07 Comfort Application

I nternational MSc Programme Sustainable Energy Engineering I nternational MSc Programme Sustainable Energy Engineering
THERMAL COMFORT AND INDOOR CLIMATE

Lecture:
- HVAC SYSTEMS IN COMFORT APPLICATIONS
Assist. Prof. Igor BALEN
Residential applications
- common residential HVAC systems:
- typical residential split system heat pump with supplemental electric
heaters (5), a humidifier (10), and an air filter (2):
(1) return duct
(2) filter
(3) fan
(4) indoor unit
(5) electric heaters
(6) indoor coil
(7) outdoor unit
(8) drainline
(9) supply duct
(10) humidifier
(11) refrigerant lines
- most commercially available
heat pumps are electrically
powered air-source systems.
Airflow rates of 160 to 220 m
3
/h per kWof cooling are normally
recommended for good cooling performance.
Air handling process in Mollier diagram
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Winter
O
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- residential split system heat pump
constant volume single-zone system
with typical cooling and heating
capacities up to 110-120 kW
- with an air-cooled condenser, hot gas
from the compressor is discharged to
an air-cooled condenser through the
discharge line located on the rooftop.
Liquid refrigerant is returned to the DX
coil from the air-cooled condenser
through the liquid line.
- size of a unit is determined primarily
by the required cooling capacity of the
DX coil at various operating conditions.
- check that the face velocity of the DX
coil does not exceed 2.8 m/s so that
condensate will not carry over.
Summer
Ground-sourced (geothermal) heat pump
- direct-expansion ground-source systems, with evaporators buried in the
ground, are rarely used.
- minimum land area needed for
most non-spiral horizontal loop
designs for an average house is
about 2000 m
2
.
- multiple pipes are often placed in
a single trench to reduce the
land area needed for horizontal
loop applications.
- parallel loops may require
slightly more pipe, but may use
smaller pipe and thus have
smaller internal volumes requiring
less antifreeze.
- loop should not pass within 0.6 m of any buried water line (potable,
sewer, or rainwater) (or insulate in that area).
- heat pump capacity is independent of ambient air temperature, reducing
supplementary heating requirements
- seasonal efficiency is usually higher for heating and for cooling.
Zoned heating and cooling
- possible to use multisplit heat pumps that consist of a central compressor
and an outdoor heat exchanger to service up to eight indoor zones.
- each zone uses one or more (usually DX) coils, with separate
thermostatic controls for each zone.
- such systems offer the potential for lower operating costs, because
unoccupied areas can be kept at lower or higher temperatures.
Retail merchandising facilities
Small stores
- single-zone unitary rooftop equipment is common in store AC
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Winter
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Summer
- retail facilities often have a high
sensible heat gain relative to the total
heat gain.
- using multiple units to condition the
store involves less ductwork and can
maintain comfort in the event of partial
equipment failure.
- heat pumps, offered as packaged
equipment, are readily adaptable to
small store applications and have a low
first cost.
- outside air economizers reduce the
operating cost.
- duct velocities should not exceed 6
m/s and pressure drop should not
exceed 0.8 Pa/m.
- average air quantities range from 160
to 220 m
3
/h per kWof cooling.
Small stores
- example of fan coil system with primary air supply
Large warehouse stores
- example of rooftop VAV system
Large warehouse stores
- interior areas often need cooling during business hours throughout the
year.
- perimeter areas, especially the storefront and entrance areas, may have
highly variable heating and cooling requirements proper zone control
and HVAC design are essential.
- roof mounted units are most commonly used.
- air is generally distributed from heights of 4.5 m and greater; air
distribution at these heights requires high velocities in the heating season
to overcome the buoyancy of hot air.
- during the cooling season the designer can take advantage of
stratification to reduce equipment load.
- controls should be simple, dependable, and fully automatic operated
by store personel.
Supermarkets
- air conditioning is required both for human comfort and for proper
operation of refrigerated display cases.
- problem heat removed by refrigerated displays; open refrigerator acts
as a large air cooler, absorbing heat from the room and rejecting it via the
condensers outside the building.
- additional sensible heat removed by the cases may change the air-
conditioning latent load ratio to as much as 50% of the net heat load;
removing a 50% latent load by refrigeration alone is very difficult it
requires specially designed equipment with reheat or chemical adsorption
(desiccant dehumidifiers and heat pipes can be used).
- desiccant dehumidification can provide levels of 35 to 40% rh at 24C.
- typically, a central AHU conditions the entire sales area. Specialty areas
like bakeries, computer rooms, or warehouses are better served with a
separate unit because the loads in these areas vary and require different
control than the sales area.
Supermarkets
- example of desiccant-based HVAC system
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- air supply to the space with a
standard air-conditioning
system is typically 20 m
3
/h per
square metre of sales area.
- this value should be
calculated based on the
sensible and latent internal
loads.
- desiccant system typically
requires less air supply
because of its high moisture
removal rate, typically 10 m
3
/h
per square metre.
Shopping centers
- may use a central plant or unitary equipment.
- the owner generally requires that the individual tenant stores connect to a
central plant and includes charges for heating and cooling in the rent.
- where unitary systems are used, the owner generally requires that the
individual tenant install a unitary system of similar design.
- typical central plant may distribute hot and/or chilled air to individual
tenant stores and to the mall air-conditioning system and use variable-
volume control and electric heating at the local use point.
- some all-air systems also distribute heated air.
- central plant provides improved efficiency and better overall economics of
operation.
- air distribution should maintain a slight positive pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure and a neutral pressure relative to most of the
individual tenant stores.
Shopping centers
- example of single-zone VAV system
Shopping centers
- during summer cooling mode part-load operation, the supply and return
volume flow rates are reduced to match the lower space cooling load.
- during winter, if the solar heat and internal load is greater than the space
loss, then a cooling mode operation of a cold air supply is still needed.
- outdoor air is often mixed with the recirculating air to form a mixture at a
temperature around 13C during the air economizer cycle for free cooling.
- warm air may be needed only during the morning warm-up period to raise
the space temperature.
- suspended ceiling is often used as a plenum for the return air.
Commercial buildings
General design criteria
General design concepts
- if a structure is characterized by several exposures and multipurpose
use, especially with wide load swings and non coincident energy use in
certain areas, multiunit or unitary systems may be considered for such
areas, but not necessarily for the entire building.
- benefits of transferring heat absorbed by cooling from one area to other
areas, processes, or services that require heat may enhance the selection
of such systems. Systems such as incremental closed loop heat pumps
may be cost-effective.
Dining and entertainment centers
- infiltration is a considerable factor in many restaurant applications
because of short occupancy and frequent door use.
- localized high sensible and latent heat gains in some areas (dancing).
- smoking versus nonsmoking areas.
- because eating and entertainment centers generally have low sensible
heat factors and require high ventilation rates, fan-coil and induction
systems are usually not applicable.
- all-air systems are often suitable. Space must be established for ducts,
except for small systems.
- in cafeterias, the air distribution system must keep food odors at the
serving counters away from eating areas heavy exhaust air
requirements at the serving counters.
- hoods required to remove heat from appliances may substantially reduce
the space latent loads.
- factors that influence system design and equipment selection:
High concentrations of food, body, and tobacco-smoke odors require
adequate ventilation with proper exhaust facilities.
Exhausting air at the ceiling removes smoke and odor.
Step control of refrigeration plants gives satisfactory and economical
operation under reduced loads.
Building design and space limitations often favor one equipment type
over another. For example, in a restaurant having a vestibule with
available space above it, air conditioning with condensers and evaporators
remotely located above the vestibule may be satisfactory. Such an
arrangement saves valuable space.
- factors that influence system design and equipment selection (continued):
In general, small cafeterias and bars, with loads up to 35 kW, can be
most economically conditioned with packaged units; larger and more
elaborate establishments require central plants. Smaller restaurants with
isolated plants usually use direct-expansion systems.
Mechanical humidification is typically not provided because of high
internal latent loads.
Some air-to-air heat recovery equipment can reduce the energy required
for heating and cooling ventilation air. The potential for grease
condensation on heat recovery surfaces must also be considered.
A vapor compression or desiccant-based dehumidifier should be
considered for makeup air handling and enhanced humidity control.
- in establishing design conditions, the duration of individual guest
occupancy should be considered. Guests entering from outside are more
comfortable in a room with a high temperature than those who remain long
enough to become acclimated.
- uniform employee comfort is difficult to maintain because of temperature
differences between the kitchen and dining room and the constant motion
of employees.
- Odor Removal. Transferring air from dining areas into the kitchen keeps
odors and heat out of dining areas and cools the kitchen. Outside air intake
and kitchen exhaust louvers should be located so that exhaust air is
neither drawn back into the system nor allowed to cause discomfort to
passersby.
- where odors can be drawn back into dining areas, activated charcoal
filters, air washers, or ozonators are used to remove odors.
- in restaurants, radiators or convectors, if required, should be located so
as not to overheat guests. This is difficult to achieve in some layouts
because of movable chairs and tables. For these reasons, it is desirable to
enclose all dining room and bar heating elements in insulated cabinets with
top outlet grilles and baseboard inlets. With heating elements located
under windows, this practice has the additional advantage of directing the
heat stream to combat window downdraft and air infiltration.
- separate smoking and nonsmoking areas may be required. The smoking
area should be exhausted or served by separate air-handling equipment.
Air diffusion device selection and placement should minimize smoke
migration toward nonsmoking areas. Smoking areas must have a negative
air pressure relationship with adjacent occupied areas.
- In bars and nightclubs, smoking is generally considerably heavier than in
restaurants. Therefore, outside air requirements are relatively high by
comparison.
- example of the duct layout in a restaurant
Office buildings
- usually include both peripheral and interior zone spaces. The peripheral
zone extends from 3 to 3.5 m inward from the outer wall toward the interior
of the building and frequently has a large window area.
- peripheral zone areas typically require heating in winter. During
intermediate seasons, one side of the building may require cooling, while
another side requires heating.
- interior zone spaces usually require a fairly uniform cooling rate
throughout the year because their thermal loads are derived almost
entirely from lights, office equipment and people VAV systems are often
applied.
- lights and normal equipment electrical loads average from 10 to 50 W/m
2
but may be higher, depending on the type of lighting and the amount of
equipment. Buildings with computer systems and other electronic
equipment can have electrical loads as high as 50 to 110 W/m
2
.
Office buildings
- variety of functions and range of design criteria applicable to office
buildings have allowed the use of almost every available air conditioning
system.
- built-in system flexibility is essential for office building design. For
buildings with one owner, operations may be defined clearly enough that a
system can be designed without the degree of flexibility needed for a less
well-defined operation.
- main entrances and lobbies are sometimes served by a separate system
because they buffer the outside atmosphere and the building interior.
Some engineers prefer to have a lobby summer temperature 2 to 3.5 C
above office temperature to reduce operating cost and the temperature
shock to people entering or leaving the building.
- most office buildings are designed to minimize outside air use, except
during economizer operation.
Office buildings
- high-rise office buildings have traditionally used perimeter dual-duct,
induction, or fan-coil systems. Where fan-coil or induction systems have
been installed at the perimeter, separate all-air systems have generally
been used for the interior.
- more recently, variable air volume systems, including modulated air
diffusers and self-contained perimeter unit systems, have also been used.
If variable air volume systems serve the interior, perimeters are usually
served by variable-volume or dual-duct systems supplemented with fan-
powered terminals, terminals with reheat coils, or radiation (ceiling panels
or baseboard).
- perimeter systems can be hydronic or electric. Perimeter heating system
separate from the cooling system is preferable.
- in small to medium-sized office buildings, air-source heat pumps may be
chosen.
- in larger buildings, water-to-water heat pump systems are feasible with
most types of air-conditioning systems. Heat removed from core
areas is rejected to either a cooling tower or perimeter circuits.
Office buildings
- example of multi-zone central system with reheat coils
Office buildings
- example of dual-duct VAV system
Office buildings
- example of four pipe fan-coil system
Office buildings
- example of water-sourced heat pump system
Office buildings
Office buildings
Office buildings
- example of low-rise
office building with
packaged AHU
Places of assembly
- similar to those for commercial and public buildings.
- rooms are generally large, have relatively high ceilings, and are few in
number for any given facility.
- usually have a periodically high density of occupancy per unit floor area
peak loads.
- occupants usually generate the major room cooling and ventilation load.
- number of occupants is best determined from the seat count, but when
this is not available, it can be estimated at 0.7 to 0.9 m
2
per person for the
entire seating area.
- outdoor air ventilation rates also can be a major portion of the total load.
- most assembly buildings have relatively high ceilings, some heat may be
allowed to stratify above the occupied zone, thereby reducing the load on
the equipment.
- noise control may be minimal in a gymnasium or natatorium,
but it is important in a concert hall.
Places of assembly
Indoor air conditions
In arenas, stadiums, gymnasiums, and cinemas, people generally dress
informally. Summer indoor conditions may favor the warmer end of the
thermal comfort scale while the winter indoor temperature may favor the
cooler end of the scale.
In churches, concert halls, and theaters, most men wear jackets and ties
and women often wear suits. The temperature should favor the middle
range of design, and there should be little summer-to-winter variation.
In convention and exhibition centers, the public is continually walking.
Here the indoor temperature should favor the lower range of comfort
conditions both in summer and in winter.
Ancilliary facilities should be served by separate systems when their
hours of use differ from those of the main assembly areas.
Places of assembly
General design concepts
- assembly buildings are frequently served by single zone or VAV systems
providing 100% outdoor air.
- separate air-handling units usually serve each zone, although multizone,
dual-duct, or reheat types can also be applied with lower operating
efficiency.
- in larger facilities, separate zones are generally provided for the entrance
lobbies and arterial corridors that surround the seating space. Low-
intensity radiant heating is often an efficient alternative.
- in extremely large facilities, several air-handling systems may serve a
single space, due to the limits of equipment size and also for energy and
demand considerations.
Places of assembly
Peak heat load reduction
(1) Thermal storage
- the storage of thermal energy at temperatures below the nominal
temperature of the space or process associated with a phase change
(usually between solid and liquid states) in the storage medium (latent
storage).
(2) Precooling
- precooling the building mass several degrees below the desired
indoor temperature several hours before it is occupied allows it to
absorb a part of the peak load. This cooling reduces the equipment
size needed to meet short-term loads. The effect can be used if
cooling time of at least 1 h is available prior to occupancy.
Places of assembly
Example of cooling system with ice storage
Places of assembly
Air distribution
- for cooling, air can be supplied from the overhead space, where it mixes
with heat from the lights and occupants.
- return air openings can also aid air distribution. Air returns located below
seating or at a low level around the seating can effectively distribute air
with minimum drafts.
- supply jet nozzles with long throws of 15 to 45 m may need to be installed
on sidewalls.
- for ceiling distribution, downward throw is not critical provided returns are
low. The supply air must be discharged from the air outlet (preferably at
the ceiling) at the highest velocity consistent with an acceptable noise
level. Although perhaps this velocity does not allow the conditioned air to
reach all seats, the return air registers, which are located near seats not
reached by the conditioned air, pull the air to cool or heat the audience, as
required.
Example of flow in a large indoor stadium using supply nozzles
Places of assembly
Indoor swimming pools
- humidity control is esential for proper system operation. High relative
humidity levels are destructive to building components. Mold and mildew
can attack wall, floor, and ceiling coverings, and condensation can
degrade many building materials.
- air temperatures in public and institutional pools should be maintained 1
to 2 C above the water temperature (but not above the comfort threshold
of 30C) to reduce the evaporation rate and avoid chill effects on
swimmers.
Places of assembly
- pool areas should be maintained at a negative pressure of 15 to 40 Pa
relative to adjacent areas of the building to prevent moisture and
chloramine odor migration.
- air delivery rates:
Pools with no spectator areas 4 to 6 air changes per hour
Spectator areas 6 to 8 air changes per hour
Therapeutic pools 4 to 6 air changes per hour
- supply air should be directed against interior envelope surfaces prone to
condensation (walls, glass, and doors). A portion of the supply air should
be directed over the water surface to move contaminated air toward an
exhaust point and control chloramines released at the water surface.
-exhaust air inlets should be located to maximize capture effectiveness
and minimize the recirculation of chloramines. Exhausting from the ceiling
directly above water surface is also desirable. Exhaust air should be taken
to the outside, through heat recovery devices where provided.
Places of assembly
- example of combined heat pump and rotary wheel energy recovery
Places of assembly
Places of assembly
Full load winter operation Full load summer operation
- example of combined heat pump and
heat pipe energy recovery
Places of assembly
Hotels
- ideally, each room served by an HVAC unit should be able to be
ventilated, cooled, heated, or dehumidified independently of any other
room. If not, air conditioning for each room will be compromised.
- typically, the space is not occupied at all times. For adequate flexibility,
each units ventilation and cooling should be able to be shut off (except
when humidity control is required), and its heating to be shut off or turned
down.
- wide load swings and diversity within and between rooms require the
design of a flexible system for 24-hour comfort.
- the building has a relatively high hot water demand, generally for periods
of an hour or two, several times a day.
- reheat should be avoided unless some sort of heat recovery is involved.
- dehumidification can be achieved by lowering cooling coil temperatures
and reducing airflow. Another means of dehumidification is desiccant
dehumidifiers.
Hotels
Energy efficient system
- most efficient systems generally include water-source and air-source heat
pumps. In areas with ample solar radiation, water-source heat pumps may
be solar assisted.
- water-loop heat pump has a lower operating cost than air-cooled unitary
equipment, especially where electric heat is used. Operating costs are low
due to the energy conservation inherent in the system.
- excess heat may be stored during the day for the following night, and
heat may be transferred from one part of the building to another.
- system allows simultaneous cooling and heating.
Hotels
- example of a hotel air-conditioning system using an water-source heat
pump
Hotels
Energy efficient system
- example of a hotel HVAC system using an water-source heat pump:
- this solution uses the condensation heat of the heat pump condenser in
the hotel facility air-conditioning process and sanitary water heating as
well, and it also operates as the cooling machine.
- instead of wasting the condensing heat to the atmosphere, it is used for
heating and/or its stored in the sanitary warm water.
- analysis of the buildings heat requirements has shown that in winter
season, when the outside temperature is t
o
4C, heat pump completely
covers buildings heat losses. For lower temperatures, supplementary
heating is required.
Hotels
Energy neutral system
- do not allow simultaneous cooling and heating.
(1) packaged terminal air conditioners (PTACs) (through-the-wall units)
(2) window units or radiant ceiling panels for cooling combined with finned
or baseboard radiation for heating
(3) unitary air conditioners with an integrated heating system
(4) fan coils with remote condensing units
(5) variable air volume (VAV) systems with either perimeter radiant panel
heating or baseboard heating.
Hotels
Energy inefficient system
- allow simultaneous cooling and heating.
(1) two-, three-, and four-pipe fan coil units
(2) terminal reheat systems
(3) induction systems.
Total energy systems
- a form of cogeneration in which all or most electrical and thermal energy
needs are met by on-site systems.
Hotels
Guest rooms
- air conditioning in hotel rooms should be quiet, easily adjustable, and
draft free. It must also provide ample outside air.
- the hotel business is so competitive and space is at a premium, systems
that require little space and have low total owning and operating costs
should be selected.
- maximum comfort in these areas is critical to the success of any hotel.
Hotels
Guest rooms
- most hotels use all-water (fan coils) or unitary refrigerant-based
equipment (packaged air conditioners and heat pumps).
Compared to unitary refrigerant-based units, all-water systems offer the
following advantages:
Reduced total installed cooling capacity due to load diversity
Lower operating cost due to a more efficient central cooling plant
Lower noise level (compared to PTAC and water-source heat pump)
Longer service life
Less equipment to be maintained in the occupied space
Less water in circulation (compared to water-source heat pump)
Smaller pipes and pumps (compared to water-source heat pump)
Hotels
Guest rooms
The unitary refrigerant-based system offer the following advantages:
Lower first cost
Immediate all year availability of heating and cooling
No seasonal changeover required
Cooling available without operating a central refrigeration plant
Can transfer energy from spaces being cooled to spaces being heated
(with water-source heat pump)
Range of circulated water temperature requires no pipe insulation (for
water-source heat pump)
Less dependence on a central plant for heating and cooling
Simplicity, which results in lower operating and maintenance staff costs.
Hotels
Guest rooms
- fan coil/heat pump unit is most commonly located:
Above the ceiling in the guest room entry corridor or above the bathroom
ceiling (horizontal air discharge) - preferred
On the rooms perimeter wall (vertical air discharge)
In a floor to ceiling enclosed chase (horizontal air discharge).
Hotels
Guest rooms
-example of locating equipment above the ceiling in the guest room entry
corridor or above the bathroom ceiling:
Hotels
Moisture control
- can be achieved by applying the following techniques:
1. Introduce adequately dried ventilation (makeup) air [i.e., with humidity
8.2 g/kg of dry air or less] directly to the guest room.
2. Maintain slightly positive pressure in the guest room to minimize
infiltration of hot and humid air into the room.
3. Provide additional dehumidification capability to the ventilation (makeup
air) by dehumidifying the air to a lower level than the desired space
humidity ratio. For example, introducing 100 m
3
/h of makeup air at 8 g/kg
can provide approximately 120 W of internal latent cooling (assuming 9.5
g/kg is a desirable space humidity ratio).
4. Allow air conditioning to operate in unoccupied rooms instead of turning
the units off, especially in humid areas.
5. Improve the room envelope by increasing its vapor and infiltration
resistance.
Hotels
Noise control
- sound level in guest room and public areas is a major design element.
- both level and constancy of the noise generated by the HVAC unit are of
concern.
- normally, packaged-terminal air conditioners/heat pumps and water-
source heat pumps are noisier due to the compressor. Some equipment,
however, has extra sound insulation, which reduces the noise significantly.
- lowering the fan speed, which is usually acceptable, can reduce fan noise
levels.
- noise from equipment located on the roof or in a mechanical room
located next to a guest room should be avoided.
Health care - hospitals
- in many cases, proper air conditioning is a factor in patient therapy; in
some instances, it is the major treatment.
- studies show that patients in controlled environments generally have
more rapid physical improvement than do those in uncontrolled
environments.
- basic differences between air conditioning for hospitals (and related
health facilities) and that for other building types stem from:
(1) need to restrict air movement in and between the various departments;
(2) specific requirements for ventilation and filtration to dilute and remove
contamination (odor, airborne microorganisms and viruses, and hazardous
chemical and radioactive substances);
(3) different temperature and humidity requirements for various areas;
(4) design sophistication needed to permit accurate control of
environmental conditions.
Hospital design criteria (selection)
- temperature and humidity for other inpatient areas not covered should be
24C or less and 35% to 60% rh.
- air diffusion in operating room
Air quality
- system must provide air virtually free of dust, dirt, odor, and chemical and
radioactive pollutants. In some cases, outside air is hazardous to patients
suffering from cardiopulmonary, respiratory, or pulmonary conditions. In
such instances, systems that intermittently provide maximum allowable
recirculated air should be considered.
- bottom of outside air intakes serving central systems should be located
as high as practical (3.5 m recommended) but not less than 1.8 m above
ground level or, if installed above the roof, 1 m above the roof level.
- exhaust outlets should be located a minimum of 3 m above ground level
and away from doors, occupied areas, and operable windows. Preferred
location for exhaust outlets is at roof level projecting upward or horizontally
away from outside air intakes.
Air quality
- central ventilation or air-conditioning systems should be equipped with
filters having efficiencies no lower than those specified in local codes and
standards.
- manometer should be installed in the filter system to measure pressure
drop across each filter bank. Visual observation is not accurate for
determining filter loading.
- high-efficiency filters should be installed in the system, with adequate
facilities provided for maintenance without introducing contamination into
the delivery system or the area served.
- during construction, openings in ductwork and diffusers should be sealed
to prevent intrusion of dust, dirt, and hazardous materials.
Air movement
- systems serving highly contaminated areas, such as autopsy and
airborne infectious isolation rooms, must maintain a negative air pressure
in these rooms relative to adjoining rooms or the corridor.
- areas where highly infectious patients may be treated and infectious
isolation rooms that house immunosuppressed patients should include an
anteroom between the operating or protective-environment room and the
corridor or other contiguous space. Current thinking is that the anteroom
should be always positive to corridor and surrounding space when used in
a protective-environment setting.
- a level of differential air pressure (2.5 Pa) can be maintained only in a
tightly sealed room. Therefore, it is important to obtain a reasonably close
fit of all doors and seal all walls and floors.
Air distribution
- in general, outlets supplying air to sensitive ultraclean areas should be
located on the ceiling, and perimeter or several exhaust outlets should be
near the floor. This arrangement provides downward movement of clean
air through the breathing and working zones to the floor area for exhaust.
- ventilation system design must as much as possible provide air
movement from clean to less clean areas.
- laminar airflow concept developed for industrial clean room use has
attracted interest from some medical authorities. Laminar airflow in surgical
operating rooms is predominantly unidirectional when not obstructed; this
airflow pattern is commonly attained at a velocity of 0.45 0.10 m/s.
Laminar airflow has shown promise in rooms used for treating patients who
are highly susceptible to infection.
- typical HVAC system in the operating room
Equipment selection
- in critical-care areas, constant-volume systems should be used to ensure
proper pressure relationships and ventilation.
- in noncritical patient care areas and staff rooms, VAV systems may be
considered for energy conservation. When using VAV systems in the
hospital, special care should be taken to ensure that minimum ventilation
rates and pressure relationships between various spaces are maintained.
- for maximum energy conservation, using recirculated air is preferred. If
all-outside air is used, an efficient heat recovery method should be
considered.
- for energy conservation in operating rooms, the air-conditioning system
should allow a reduction in the air supplied to some or all of the operating
rooms when possible. Positive space pressure must be maintained at
reduced air volumes to ensure sterile conditions.
- example of desiccant-based hospital HVAC system

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I nternational MSc Programme Sustainable Energy Engineering I nternational MSc Programme Sustainable Energy Engineering

THERMAL COMFORT AND INDOOR CLIMATE

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