The normalized diference

vegetation index (NDVI)

GreenSeeker handheld sensor:
Toard the integrated eval!ation o" cro#
management $art %: &once#ts and case
st!dies
'ram Govaerts
Internatona Maze and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) b.govaerts@cgar.org
Nele Verh!lst
Internatona Maze and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
Kathoeke Unverstet Leuven (K.U.Leuven) n.verhust@cgar.org
Verhust, N., Govaerts, B. 2010. The normazed dherence vegetaton
ndex (NDVI) GreenSeeker handhed sensor: Toward the ntegrated
Ta(le o" contents
Introducton .............................................................................................. 1
A.Pant reectance and normazed dherence vegetaton ndex (NDVI)
....................................................................................................... 1
B..................................................NDVI and remote sensng: A sma revew
....................................................................................................... 2
C.......................................................A case study n the Mexcan hghands
....................................................................................................... 2
%cknoledgements
Verhust receved a schoarshp from the Research Foundaton - Fanders. The
presented research was funded by CIMMYT and ts strategc partners.
Introducton to the NDVI Greenseeker sensor and scentc backstoppng
and exchange was provded by B Raun at Okahoma State Unversty and
the nazaton and reproducton of ths tranng document was made
possbe thanks to the 2009 USAID Lnkage Funds.
R
NIR
- R
Red
Tillage )ero tillage &onventional
*esid!e +e#t*emoved +e#t *emoved
W W W W W W W W
Introd!ction
A. $lant re,ectance and normalized
diference vegetation index (NDVI)
Reectance s the rato of energy that s reected
from an ob|ect to the energy ncdent on the ob|ect.
Spectra reectance of a crop dhers consderaby n
the near nfrared regon (A = 700-1300 nm) and n
the vsbe red range (A = 550-700 nm) of the
eectromagnetc spectrum (Kumar and Sva, 1973;
Fgure 1). Pants generay have ow reectance n
the bue and red porton of the spectrum because of
chorophy absorpton, wth a sghty hgher
reectance n the green, so pants appear green to
our eyes. Near nfrared radant energy s strongy
reected from the pant surface and the amount of
ths reectance s determned by the propertes of
the eaf tssues: ther ceuar structure and the ar-
ce wa-protopasm-choropast nterfaces (Kumar
and Sva, 1973). These anatomca characterstcs
are ahected by envronmenta factors such as so
mosture, nutrent status, so santy, and eaf stage
(Ma et a., 2001). The contrast between vegetaton
and so s at a maxmum n the red and near
nfrared regon. Therefore, spectra reectance data
can be used to compute a varety of vegetatve
ndces that are we-correated wth agronomc and
bophysca pant parameters reated to
photosynthetc actvty and pant productvty (Ma et
a., 2001; Adamsen et a., 1999). The NDVI s
successfu n predctng photosynthetc actvty,
because ths vegetaton ndex ncudes both near
nfrared and red ght. Pant photosynthetc actvty
s determned by chorophy content and
-ig!re ./ T0#ical re,ectance s#ectr!m
o" a health0 and a stressed #lant/
actvty. The reatonshp between eaf N and eaf
chorophy has been demonstrated for maze
(Pekeek and Fox, 1992; Chapman and Barreto,
1997) and wheat (Evans, 1989).
The NDVI s cacuated from reectance
measurements n the red and near nfrared (NIR)
porton of the spectrum:
NDVI =
RNIR RRed
where RNIR s the reectance of NIR radaton and
R , s the reectance of vsbe red radaton.
Red
The NDVI has been correated to many varabes
such as crop nutrent decency, na yed n
sma grans, and ong-term water stress.
However, rather than excusvey reectng the
ehect of one parameter, NDVI has to be
consdered as a measurement of amagamated
pant growth that reects varous pant growth
factors. The physca characterstcs detected by
the ndex are key reated to some measure of
canopy densty (.e. eaf area or percent cover) or
tota bomass. Therefore, the underyng factor for
varabty n a typca vegetaton ndex cannot be
bndy nked to a management nput wthout
some knowedge of the prmary factor that mts
growth. For exampe, n a ed where N s the
mtng factor to growth, the NDVI may show a
strong correaton wth the N avaabty n the
so; however, n another ed, where water s the
mtng factor, the NDVI may be |ust as strongy
correated wth pant-avaabe so mosture.
There are dherent vegetaton ndces; however,
those that rey on NIR and red reectance as ther
prncpa nputs w typcay yed the same
nformaton as the NDVI. One of the reasons for
the popuarty of the NDVI s that many sensors
(from handhed to satete) provde
measurements n the NIR and red porton of the
spectrum. NIR s aso used n coor nfrared
photographs. Most, f not a, of the new
commerca satetes w have red and NIR bands,
so the avaabty of these data w ncrease.
Further readng
Araus, |.L., |. Casadesus, |. Bort. 2001. Recent toos
for the screenng of physoogca trats
determnng yed. In: M.P. Reynods, |.I. Ortz-
Monastero, A. McNab (eds.), Appcaton of
physoogy n wheat breedng. Mexco, D.F.:
CIMMYT. Pp. 59-77.
1
B. NDVI and remote sensing: % small
revie
Satete-based NDVI are nuenced by a number of
non-vegetaton factors: atmospherc condtons (e.g.
couds and atmospherc path-specc varabes,
aerosos, water vapor), satete geometry and
cabraton (vew and soar anges), as we as so
backgrounds and crop canopy (Hoben 1986;
Soumet et a. 1991; |ustce et a. 1991). The ange
of ncdence of soar radaton aso has a strong
ehect on vegetaton ndexes (Pnter 1993).
However, these compcatons can be avoded by
usng the GreenSeeker handhed optca sensor
unt to measure NDVI. Desgned at Okahoma State
Unversty, and commercazed by Ntech Industres,
the GreenSeeker cances out the dsturbng
ehects of atmospherc nterference and satete
geometry snce t s hed cosey above the crops.
Moreover, the handhed sensor contans ts own
ght source, aowng measurements to be taken
day or nght wthout nterference of sunght and
sun stand.
Lack of ehect of cmate as we as sun ange was
conrmed by an ndependent study as reported on
the Okahoma State Unversty webste (http://nue.
okstate.edu). Ths s a great advantage compared to
the satete-based measurements. The hgh
resouton obtaned wth ths handhed sensor
makes proper measurement possbe at the pot
eve n contrast wth the ow resouton typca for
ar or space remote sensng matera. The handhed
sensor s non-destructve and the sensor sampes at
a very hgh rate (approxmatey 1,000
measurements per second) and can easy and
tme-emcenty measure a whoe pot representatve
area. There s, however, st mportant scope for
research on the comparson of the NDVI handhed
sensor wth satete magery, especay when
scang out of resuts and modes becomes
mportant.
C. % case st!d0 in the 1exican
highlands
Descrpton of the expermenta area and desgn
The case studes that are used as exampes here
were a done n a ong-term tage tra ocated at E
Batn n the semard, subtropca hghands of
centra Mexco (2,240 m a.s..; 19.318N, 98.508W).
The mean annua temperature was 14C (1990-
2001) and the average annua ranfa was 600 mm
per year, wth approxmatey 520 mm fang
between May and October. Short, ntense ran
showers foowed by dry spes typfy the summer
rany season and the tota yeary potenta
evapotranspraton of 1,900 mm exceeds ranfa
throughout the year.
growng perod of 152 days. The so s cassed as a
ne, mxed, thermc Cumuc Hapusto (So Survey
Stah, 2003) or as a Cumuc Phaeozem (Internatona
Unon of So Scences (IUSS) workng group Word
Reference Base (WRB), 2006). E Batn's cmate s
representatve of many hghand areas n the regons
of West Asa and North Afrca, as we as the Southern
Cone and Andean hghands of South Amerca, the
centra hghands of Ethopa, the Medterranean
coasta pans of Turkey, and the hghands of centra
Mexco (van Gnke et a., 2002).
The experment was started n 1991 as descrbed n
Fscher et a. (2002). Indvdua pots are 7.5 m by 22
m. Standard practces ncude the use of
recommended crop cutvars, wth maze panted at
60,000 pants per hectare n 75 cm rows and wheat
panted n 20 cm rows at 100 kg of seed per hectare.
Both crops are fertzed usng urea at 120 kg N per
hectare. Weed contro s done usng approprate,
avaabe herbcdes as needed and no dsease or
nsect pest contros are utzed, except for seed
treatments apped by commerca seed sources.
Pantng of both maze and wheat depends on the
onset of summer rans but s usuay done between
|une 1 and 15.
The expermenta desgn conssts of a randomzed
compete bock wth two repcatons. There are 32
treatments. The core set of 16 management
practces was based on varaton of (1) crop rotaton
(monocroppng vs. a maze/wheat rotaton); (2)
tage (conventona vs. zero tage); (3) resdue
management (retenton vs. remova). A second set of
treatments was estabshed n 1996 and ncudes
treatments wth parta resdue retenton and pantng
on permanent rased beds. In the case studes used,
ony the core set of 16 practces w be consdered
that were a nstaed n 1990 and kept snce. Tabe 1
summarzes the consdered practces.
Ta(le ./ Treatments at the &I112T long3
term tillage trial at 4l 'at5n6 1exico/
$arameter
7#timal heat
conditions
&onditions at 4l
'at5n
7#timal maize
conditions
&onditions at 4l
'at5n
$ossi(le
limitation
&limate
So temp.
Optmum day temp.
Mean nght temp.
Mean day temp.
Ranfa
20-25 C* 400-600
mm*
15-22 C 20-25 C
600 mm
Perods of drought
Perods of excessve
ranfa
16-18 C* 25-30 C*
>13 C* <45 C*
400 mm*
15-22 C 20-25 C
600 mm
Perods of drought
Perods of
excessve ranfa
Y
N
N
N
N
s
W=wheat, M=maze.
Rotaton: MM=contnuous maze, WW=contnuous
wheat, WM or MW=yeary rotaton of maze and
wheat.
2
The so quaty concept
As a way of further ntroducng the case study, we
w present some so quaty resuts from the ong-
term experment. When evauatng an agrcutura
management system for sustanabty, the centra
queston s: whch producton system w not
exhaust the resource base, w optmze so
condtons and w reduce food producton
vunerabty, whe at the same tme mantanng or
enhancng productvty? So quaty can be seen as
a conceptua transaton of the sustanabty
concept towards so. Karen et a. (1997) dened
so quaty for the So Scence Socety of Amerca
as "the capacty of a specc knd of so to functon,
wthn naturay managed ecosystem boundares, to
sustan pant and anma productvty, mantan or
enhance water and ar quaty, and support human
heath and habtaton." A smper operatona
denton s gven by Gregorch et a. (1994) as "the
degree of tness of a so for a specc use." Ths
mpes that so quaty depends on the roe for
whch the so s destned (Snger and Ewng, 2000).
Wthn the framework of agrcutura producton,
hgh so quaty equates to the so's abty to
mantan a hgh productvty wthout sgncant so
or envronmenta degradaton. Evauaton of so
quaty s based on physca, chemca, and
boogca characterstcs of the so.
A comparatve so quaty evauaton s one n
whch the system's performance s determned n
reaton to aternatves. When the botc and abotc
so system attrbutes of aternatve systems are
compared, a decson about the reatve
sustanabty of each system s made based on the
dherence n magntude of the measured
parameters (Larson and Perce, 1994). A
comparatve assessment s usefu for determnng
dherences n so attrbutes among management
practces that have been n pace for some perod
of tme (Wenhod et a., 2004). A dynamc
assessment approach dhers n that the dynamcs
of the system form a meter for ts sustanabty
(Larson and Perce, 1994). A dynamc assessment s
necessary for determnng the drecton and
magntude of change a management practce s
havng (Wenhod et a., 2004), especay when
compared to the common, exstng farmer
practces. Ths assessment normay nvoves an
adequate tme frame.
A mnmum set of so characterstcs that
represents so quaty must be seected and
quanted, to be abe to appy any evauaton
assessment and proceed from a theoretca
denton to a measurement of so quaty (Larson
and Perce, 1991; Gregorch et a., 1994). Dherent
authors have proposed severa mnmum data sets.
We propose that nstead of workng wth predened
sts of ndcators, that ndcators be seected based
on the ste-specc agro-ecoogca condtons by
comparng optma condtons for the specc and
use wth the rea condtons. Ths comparson woud
revea the mtng factors of the system. A
parameters reated to these mtng factors woud
be measured n a rst overa evauaton. Based on
the obtaned resuts, we coud thereafter rene the
st of reevant parameters and come up wth a
mnmum data set for future assessments (Govaerts
et a., 2006a).
So quaty n Mexcan hghands' case study
In order to appy the concept of so quaty, one
must have a dened set of ndcator parameters for
what to measure. As dscussed, severa mnmum
sts of ndcators can be found n terature. The
approach used for ths case study, however, was
dherent. We dd not utze the so-caed generay
predened mnmum data sets (Larson and Perce,
1994), but nstead utzed an agro-ecoogca ste-
specc seecton of ndcators as descrbed above,
whch ed to a two-step-approach. The rst step was
the set up of a mtng factor parameter st, based
on a comparson of the optma condtons for the
anduse and the actua agro-ecoogca
characterstcs. Indcators reated to the mtng
factors w possby be reevant for the evauaton of
the system and form the mtng factor parameters.
The second step was the seecton of the most
expcatve ndcators from the set of measured
ndcators to form the eventua strct mnmum data
set.
Tabe 2 shows the resuts of the comparson of the
optma condtons wth the actua stuaton at the
CIMMYT staton at E Batn n the centra Mexcan
hghands. Tabe 3 sts the mtng factor
parameters, whch were evauated by measurng the
foowng ndcators:
- Physca: sma rng ntraton, drect surface
ntraton, aggregaton by wet and dry
sevng, penetraton resstance, cone
penetraton, probe depth, buk densty,
permanent wtng pont, ed capacty
- Chemca: CEC, tota N, NO3
-
, and NH4+, tota
organc C, P, macronutrents (Ca, Mg,
K, Na), mcronutrents (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu),
3
After statstca anayss, the rened so quaty
mnmum data set ncuded the foowng physca
ndcators: tme-to-pond, aggregate stabty,
permanent wtng pont, and topso resstance.
Important chemca ndcators were concentratons
of C, N, K, and Zn n the 0-5 cm topso and C, N
concentratons n 5-20 cm.
Mutvarate anayss grouped the treatments nto
custers: (1) zero tage wth retenton of resdue;
(2) zero tage wth resdue remova; and (3)
conventona tage. Zero tage combned wth crop
resdue retenton mproved chemca and physca
condtons of the so. In contrast, zero tage wth
remova of resdues ed to hgh accumuaton of Mn
n the topso, ow aggregate stabty, hgh
penetraton resstance and surface sakng resutng
n ow tme-to-pond vaues and hgh runoh.
Fnay, so quaty under conventona tage was
ntermedate (rrespectve of resdue mangement),
More detas on the case study can be found n
Govaerts, B., K.D. Sayre, |. Deckers. 2006a. A
mnmum data set for so quaty assessment of
wheat and maze croppng n the hghands of
Ta(le 8/ 9imiting "actor
#arameter set "or the 4l
'at5n area (%da#ted "rom
Govaerts et al/6 :;;<a)/
$arameters
Compacton
Intraton
Mosture content
Aggregate
stabty Buk
densty Organc
carbon Nutrent
status Boogca
actvty So
borne dseases
Ta(le :/ &om#arison o" o#timal conditions "or cro# groth vers!s 4l 'at5n agro3
ecological conditions (ada#ted "rom Govaerts et al/6 :;;<a)/
Tanner and Raemaeker, 2002; * Rstanovc, 2002; ** Sayre, K. D. persona communcaton 4
Further readng
Barros, E., R.| Deve, M. Bekunda, |. Mowo, |. Agunda,
|. Ramsch, M.T. Tre|o, R.|. Thomas. 2006. Indcators
of so quaty: A south-south deveopment of a
methodoogca gude for nkng oca and technca
knowedge. Geoderma 135: 248-259 Doran, |.W.,
T.B. Parkn. 1994. Denng and assessng so
quaty. In: |.W. Doran, D.C. Coeman, D.F. Bezdcek,
B.A. Stewart (eds.), Denng so quaty for a
sustanabe envronment. Madson: Amercan
Socety of Agronomy (ASA) and So Scence Socety
of Amerca (SSSA). Pp. 3-21.
Karen, D.L., D.E. Stott. 1994. A framework for evauatng
physca and chemca ndcators of so quaty.
In: |.W. Doran, D.C. Coeman, D.F. Bezdcek, B.A.
Stewart, (Eds.), Denng so quaty for a sustanabe
envronment. Madson: ASA and SSSA. Pp. 53-72.
Larson, W.E., F.|. Perce. 1994. The dynamcs of so
quaty as a measurement of sustanabe
management. In: |.W. Doran, D.C. Coeman, D.F.
Bezdcek, B.A. Stewart (Eds.), Denng so quaty
for a sustanabe envronment. Madson: ASA and
SSSA. Pp. 37-51.
=sing the NDVI handheld
sensor to monitor cro#
groth and develo#ment
Crop performance, growth, and deveopment are the
ntegrated evauators that show the emcency of
the chosen agrcutura management system wthn
the boundares of the agro-ecoogca envronment.
Any crop cutvar (that has been seected for the
gven agro-ecoogca area), w act as an ntegrated
evauator of a envronmenta factors thus showng
how management nuences and determnes
resource-use emcency. Yeds can be measured as
an end-of-season statc resut of seasona crop
performance, but these resuts do not reect the
uctuatons of the crop's performance throughout
the season. End-of-season yed resuts do not
permt the evauaton of wthn-season management
nteractons wth the producton envronment and
do not aow for fu understandng of the apped
management practce. In order to understand and
evauate croppng systems, and to ne-tune
resource management, crop performance over tme
s a cruca factor. The ehect of management
factors, such as tage systems, crop resdue
management, and crop rotaton on crop growth and
deveopment durng the crop cyce has not been
studed ntensvey. Unt now, most of the
knowedge on pant growth and deveopment has
been deveoped for conventona management
practces, ncudng heavy tage and common crop
The NDVI handhed sensor can be used to foow crop
growth and deveopment throughout the season,
and thus ncreases our understandng of the
dherent management practces.
&ase st!d0 "rom the 1exican
highlands
Materas and methods
NDVI measurements were taken wth the
GreenSeeker Handhed Optca Sensor Unt
(NTech Industres, Inc., USA) n the centra rows of
a pots of the 16 core practces that were studed
3 tmes a week throughout the 2004 and 2006
growng seasons. The average NDVI vaues were
potted aganst tme for a treatments. As an
exampe, the NDVI-based growth and deveopment
curves for maze n the 2006 growng season are
shown (Fgure 2). The NDVI curves were anayzed
wth PROC MIXED (SAS nsttute, 1994) usng the
REPEATED statement for the anayss of repeated
measurements. The NDVI curves were dvded n
three perods for the PROC MIXED anayss and the
anayss was done separatey for each perod. The
3 consdered perods were: Perod I wth ncreasng
NDVI vaues (days 16-66), Perod II wth reatvey
stabe NDVI vaues (days 69-94) and Perod III wth
decreasng NDVI vaues (days 100136) (Verhust et
a., 2010).
Resuts
The zero tage practces wth resdue retenton had
ower NDVI vaues n Perod I compared to the
conventona tage treatments wth the same
rotaton (P<0.05). Aso, rotaton seemed to have an
nuence on eary crop deveopment wth ower
NDVI vaues for maze sown after wheat than for
maze monocuture n Perod I (Fgure 2). Maze
after wheat under conventona tage wth resdue
retenton had ower NDVI vaues than maze after
maze under conventona tage wth resdue
retenton or remova (P<0.05). For maze after
wheat under conventona tage when resdue was
removed, the NDVI was ower as compared to
maze after maze under conventona tage wth
resdue retenton (P<0.05). There were no
dherences between crop rotatons ater n the
season. Zero tage wth resdue remova and crop
rotaton had ower vaues than a other treatments
n a three perods (P<0.05) (Verhust et a., 2010).
Dscusson
Conventona tage resuted n faster growth
compared to zero tage wth resdue retenton at
the begnnng of the season. Reports on dherences
5
n crop deveopment under dherent tage practces
are scarce, but some reports were found that
concde wth our ndngs. Rey (1998) reported
that deveopment of sprng cereas was deayed
wth reduced tage, but ths was compensated for
ater n the season. Rambaut and Vyn (1991) and
Vyn and Rambaut (1993) reported that zero tage
resuted n sower pant growth compared to
conventona tage systems. However, McMaster et
a. (2002) reported faster, more unform and greater
seedng emergence under zero tage than n
conventona tage n four out of sx years n the
Centra Great Pans, due to more favorabe so
water eves n the seedng zone under zero tage.
It s mportant to note that the sower take oh n
growth wth zero tage compared to conventona
tage s compensated for ater n the season.
Moreover, when ookng at na yed (reported n
Govaerts et a., 2005), treatments wth hgher
yeds generay acheved ther maxmum NDVI ater
n the growng perod. Ths ndcates that
treatments wth an nta sower growth may have
an advantage. It seems that zero tage wth
resdue retenton nduces a more tmey and
emcent use of avaabe crop growth resources. It
coud be hypotheszed that the changes n C and N
cycng between zero tage and conventona
tage both wth resdue retenton resut n a better
synchronzaton between demand and N
mnerazaton n zero tage wth resdue retenton,
where N s reeased more sowy as compared to the
ush of N reeased n conventona tage at the
begnnng of the season when tage s apped.
However, more research s needed to conrm ths
hypothess.
Rotaton seemed to have an nuence on eary crop
deveopment wth ower NDVI vaues for crops sown
after wheat than for crops sown after maze. No
reports were found n terature on wheat sowng
down the eary crop deveopment of the foowng
crop. Dherences between rotatons dsappeared ater
n the growng season and growng wheat as the
prevous crop had no adverse ehect on na yed
compared to growng maze as the prevous crop.
The two management practces that combned zero
tage wth resdue remova (contnuous maze and
wheat-maze rotaton) were found to be overa ow
performng when anayzng the NDVI-based crop
growth curves. Ths corresponds wth the overa
negatve mpact on so quaty and so heath of
these practces (Govaerts et a., 2006a,b; 2007a, b;
2008; 2009) and ther ow yeds (Govaerts et a.,
2005).
Crop sequence: MM monocuture of maze, WM yeary rotaton of maze and wheat. Tage system: CT
conventona tage, ZT zero tage. Resdue management: R a resdues removed from the ed, K a resdues
kept on the ed.
-ig!re :/ NDVI3(ased cro# groth and develo#ment c!rves (NDVI vs/ da0s a"ter
#lanting) "or maize in the :;;< cro# c0cle in the long3term s!staina(ilit0 trial at 4l
6
It can be concuded that tage, rotaton, and resdue
management practces nuence crop deveopment.
However, more research s needed to fuy
understand the underyng mechansms. As most
practces and knowedge are currenty based on
conventonay ted croppng, t s mportant to
montor and understand crop growth under dherent
management systems to seect the rght varetes
and ad|ust tmng and practce of nput suppy
(fertzer, rrgaton, etc.) n a hostc way for each
system.
More detas on the case study can be found n
Verhust, N., B. Govaerts, K.D. Sayre, P. De Corte, |.
Crossa, |. Deckers, L. Dendooven. 2010. The ehects
of tage, crop rotaton, and resdue management on
maze and wheat growth and deveopment evauated
wth an optca sensor. Field Crops Research
(Submtted).
Further readng
Rambaut, B.A., T.|. Vyn. 1991. Crop-Rotaton and
Tage Ehects on Corn Growth and So Structura
Stabty. Agronomy Journal 83: 979-985.
Rey, H.C.F. 1998. So mnera-N and N-fertzer
requrements of sprng cereas n two ong-term
tage tras on oam so n southeast Norway. Soil &
Tillage Research 48: 265-274.
Vyn, T.|., B.A. Rambaut. 1993. Long-Term Ehect of 5
Tage Systems on Corn Response and So-
Structure. Agronomy Journal 85: 1074-1079.
S#atial varia(ilit0 in cro#
#er"ormance as an indicator o"
s!staina(ilit0
The spata structure of ecosystems often reects
how these systems functon (Herrck et a., 2002).
The spata ecosystem structure reects the spata
dstrbuton of the key producton-reated processes.
A change n spata varabty n pant performance
on any scae ndcates that the dstrbuton of mtng
resources has changed or that another resource has
become mtng. Ths may reect a change n the
processes that both contro and are ahected by the
avaabty of resources on that scae. When a
pant-growth eements are abundanty avaabe, a
unform pattern of pant growth w be seen.
However, when one or more crtca pant eements
are mtng, pant-to-pant competton ehects w
ncrease pant-to-pant performance varabty,
ncreasng the coemcent of varaton (CV) compared
wth a system where no eements are mtng.
As a genera prncpe, we propose that competton
for resources resuts n greater wthn-pot pant-to-
pant varabty. Athough scarce, there are some
reports that support ths prncpe. In a study of maze
growth evouton, the onset of ntra-specc
competton was nferred from an ncrease n the CV
of pant bomass. Edmeades and Daynard (1979)
reported that at a ow densty (5 pants per meter),
the CV of pant bomass had a ow and amost
constant vaue (ca. 10%) durng the whoe growng
season, ndcatve of a smar growth of each
ndvdua pant wthn the stand. Contrary, at a hgh
pant popuaton of 20 pants per meter, the CV
ncreased to 40% durng the same perod.
Ths statstca parameter can therefore revea the
exstence of pants wth dherent compettve abtes
wthn the same stand densty (Edmeades and
Daynard, 1979). The onset of ths herarchca growth
pattern among pants wthn a stand woud be reated
to the ntensty of ntra-specc competton, .e. pant
popuaton densty (Maddonn and Otegu, 2004).
Comparng dherent mproved maze hybrds,
Toenaar and Wu (1999) concuded that crop
resource-use emcency s nversey reated to pant-
to-pant varabty. Martn et a. (2005) suggested
competton for so mosture as a source of ncreased
pant-to-pant varabty, especay n dryand eds.
Wthn-pot spata varabty can be the resut of
nherent varaton n pot condtons. However,
agronomca practces aso nuence spata wthn-
pot pant varabty. Increased wthn-pot pant
spata varabty throughout the season can
therefore be consdered a reacton to nemcent use
of crtca pant growth resources provoked by an
unsustanabe management of these resources.
Gntng et a. (2003) reported that dherences n
soybean yed between hgh and ow eevaton were
arger for a conventona tage system compared to
a reduced tage system. Kravchenko et a. (2005)
compared a zero-nput wth a ow and conventona
nput treatment, and found that the overa varabty
(expressed by CV) was the hghest n the zero-nput
treatment and that crop yeds of the same treatment
were more senstve to sma- scae varatons n
nutrent and water avaabty condtons of the ed.
Spata varabty reduces resource-use emcency:
the potentas n cmate condtons and germpasm
are expressed ony n certan parts of the pot, whe
n others, crop yeds ag behnd. Increased pant
spata varabty throughout the season can
7
therefore be consdered a reacton to nemcent
use of crtca pant growth resources nduced by
an unsustanabe management of these resources.
As such, t can serve as a sound ndcator of crop
msmanagement and can hep to correct ths. The
GreenSeeker NDVI sensor can be used as a too
to foow the spata varabty n crop performance
throughout the season.
&ase st!d0 "rom the 1exican
highlands
Materas and methods
NDVI measurements were taken n the same way
as the measurements of the crop deveopment study
n the 2004, 2005, and 2006 growng seasons. The
CV s dened as the standard devaton expressed
as a percentage of the mean resut (Stee et a.
1997).
The CV was cacuated for each NDVI measurng
sequence per pot that conssted of approxmatey
200 ndvdua measurng ponts throughout the pot.
As an exampe, the CVs correspondng to the maze
growth curves (CV vs. days after sowng) from the
2006 growng season are shown (Fgure 3). The CVs
of the NDVI cacuated from the measurement tracks
measured severa tmes durng the growng season
were anayzed as dependent varabes wth PROC
MIXED usng the REPEATED statement for the
anayss of repeated measurements n tme.
4
0
35
30
25
-
20
>
u
1
5
1
0
5
0
Crop sequence: MM monocuture of maze, WM yeary rotaton of maze and wheat. Tage system: CT
conventona tage, ZT zero tage. Resdue management: R a resdues removed from the ed, K a
resdues kept on the ed.
-ig!re 8/ &oe>cient o" variation (&V) corres#onding ith the NDVI3(ased groth
c!rve (&V vs/ da0s a"ter soing) "or maize in the :;;< cro# c0cle in the long3
term s!staina(ilit0 trial at 4l 'at5n6 1exico (ada#ted "rom Govaerts et al/6
:;;?c)/
Days after pantng
Resuts
The CV curves showed a genera trend opposte
to the one observed n the NDVI curves (Fgure
2). There was hgh spata varabty at the
begnnng of the season for a treatments. After
ths nta stage, the canopy began to cose and
the CV decned (unt approxmatey 65 days
after pantng). So coverage by the canopy was
then near maxmum, wth a unform eaf coor,
and a CV of <10%. Around tasseng (83 days
after pantng), CVs ncreased agan. The CVs
decreased more sowy under zero tage than
under conventona tage but ater n the season
(around 70 days after pantng) there were no
dherences between zero tage wth resdue
retenton and conventona tage treatments.
The MIXED procedure reveaed that contnuous
maze under zero tage wth resdue remova
resuted n sgncanty hgher CVs throughout
the season than a other treatments (P<0.05).
Use of zero tage wth resdue remova and
maze n rotaton wth wheat provded
sgncanty ower CV vaues than the same
treatment wth contnuous maze, but
sgncanty hgher CVs compared to a other
treatments (P<0.05) (Govaerts et a., 2007c).
8
Dscusson
Measurements of CV throughout the crop season
reected the growth and senescence curve of
maze (Fgure 3). Once the canopy began to cose,
eaves from arger pants covered the eaves and
whor of smaer pants, extendng further nto the
near row. As these eaves began to the row,
ntersectng wth, and n some cases coverng up
eaves from smaer pants, so coverage ncreased
the amount of green vegetaton. Comparabe
resuts were obtaned by Raun et a. (2005).
There were sgncanty hgher CVs throughout the
season n the sustanabty tra for both maze
grown n monocuture as we as n rotaton wth
wheat when panted wth zero tage and resdue
remova (P<0.05). A pots managed wth one of
these treatments showed hgher CVs throughout
the season and as such hgher wthn-pot
varabty. These same treatments have been
characterzed by ow yeds (up to 50% yed oss) n
a past years of the experment, compared wth
zero tage wth resdue retenton (Govaerts et a.,
2005). The same two treatments were aso
characterzed by ow so quaty and bad so heath
compared wth other treatments (Govaerts et a.,
2006b; 2007a,b; 2008). When the experment was
started n 1990, so varabty was mapped and
was found to be mnma wthn the experment
area (Lopez-Noveroa,
1995) . Consecutve years of msmanagement (zero
tage wth resdue remova) ncreased the spata
varabty n pant performance n two ways. Frsty,
t changed vaues of so propertes to such an
extent that they caused stressfu condtons.
Stressfu condtons ncrease pant-to-pant
competton for resources and ths competton
resuts n greater pant varabty (Martn et a.,
2005). Secondy, management ahected the
varabty characterstcs of so propertes. Due to
varaton n topographc factors, the degradaton
caused by the msmanagement dd not occur n an
equay dstrbuted way throughout the ed. Ths
resuted n spata varabty of so characterstcs
whch n turn caused spata varabty n crop
performance. Zero tage wth resdue retenton
resuted n better water ntraton and so fertty
throughout the pot, avodng so degradaton as
we as reducng pant competton and as such
spata varabty. It can be concuded that
ncreased wthn-pot spata varabty n crop
performance was assocated wth ncorrect
agronomc management, n ths case the zero tage
treatments wth resdue remova that were
characterzed by a reduced boogca, chemca, and
physca so quaty.
More detas on the case study can be found n
Govaerts, B., K.D. Sayre, |. Deckers, P. Decorte, B.
Goudeseune, K. Lchter, |. Crossa, L. Dendooven.
2007. Evauatng spata wthn pot crop
varabty for dherent management practces
wth an optca sensor? Plant and Soil 299: 29-42.
Further readng
Martn, K.L., P.|. Hodgen, K.W. Freeman, R. Mechor,
D. B. Arna, R.K. Tea, R.W. Muen, K. Desta, S.B.
Phps, |.B. Soe, M.L. Stone, O. Cavga, F. Soar,
A. Banchn, D.I. Francs, |.S. Schepers, |. Hated,
W.R. Raun. 2005. Pant-to-pant varabty n corn
producton. Agronomy Journal 97: 1603-1611.
Scotford, I.M., P.C.H. Mer. 2004a. Combnaton of
spectra reectance and utrasonc sensng to
montor the growth of wnter wheat. Biosystems
Engineering 87: 27-38.
Scotford, I.M., P.C.H. Mer. 2004b. Estmatng ter
densty and eaf area ndex of wnter wheat usng
spectra reectance and utrasonc sensng
technques. Biosystems Engineering 89: 395-408.
Washmon, C.N., |.B. Soe, W.R. Raun, D.D. Itensu.
2002. Wthn ed varabty n wheat gran yeds
over nne years n Okahoma. Journal of Plant
utrition 25: 26552662.
Raun, W.R., |.B. Soe, K.L. Martn, K.W. Freeman, M.L.
Stone, G.V. |ohnson, R.W. Muen. 2005. Growth
stage, deveopment, and spata varabty n corn
evauated usng optca sensor readngs. Journal of
Plant utrition 28: 173-182.
=sing s#atial varia(ilit0 in
cro# #er"ormance (NDVI) to
eval!ate soil #rocesses
determining the s0stem
s!staina(ilit0
Spata varabty n crop performance ntegrates the
ehects of spata varabty n so, above-ground
envronment, and pant characterstcs (Stahord et
a.
9

@


!



'A*
#


the ed hed more water so that yed producton
reached a eve at whch the potassum content
was nadequate and mted producton. Machado
et a. (2002) reported a postve ehect of so NO3-N
on sorghum gran yed n a year when water was
abundant, but a negatve ehect n a year when
water was mted.
Lnkng spata varabty n crop performance to
dherences n so attrbutes coud dentfy the
mtng factors drvng the system. Patterns of crop
performance w foow the spata varabty of the
underyng mtng so attrbutes. The sensor
detects 'cod and hot zones' of pant performance,
whch can be correated to ed spots of dherng
so quaty. Ths aows a detaed nvestgaton of
underyng so processes and how they mght be
ahected by dherent management practces.
&ase st!d0 "rom the 1exican
highlands
Materas and methods
NDVI measurements were taken as a measure of
pant performance wth the GreenSeeker
Handhed Optca Sensor Unt (NTech Industres,
Inc., USA) 84 days after pantng n the 2006 crop
cyce (the begnnng of tasseng for maze and the
begnnng of gran ng for wheat). For maze, NDVI
was measured n a rows, except border rows,
gvng a tota of eght rows. For wheat, we measured
6 strps that were 0.60 m wde, wth the rst and
ast one at 1.0 m from the border and the remanng
ones at equdstance. So attrbutes were ony
measured spatay n pots wth crop rotatons of
maze and wheat (8 treatments). So attrbutes
were determned n 8 ponts wthn each pot, yng
on a grd of 5.5 by 2.5 m, eavng a border of 3 m at
the south-east sde of the pot and a border of 2.5 m
at a other sdes. The foowng so attrbutes were
measured: voumetrc so mosture content; drect
surface ntraton (tme-to-pond); aggregate
dstrbuton and stabty by dry and wet sevng;
and tota N, organc matter, pH, eectroytc
conductvty, content of Ca, Mg, Na, K, and
norganc N. To examne the wthn-pot patterns of
crop performance under the dherent treatments,
maps of NDVI were produced usng ArcMap
software, verson 9.2 (Envronmenta Systems
Research Insttute 2006). To nk the patterns n
pant performance vsuay to the varabty n so
attrbutes, overays of NDVI and so attrbutes were
made wth ArcMap 9.2. As an exampe, the overay
gures are shown for maze for some key
so attrbutes (Fgure 4). In the overay gure ony
one pot was chosen to represent both
conventona tage wth resdue remova and
ncorporaton, as the ehect of resdue was
mnma under conventona tage.
Resuts
There was a cear pattern n crop performance for
maze wth zero tage and resdue remova
(Fgure 4), whch was not observed n the
surroundng pots. Low vaues were found at the
south-east sde of the ed (ght coors) and hgh
vaues at the north-west sde (darker coors).
In pots under zero tage wth resdue remova,
so mosture content, tme-to-pond, and so
aggregate dstrbuton, expressed as mean weght
dameter (MWD) obtaned through dry sevng and
organc matter content at 0-5 cm, vared from ow
vaues at the south-east sde of the ed to hgh
vaues at the north-west sde, reectng the
pattern n crop performance (Fgure 4). Hgher
vaues were observed for the same so attrbutes
under zero tage wth resdue retenton than
under conventona tage (Fgure 4). Pots under
zero tage wth resdue retenton or conventona
tage dd not have a pattern of so attrbutes nor
n crop performance. Maps of norganc N content
showed a cear pattern under zero tage wth
resdue remova n the 0-5 cm ayer (Fgure 4).
Inorganc N ranged from hgh vaues at the south-
east sde of the ed and toward ow vaues at the
north-west sde, the opposte of what was
observed for crop performance.
Dscusson
Sos under zero tage wth resdue remova dd
not have a much ayer that sowed down run-oh
and absorbed water. The poor structure resuted
n fast surface seang, ow ntraton rates, hgh
run-oh, and so eroson (Govaerts et a., 2006a).
Sma varatons n topography (ed sope <0.3%)
nduced dherences n degradaton at dherent
paces n the ed. Athough a sope of 0.3% s
sma, the water n the zero tage wth resdue
remova owed toward the owest ponts (n ths
case the north-west sde of the ed) because the
so was unprotected and the topso was seaed.
As such, the north-west sde of the ed had
mproved access to so water due to the run-oh
from the more eevated south-east sde, whch
party compensated for the genera so quaty
degradaton caused by zero tage wth resdue
remova.
10
Zero tage wth resdue remova
Zero tage wth resdue retenton
Conventona
tage
So
15.1- 1
6.00
16.1-
18.00 18.01-
20.00 20.01-
22.00
22.1- 2
4.00
Tme -to-pond (s) MWD (mm)

-
NDVI28.01-30.00
7-3.0
1-3.5
6-4.0
1-4.5
6-5.0
1-5.5
6-6.0
1-6.5
6-7.0
3.1
-8.5
3.6-
9.0
1.001-1.200
1.201- 1
.400
1.401-
1.600
1.601-1.800
1.801-2.000
2.001-2.200
2.201- 2
.400
Organc
2.01-2.20
2.21-
2.40
2.41-2.60
2.61-2.80
2.81-3.00
3.01-3.20
3.21-
3.40 3.41
A 2.801-3.000
3.001-3.200 " 3.81-4.00
4.01-4.20
Inorganc ntrogen
4.1- 8.00
8.1-
12.00
12.01-16.00
16.01-20.00
20.1- 2
4.00
24.1- 2
8.00
28.1- 3
2.00
32.1- 3
6.00
0.30-0.40 0.40-0.50 0.50-0.60 0.60-0.70 0.70-0.80 0.80-0.90
-ig!re @/ 7verla0s o" NDVI
and soil attri(!tes
(vol!metric soil moist!re
content (A)6 time3to3#ond6
mean eight diameter
o(tained thro!gh dr0
sieving (mm)6 soil organic
matter (A)6 inorganic
nitrogen content (mg #er
kg) in the ;3B cm and the B3
667.1 -7.5 7.6-8.0 3.61-3 9.6-10.0 3.201-3.400 4.21-4.40 52.01-56.00 11
When water s the mtng factor, more avaabe
water makes the pants grow better, resutng n
hgher wthn-season NDVI eves and hgher end- of-
season crop and root bomass at the north-west sde
compared to the south-east sde of the ed. After
harvest, more remnant stubbe and root was eft on
the ed at the north-west sde. Ths caused organc
matter eves-and consequenty so structure,
retenton of water by organc matter, and ntraton
-to reman hgher at the north-west sde of the ed
than at the south-east sde under zero tage wth
resdue remova. In that way so water content at
the north-west sde mproved further compared to
the south-east sde and consequenty pant growth
and crop performance were better at the north-west
sde. Over the years, ths ncorrect agronomc
management, .e. zero tage wth resdue remova,
ncreased the spata varabty n so propertes and
crop performance snce spata varabty was ow n
the ed when the experment was started (Lopez-
Noveroa, 1995).
The varabty n so attrbutes nduced spata
varabty n crop performance: under zero tage
wth resdue remova, so quaty and crop
performance foowed mcro-topography wth hgher
vaues where eevaton was ower. Apart from that,
the genera so quaty degradaton under zero
tage wth resdue remova caused stressfu
condtons. As stated prevousy, stressfu condtons
ncrease pant-to-pant competton for resources
and ths competton resuts n greater pant
varabty (Martn et a., 2005). The zero tage
practce wth resdue remova caused a non-unform
dstrbuton of crop performance wthn the ed,
ndcatng the nemcent use of avaabe resources
wth consequent yed osses, snce n some parts of
the ed a hgher yed was acheved than n others
wthn the specc condtons of cmate and
germpasm.
Maps of pots under zero tage wth resdue
retenton contrasted sharpy wth those of pots
under zero tage wth resdue remova. The so
mosture content, ntraton (tme-to-pond), so
structure (MWD obtaned through dry sevng),
and organc matter content were unformy hgh
under zero tage wth resdue retenton (Fgure 4),
whereas zero tage wth resdue remova showed
hgher vaues where eevaton was ower. The ack of
the ehect of topography n resdue-retaned systems
s a consequence of the mpedance of run-oh due to
the presence of a much ayer (Govaerts et a.,
2006a) and a commensurate reducton n the
evaporatve oss of so water (Scope et a., 2004).
Both ncreased the amount of water avaabe for the
crop, ensurng an even crop performance throughout
the ed. The hgh so quaty reduced competton
for resources and n that way pant varabty. Vaues
and varabty for so attrbutes and crop
performance were ntermedate under conventona
tage.
The foregong shows that crop performance foowed
the same pattern as so mosture and reated
attrbutes, such as ntraton, so structure, and
organc matter. Thus, so mosture s the system's
mtng factor. To deveop sustanabe management
practces for ths target zone, mosture capture and
storage must be optmzed. The ntermedate so
quaty under conventona tage coud cause
probems n dry years when so water conservaton
s cruca to avod stress.
More detas on the case study can be found n
Verhust, N., B. Govaerts, K.D. Sayre, |. Deckers, L.
Dendooven. 2009. Usng NDVI and so quaty
anayss to assess nuence of agronomc
management on wthn-pot spata varabty and
factors mtng producton. Plant and Soil 317: 41-59.
Further readng
Kravchenko, A.N., G.P. Robertson, K.D. Theen, R.R.
Harwood. 2005. Management, Topographca en
Weather Ehects on Spata Varabty of Crop Gran
Yeds. Agronomy Journal 97: 514-523.
Kravchenko, A.N., D.G. Buock. 2000. Correaton of corn
and soybean gran yed wth topography and so
propertes. Agronomy Journal 92: 75-83.
Robertson, G.P., K.L. Gross. 1994. Assessng the
heterogenety of beow-ground resources:
Ouantfyng pattern and scae. In M.M. Cadwe, R.W.
Pearcy (eds.). Plant E#ploitation of En$ironmental
%eterogeneity& Academc Press, New York, New York,
USA: 237-253.
12
*e"erences
Adamsen, F.|., P|. Pnter, E.M. Barnes,
R.L. Lamorte, G.W. Wa, S.W. Leavtt,
B. A. Kmba. 1999. Measurng
wheat senescence wth a dgta
camera. Crop Sc. 39: 719-724.
Chapman, S.C., H.|. Barreto. 1997.
Usng a chorophy meter to
estmate specc eaf ntrogen of
tropca maze durng vegetatve
growth. Agron. |. 89: 557-562.
Edmeades, G.O., T.B. Daynard. 1979.
Deveopment of Pant-To-Pant
Varabty n Maze at Dherent
Pantng Denstes. Can. |. Pant Sc.
59: 561-576.
Envronmenta Systems Research
Insttute (ESRI), 2006. ArcGIS 9.2
Geostatstca Anayst. ESRI,
Redands, Caforna, USA.
Evans, |.R. 1989. Photosynthess and
ntrogen reatonshps n eaves of C-
3 pants. Oecooga 78: 9-19.
Fscher, R.A., F. Santver, I.R. Vda. 2002.
Crop rotaton, tage and crop
resdue management for wheat and
maze n the sub-humd tropca
hghands. I. Maze and system
performance. Fed Crops Res. 79:
123-137.
Gntng, D., |.F. Moncref, S.C. Gupta.
2003. Performance of a varabe
tage system based on nteractons
wth andscape and so. Precs.
Agrc. 4: 19-34.
Govaerts, B., M. Fuentes, K.D. Sayre,
M. Mezzaama, |.M. Nco, |.
Deckers, |. Etchevers, B. Fgueroa-
Sandova. 2007b. Intraton, so
mosture, root rot and nematode
popuatons after 12 years of
dherent tage, resdue and crop
rotaton managements. So T.
Res.
94: 209-219.
Govaerts, B., N. Verhust, K.D. Sayre, P.
Decorte, B. Goudeseune, K. Lchter,
|. Crossa, |. Deckers, L. Dendooven.
2007c. Spata crop varabty
evauated wth an optca sensor;
does crop management nuences
spata varabty? Pant and So.
299: 29-42.
Govaerts, B., M. Mezzaama, K.D. Sayre,
|. Crossa, K. Lchter, V. Troch, K.
Vanherck,
P. De Corte, |. Deckers. 2008.
Longterm consequences of
tage, resdue management, and
crop rotaton on seected so
mcro-ora groups n the
subtropca hghands. App. So
Eco.
38:197-210.
Govaerts, B., M. Mezzaama, K.D. Sayre,
|. Crossa, |.M. Nco, |. Deckers.
2006b. Long-term consequences of
tage, resdue management, and
crop rotaton on maze/wheat root
rot and nematode popuatons. App.
So Eco. 32: 305-315.
Govaerts, B., M. Mezzaama, Y. Unno,
K.D. Sayre, M. Luna-Gudo, K.
Vanherck, L. Dendooven, |.
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