r.
f ;
1 CI
C / i , l f f n r u i \ f > i n ' r /
,
i / v f . i
l
(- A t n r A /J *t m
J O I I U w U U l l W ' W U L U W H C l U W f O w U L w w w u i a i
XT\T V r / ''-00 *" - ! r*r,AM ! * .inr, lfA
* / U / A \ - - w U ) J - l ) A - U 1 U W W I , - W l i L w W
f4/irn' riTMIIirtrl f-A wrt n 4Af"AU
,
f**
,
-l
r
<
1
**>'
uwiil | O y C A L O U U W i-OAW U W . I W I L W l L l l U U ,
ILAt" UW UlillWil _UU L LIl A UU , LttAU
1 inh'nTn
1
mi im i i * i
L L U W l l l l u W ) L U A W U L U l
n/imrifin inni TA
W WlUUlW 11 -J J L A U W '
1 0 0 0 1 ' j"> f;.: I 1 1
ll \Jm 1 T 1 W
0.55 2! Carbonatcfsaridstwiic; csaner, t;
., Ar-. \i\i-.T M/.OO f-i
: I / U I . J W luiiit r/u/L ^ I w w ) IJ 1)
r-^n/IAI ' * A rt fl" 1*1 A r
L.-OACAWWI f WW..IU1WI
,i/tf ttfl-fi r*.i i>iffi'
U W U L W t L W A L J I L U W ,
i rt A n i" i ri < } A ' f-rtrr
i l w U L wl W
L U A W w W Will
."'.ml
.mil
.nnnara\cna . Q'^c'-3rT/ier/-.rtc3 *
inm \I\T\\ M/-0 7
W W III , . . W W \ \ ' . I
'-I
-w I
I \ ' rnmmnn
. j , WW...IIIWI.
to sparse cstrovitr'n'te; sparse
inertoceirmiwe; rare iipwoaetr*nits,
oranqe cc brown.
i..aa
Crioll.i rnl\ '.,'\ T \ I ''/-'31
j'iul i; w w u i , w x . u \ . - u . ,
ma i rtr
UIUJ wi
rnwiunn -o i/twi r r: riirg. C2U3.0
WWIIIIIIWII u W I W I I U I IIIIWW, wWU.lt.w
n *
enarca :onntnc 1 H T HS * Cuulmw
WUUI WW WWUI < I UU III I UWj W WMIII1W
ennrinifa
n
S?.t\2Q tO w2TK
J L J W I I I I I U W J w i u n g w u w u u i
enarca racinifa Airy. Orsr,
W U U I W W I W W I I I I U W ) UUI I' Ul Ull
hrnun* nnmmnn
U I Willi, UWIIIHIWH
rn Airif nranna*
UW uui tv Jl Ull-W,
cnarea nwri fa
WUUI WW Uj I I WW i
i nf nnaf n n i
k U U U U U U l i u I
rara nirnman
> nna -
*n3 w,
JIIC
' a 1 a n n Alcar fl
i u i UII 3 n n u i w .
rt
nal\Can/iefnna'\ehaia nnal ' V Z '^ /
uwu! / wutiwwuwiiw/ unu i w , uwu i v * "u j
I .} T--* ' , nnm ahnnnanf fn f,2!HiTiGn
L-i. I i- I y ) UWIII U U U H U U I I U UW UWIIIHIWH
; 1/-0Q ! ;1
V
,
"-
1
-' I " ' I
*M mainr * n ahnnnar
- i ] , ,?!2Jwi uw uuunwui.
detrcvitrinita; cc-Tunon t e i c v i t n m
sparse gelovitrinite; sparse
ses.fusinite, sceierctinite,
rnmmnn fn "narea
WWIIIIIIWII UW WUUI WW
1 i nfnrtaf r i ni f a
I I p U U W W UI Mil UW |
orange; cession sporinite, dark era
to brown; rare resinite, dark orar
rare bitusen, yellow to orange;
i-nmmnn nw r i r a
w w m m w u w; i i u w
:C7
T
a1 a nn
i u i u n 3
' 1/ a r
il ll U I
:z
i_-i
rlaf
rn
11 a Urit ' \canncf nna aniinrianr Anm
| I V / W W U i / WU..WW WW..W , WWW..WUUW WWII.
00 |-< :-*-r-moi. m] f VZ"3S
ju, L - . , . - w . w w w j , w w u i l i - J |
T-1\- tifliftr *-n ahnnnanf
, i- . / , n m j v . uw U U U H U U I I U
rr.Mifrtr.ira- rora earn] f MC 1 n i ra
I W . . W . IIIIWW, I U I W WW....IWWII..WW,
irnfinira inn 'norfnêrrinira
. . W W . I. .ww ut.w I . I W I W W W W W I I I . ' U W ,
rca rn rara ennr i ni _ a fory Q,
r
_nna
WW uw I U I W wwwi IIIIWW, uui i\ WIUIIJJW
hrnun' rara racinifa rja f j/ 3 ,
r
J. ring;
w i w n n , i u i w I W W I I . I U W , J I '. w. ut.jjw ,
mmnn n\t r i r a
' w ;
;na
' m] mnn \\ mm
. u i una nftui
fl TI
.in
anrier nna S en. 1 a \ rn. 1 rninninn * n
WUI.WW UW.IW/ W.IU I W / W W U I , WW.IIIIIWI. uw
enarca rli M/-.03 1-1 I=t.
r
3C2 ! " C03!
W U U I W W UWIII ^ 1 ** W U ) U ~ t ( A ~ UI U W W / , uwi*i
' \/-Ci ! -E T - * \ . ahnnrianf " n rnmmnn
i, V - w - r , u - w , A - i ) , u u u i i u u i i w u w WWIIIIIIWII
Haf rnw i f r i m f a rara en 1 arnt;]'"i f Q jnrt
UW Ul W I I Ul IIIIUW) . U I W W W I W I W W l l l l U W UIIU
inarrnnofnnifa* enarca ennrinifa
;ilwi UWWWUI IIIIUW, W p U I W W WUWI IIIIUW)
rocin1f a Hari' nranna- r
UUI II Ul UII]U| I l_ . ...
Aorit nranna- nnrwmnn nwrifa
uui n w i u n 3 w , UWIIIIIIWH w/i i uw i
nronna
W I Will JW
tfprr -JAW*? . ourj.in
u n a i u u
HO.
nccpn
i " i
PQRKATIQH
C'^r
\j i-Lk J C
*r\r \r
' u L L W t J U W U W
J r W U I l l v W I .' W J- A J * U J U A C A U g W )
rtAflTtli-A A *A A A 1*7 A flllnflHMM "1 1 111.!
L w w A i i L U W ) wiwtiiijwi J U U W L L U A U W ) ; w i l u n
,1,1 11 ..nil- -ll
^)tfi/im .th TTAIIAT.T* n n -I /. .
a W W i U J I l / W A A W W . iltijUl
i l-ffirtftninirA rf fl I 1 fl 1.
L L ^ U U U W W L L l t L W W , T W A A W *
t L All A U W )
Ipm/tM
J W WWIllUtWll
i i f i m r t B / f T t A A n i n h T A I I A M r i n r
( A U U U l w l l ) C j A w W l l A G l l J U L A W W . LCAAW
) n n - 0 t? f
n
A
A
on
C : Ifrif/iFirt^niiiiflffflTiA' .1 A m A A m n A n
U A A u O W W l l W > ' O d l l U u U w i i W ) J w m wwuiiiwiii
i \\i\x ;r-jn ir-on r-.nî. An*.
U / * ' A 1 J J * U U | ' ~ U U I L - L U A W / ) W U t t l
*l-,,n,Jn.f UN' \T MN07 T=9 T-] j -
L - W U l l U U i l U I / U ' A \ t '.I I f U - U ) A J. / j
n tin i 1 /IH t" A A w A i\ *-f /
A n l 1 ' f " A A 1* " |T| (*J A
LWOAUAUW) w lUiif, v
filtll Ainni-ff
U U A A w L ..ii t. ,
) V J . 1 U I
r, nn nfinnf
u u u u u u u w
y* A A uw
t iinnltf
U W L I
w W w W U. A w U
A
i 3 A m. *\ Ir i
L
A A uw udaciw
n 01
Siltst3nc>sandstGac; dcs act
,/U/L ;i-u, u-m A" w wmiitu n
a ww L L U L I .
I irni I n u f A
. ^ jWiiwri uw
? 1,1 AT
J V .k A W * UU
,nl 1.,... rn
A A W L CAUJjL
1 5 W , OUL
,U..nA
1
N f n r i n f *. n> f A T-A 1 1 -rr
A A k ' w U U W U A L i i l U U ) ^ W A A U H
'nnirinn
i n i n h ., .... , 1 1 /
I U U T I S U U w A U u i i w i i f j L w w ii i. i ii ; u u i
J i- >
i K A r
^ W W W IU Ul W 11 I ' A U A L i U W U U U iiUW.il '.--
/ A l l k U U u U I l l W W I
o v *n 'V I U U I W
* 1 1 Q A ** I? 1 f
n i l ww uuaclu
in
MM m* " A W f n . U r ^ n r .J "j f t[
u u I B U J W A uu a w u u w u i i u ) i / - ' u
nnu
L/W 11
r-ic r-7! 1 w ,
I I
wuiuiau.i i i . u w u u w k
i.,1
nTTn i f -*i nri*i/i** '
U J L L U W W W I U I U W H )
Oil TO
U U i. I u
* ft fl - * n i.
1/ V U if U U
Air Benakat 0.22 30 Siltstcnc;ciay3tcr.c.'carbflr.acc, dors
A . m irv r \
r
l\T-"1 T -'If T - 1 '
asiir.dant, v/L-i '.-.-i " . L - M I
i
eoisr.or. cutinite, orange,
liciodccrinite, orange to dull
orange, fluorinite, grcenisn y;
to orange; sparse resinite, ora,-.,
r* n i TN A A
J W U l u v t
cesser, bituncn, yci
Lte, dull orange;
. S w ,
e i n a r i * a ? n i r c a
W I W W I I U W W U U I W W )
Tftfl.TftC - .. m a A I R 1/1 C K a i a S1i m a c f n n a \e * f f cf.nna * 1 n m
I U W I U W U U ill U I U I W W I T W l l U I W / I I H I W W U W I I W / W I I U W U W I I W ) UWIII
rnmmnn '. \ \l \ T I - *J 1 7-44 7-< K
wwiiiiiiwii) W / I / A v U ~ * * W j I " * ' k | * - i W )
;a . . nu - n nranna
i. w ) ; w i i w * i u w ui u i i g w ]
*. f a nranna *"n mill
I U W ) W I Ull - W U W U U I I
nranna* snares roeinif a ennrinifa
wi W i l j W , W U U I W W I W W I I I I U W ) W U W I I I I I U W )
nranna f n nn 1 J nronna enarca
W I U|l " W U W W U I I wi U I I J W , W U U I W W
Kifnman waMnwicb nranna* nt/rife
u i u u m w i i ) / v i I U I - I U I I W I U H ^ W ) u j i i u w
: nor r i m fa
?'3t77 a 1 0 -11 C ,, ;i m a i ft 1Q -in Cha i aVcanWcfnnaS1imaefnne
U w l f l W l u wllu U U I H U I U l W W W U W H U I W / W U H U W W W I I W i ' l t l l l W W U W I I W ]
nnmmnn U M \U\l-'i\
WUIIIIIIWII ) 1 / m. / i \ - ' ml
a hnnnanr fn nnmmnn
u w Wll W U I ! U U W WW.IIHIWJJ
r n m m n n **liinrinifa
UWIIIHIWH I 1 U W I i l i l w w ,
L, - L W ,
r n f i nl
W W W 1 . 1
;/al . nu
;wiiwS
e n a r c a f n r a r a e n n r I n i f o
W U U I W W U W I U I W W U W I I I I I W W )
H u l l n r a n n a r a c i n i
W W I I Wl WliiJW] . W W 1 1 i 1
r n o n a r e a n i nmon
JW w W U I W W W 1 WUIIIUil |
A - T / ,
fa nra nna *
U W ) Wl W I I J W ,
k
n n r a n n a *
WW Ul Ull ww )
n r a n n a fn
u 1 U I I J W u w
fa nranno* nnmmnn
u w ) wi u n w u ) wwiiiiiiwii
uo11nu
; w i i w
n w r i f a
rnmmnn* i/ifrimfa a hnnnanr * n. rnmmnn
W W I I I I I I W I I , 1 1 Ul llll U W U U U I I U U H U U W UWIIIHIWH ,
i n o r r i n i f o
I IIWI W i l l i u w
11170
L u I i w
i l C K ;_ 11 m a i ft IQ 1ft C h a 1 a \ ' i m o c f n n a H n m a h n n n a n f 'n
I I W W w U ill U I U i T U U U U H U I W / I I U I W W U W I I W ) UWIII U W W H U U H U u w
nnmmnn \/W \ T !\I-ZZ i-tf) T-Z)
WWIIIIIIWII ) l / W / A \ I - W U ) W - T V ) A **U / ]
ahun/ia nt fn rnmmnn rnf i n i f a
U U U I I U U H U U U W W IIIIUW II W U W I I I I U W ]
nranna nnmmnn i nr nrJof r i ni f a nranno
wl W l l j w , W W III HI Wll I I U . U W W W U I I I I I U W ) - I w I i - W
rn iin 1 7 nranna* enarca **n raro
w w U U I I Wl U l l - w | W W W ! U W U W I Ul w
ennrinifa Hull nranno enarca
W U U I M M U W ) U U l i W I U H W J W ) W U U I W W
Plirnrinifo wollnu* raro
I I U U I I I I I U W ) ; w i i w , i u i w
nu '
wn )
f J C C l
nhwt'nnlani/fnn nraanieh .#a T 1
p i i ; u u p i u n n u u n , -i . w i n w n ; U I I
rtifuman wallnu- eiriarifa nnmmnn
u i w u m w i i j / u n w n j w i w w * i u w wwiuiiiuii )
nwrifa nnmmnn' wifrinifa nnmmnn*
w ; i i u w wuiiiiiiwn , i i ui i n i u w WWIIIIIIWII ,
i no r r nn of rin i f a r nmmnn mi n rin i f a
I IIWI U W W W U I I II I U W WWIIIIIIWII ) HI I Wl I II I U W
enorca
W p U l U W I
? C h a t a S r a r h n n a f a n'nm e n a r c a
m, T W I I U I W t W U I U W H U U U ) UWIII W U U I W W
" n
- u
rara \/M \T i U-flft ! -1 T - 4 Q l
I U I W ) l / W l - A \ I - W W ) W - W ) A - I U / j
e
, P, 3
r
^
Q
Mnfnrlafrinifa nranna r n null
U p U I W W i l p U W W W U I I I I I U W ) W I U 11 - U W W U U I I
f!r3f!
no
racinifa rinll nranna enarca
" U l l j w j I W W I I I I U W ) W U I I Wl Ulil-W, W U U I W W
f ] \lCl
r
1 .T* ** uallny enarca Kifnman
1 I U W I I I I I U W ) ; w 1 1 w n u u u i u C u i U U I I I W I I .
tffi!1Ott* nara nil rnfc Kri nKf walInw-
J W 1 1 w ft , I U I W U l l W U U W ) Ul I W H U | W I 1 w n |
nwrifa rnmmnn wifrinifa rnmmnn
U * I I U W WWIIIIIIWII , I | Ul I l| | U W wuiulllWli ,
nnmmnn inerfnrJafrimfa annl enarco
uuui 111 w n IIIWI u u w w u t M I 1 uu u n w upui u u
mirrinifa
III I W I I 11 I U U <
23l32 * 554- * 555 Sutw,
r
2J3 0.23 29 limaernneSch.laSr.rhnn.ta Anm
. W - T . w w w w w w w 1 m. j -m*. mi , mi \j ^ W l l l l W W U W I I W i ' w I I U l W f W U I U W I I U U W ) UWIII
rnmmnn \/\t\T M/-GQ I -enarca
U U III III W l l ) W W / A \ l * J W | U**U U U I W W |
7-rara1 enarco nnfinifa nranna*
. - 1 w 1 v, j , U p U I W W W U W I I I I U W ) w I u 1 1 j w ,
rora ennrinira nronna' enarca
I U I W W W W ) I I I I U W ) W I U I I ^ W ) W U U I W W
ciHarira* enarca nurifo* wifrinifa
U l U W l i u w , U p U I W W u ) 1 . w w f . I U I I I I I U W
e n a r c a
w u u i w w
i"n rora
nranno * n null nrmna* nwrifa
JI w n - w ww w w i i ul U I I J U I w y < * ww
11101 11 a fu; i a a :A
Ci lfernno\canriet*nna\riawcrnna nnm
U I 1 wu uu i l W f W U H W W U W H W / W IlijUUVIIW) UWlll
ahnnnanf **n nnmmnn mainr wirnnira-
iWWMWUIiW w W .wmnlUII j nUJWI I I W I I I I I w w i
rara ennrinifa nirit nronna'
I U I W WUWI IIIIUW) WUI IV W I Ull JJW )
rn rnmmnn Kifnman ,/ai Inuich nrmna
uW WWIIIIIIWII u t u UMIW 11 j ;w : IWII iwn ui uiiju-i
~ninn rrnl W\TM M/-0H T-f)
uw min wii w w u i ) I / A / W \ i " u u j " * J
' - ra ro i * mainr fainwifrinira* nnmmnn
L. -f Ul W / , UIUJ w I UW I W f I Wl Nl I U W , WUIIIIIIWII
eiHanfa nwrifa
J I U U I I U W ) (*/' 'UWl
U W I W W _ T W (. L.TWT
fl 01 Canhcfnna\ai lfcfnneNnarhnnafo rinm
WUIIUWUWIIW/ W I I w w uw n w / WUI UWIIW WW ] UUUI
mainr
'IIUJ Wl
f\l \T M/-GQ i -1 T-raral enarca
i/w/A \ l - J U j -" - J A - I U I W / J Wf-IUlWu
e n n r i m ra
WWW I llll WW )
enarco Kifnman wai lnw
uuui w w u i UUIIIWII j j w i i w n
nwrifa ahnnrianf
Ujl IUW U U U H W U I I U l
A n m m n n
WWIIIIIIWII
nrmna'
ui UII 3 w ,

Coals Source Rocks and Hydrocarbons in The South Palembang Sub-B

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Coals Source Rocks and Hydrocarbons in The South Palembang Sub-B

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

University of Wollongong

Anda mungkin juga menyukai