ABSTRACT:

The objective of this project is to design the 4-20mA transmitter for a bridge
transducer using Op-amp.
4-20 mA is an analog electrical transmission standard for industrial
instrumentation and communication. The symbol "mA" is standard ! notation for
milliampere" or #$#000 of an ampere. The signal is a current loop %here 4 mA
represents &ero percent signals and 20 mA represents the one hundred percent signal.
The reason &ero is at 4 mA and not 0 mA is that this "live &ero" allo%s the receiving
instrumentation to differentiate bet%een a &ero signal and a bro'en %ire or a dead
instrument. This standard %as developed in the #()0s and is still %idely used in
industry today" even though many attempts have been made to replace it %ith digital
forms of communication such as fieldbus and *rofibus. !ts benefits of being a %idely
follo%ed standard" lo% cost" its reliability and immunity to electrical noise 'eep it in
regular use. +urrent loop is also much easier to understand and debug than more
complicated digital fieldbuses. ,sing fieldbuses and solving related problems usually
re-uires much more education and understanding than re-uired by simple current loop
solutions. Additional digital communication to the device can be added to current loop
using .A/T *rotocol.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
0!112/23T!A4
A5*4!1!2/
,55!36
A5*4!1!2/
T25*2/AT,/2
52A,/2523
T ,3!T
7ATT2/8
9O4TA62 TO
+,//23T
+O392/T2/
i. BATTERY
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy.
:#;
ince the invention of the first battery <or "voltaic pile"= in
#>00 by Alessandro 9olta" batteries have become a common po%er source for many
household and industrial applications. According to a 200) estimate" the %orld%ide battery
industry generates ,?4> billion in sales each year"
:2;
%ith @A annual gro%th.
:B;
There are t%o types of batteriesC primary batteries <disposable batteries=" %hich are designed
to be used once and discarded %hen they are eDhausted" and secondary batteries
<rechargeable batteries=" %hich are designed to be recharged and used multiple times.
5iniature cells are used to po%er devices such as hearing aids and %rist%atchesE larger
batteries provide standby po%er for telephone eDchanges or computer data centers.
How batteries work
A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. !n this eDample the t%o half-cells are lin'ed by a
salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions" but not %ater molecules.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.
:22;
!t consists
of a number of voltaic cellsE each voltaic cell consists of t%o half cells connected in series by
a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the electrode to %hich anions <negatively charged ions= migrate" i.e." the anode or negative
electrodeE the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to %hich cations
<positively charged ions= migrate" i.e." the cathode or positive electrode. !n the redoD reaction
that po%ers the battery" reduction <addition of electrons= occurs to cations at the cathode"
%hile oDidation <removal of electrons= occurs to anions at the anode.
:2B;
The electrodes do
not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. 5any cells use t%o
half-cells %ith different electrolytes. !n that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container" and
a separator that is porous to ions" but not the bul' of the electrolytes" prevents miDing.
2ach half cell has an electromotive force <or emf=" determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the eDterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
bet%een the emfs of its half-cells" as first recogni&ed by 9olta.
:#2;
Therefore" if the electrodes
have emfs and " then the net emf is E in other %ords" the net emf is the difference
bet%een the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
:24;
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is 'no%n as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.
:2);
The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and e-uals the emf of the cell.
7ecause of internal resistance
:2@;
" the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
eDceeds the open-circuit voltage.
:2F;
An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance" so it
%ould maintain a constant terminal voltage of until eDhausted" then dropping to &ero. !f
such a cell maintained #.) volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete
discharge it %ould perform #.) joule of %or'.
:2);
!n actual cells" the internal resistance
increases under discharge"
:2@;
and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. !f
the voltage and resistance are plotted against time" the resulting graphs typically are a curveE
the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
:2>;
As stated above" the voltage developed across a cellGs terminals depends on the energy
release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Al'aline and carbon-&inc
cells have different chemistries but approDimately the same emf of #.) voltsE li'e%ise 3i+d
and 3i5. cells have different chemistries" but approDimately the same emf of #.2 volts.
:2(;
On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium
compounds give lithium cells emfs of B volts or more.
:B0;
ii.Opa!p
Operatio"a# a!p#i$iers <"op-amps"= are important building bloc's for a %ide range of
electronic circuits. They had their origins in analog computers %here they %ere used in many
linear" non-linear and fre-uency-dependent circuits. Their popularity in circuit design largely
stems from the fact the characteristics of the final elements <such as their gain= are set by
eDternal components %ith little dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing
variations in the op-amp itself.
An operational amplifier is a 0+-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier %ith a
differential input and" usually" a single-ended output.
:#;
An op-amp produces an output
voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference
bet%een its input terminals.
:2;
Op-amps are among the most %idely used electronic devices today" being used in a vast
array of consumer" industrial" and scientific devices. 5any standard !+ op-amps cost only a
fe% cents in moderate production volumeE ho%ever some integrated or hybrid operational
amplifiers %ith special performance specifications may cost over ?#00 , in small
-uantities. Op-amps may be pac'aged as components" or used as elements of more compleD
integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include
the fully differential amplifier <similar to the op-amp" but %ith t%o outputs=" the
instrumentation amplifier <usually built from three op-amps=" the isolation amplifier <similar
to the instrumentation amplifier" but %ith tolerance to common-mode voltages that %ould
destroy an ordinary op-amp=" and negative feedbac' amplifier <usually built from one or
more op-amps and a resistive feedbac' net%or'=.
iii. S%MMI&G AM'LI(IER
The S)!!i"* A!p#i$ier is a very fleDible circuit based upon the standard Inverting
Operational Amplifier configuration. He sa% previously in the !nverting Amplifier tutorial
that the !nverting Amplifier has a single input signal applied to the !nverting input terminal.
!f %e add another input resistor e-ual in value to the original input resistor" /in %e end up
%ith another operational amplifier circuit called a S)!!i"* A!p#i$ier.
S)!!i"* A!p#i$ier Cir+)it
i,.DI((ERE&TIAL AM'LI(IER
,p to no% %e have used only one input to connect to the amplifier" using either the
"!nverting" or the "3on-inverting" input terminal to amplify a single input signal %ith the
other input being connected to ground. 7ut %e can also connect signals to both of the inputs
at the same time producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit called a
Di$$ere"tia# A!p#i$ier.
7y connecting one voltage signal onto one input terminal and another voltage signal onto the
other input terminal the resultant output voltage %ill be proportional to the "0ifference"
bet%een the t%o input signals of 9# and 92 and this type of circuit can also be used as a
S)btra+tor. Then" this type of Operational Amplifier circuit is commonly 'no%n as a
Di$$ere"tia# A!p#i$ier configuration and is sho%n belo%C
Di$$ere"tia# A!p#i$ier
The transfer function for a Di$$ere"tia# A!p#i$ier circuit is given asC
Hhen /# I /B and /2 I /4 the transfer function formula can be modified to the follo%ingC
!f all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value the circuit %ill become a %"ity Gai"
Di$$ere"tia# A!p#i$ier and the gain of the amplifier %ill be # or ,nity.
,.- To I Co",erter
!n instrumentation circuitry" 0+ signals are often used as analog representations of physical
measurements such as temperature" pressure" flo%" %eight" and motion. 5ost commonly" DC
current signals are used in preference to DC voltage signals" because current signals are
eDactly e-ual in magnitude throughout the series circuit loop carrying current from the
source <measuring device= to the load <indicator" recorder" or controller=" %hereas voltage
signals in a parallel circuit may vary from one end to the other due to resistive %ire losses.
1urthermore" current-sensing instruments typically have lo% impedances <%hile voltage-
sensing instruments have high impedances=" %hich gives current-sensing instruments greater
electrical noise immunity.
!n order to use current as an analog representation of a physical -uantity" %e have to have
some %ay of generating a precise amount of current %ithin the signal circuit. 7ut ho% do %e
generate a precise current signal %hen %e might not 'no% the resistance of the loopJ The
ans%er is to use an amplifier designed to hold current to a prescribed value" applying as
much or as little voltage as necessary to the load circuit to maintain that value. uch an
amplifier performs the function of a current source. An op-amp %ith negative feedbac' is a
perfect candidate for such a tas'C
vi. TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A thermistor is a type of resistor %hose resistance varies %ith temperature. The %ord is a
portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are %idely used as inrush current limiters"
temperature sensors" self-resetting overcurrent protectors" and self-regulating heating
elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors </T0= in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer" %hile /T0s use pure metals. The temperature
response is also differentE /T0s are useful over larger temperature ranges" %hile thermistors
typically achieve a higher precision %ithin a limited temperature range :usually K(0 L+ to
#B0 L+;.
Basi+ operatio"
Thermistor symbol
Assuming" as a first-order approDimation" that the relationship bet%een resistance and
temperature is linear" thenC
Hhere"
MR = change in resistance
MT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into t%o types" depending on the sign of k. !f k is positive" the
resistance increases %ith increasing temperature" and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient <*T+= thermistor" or posistor. !f k is negative" the resistance
decreases %ith increasing temperature" and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient <3T+= thermistor. /esistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as
close to &ero as possible" so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a %ide
temperature range.
!nstead of the temperature coefficient k" sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance
N <alpha= or N
T
is used. !t is defined as
:#;
1or eDample" for the common *T#00 sensor" N I 0.00B>) or 0.B>) A$L+. This N
T
coefficient
should not be confused %ith the N parameter belo%.
vii.AD 741 OP-AMP:
The Analog Devices AD741 Series are high performance monolithic operational amplifiers.
All the devices feature full short circuit protection and internal compensation The Analog
Devices AD741J, AD741, AD741!, and AD741S are speciall" tested and selected versions
of the standard AD741 operational amplifier. #mproved processing and additional electrical
testing guarantee the user precision performance at a ver" lo$ cost. The AD741J, and !
su%stantiall" increase overall accurac" over the standard AD741& %" providing ma'imum
limits on offset voltage drift and significantl" reducing the errors due to offset voltage, %ias
current, offset current, voltage gain, po$er suppl" re(ection and common-mode re(ection.
)or e'ample, the AD741! features ma'imum offset voltage drift of * m+,-&,offset voltage
of ..* m+ ma', offset current of * nA ma', %ias current of *. nA ma' and a &/00 of 1.
d2 min. The AD741S offers guaranteed performance over the e'tended temperature range of
3**-& to 415*-&, $ith ma' offset voltage drift of 1* m+,-&, ma' offset voltage of 4 m+,
ma' offset current of
5* nA, and a minimum &/00 of 6. d2.
viii.AD 741 FEATURES:
7recision #nput &haracteristics
!o$ +8S9 ..* m+ ma' :!;
!o$ +8S Drift9 * m+,6& ma' :!;
!o$ #%9 *. nA ma' :!;
!o$ l8S9 * nA ma' :!;
<igh &/009 1. d2 min :, !;
<igh 8utput &apa%ilit"
A8! = 5*,... min, 1 =+ !oad :J, S; T/#> to T/A?
+8 = @1. + min, 1 =+ !oad :J, S;
&hips and /#!-STD-66A2 7arts Availa%le
ix.AD 741 PIN DIAGRAM
..TEM'ERAT%RE SE&SOR /ITH CIRC%IT
A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a t0er!istor. There are several different typesC
The resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the temperature rises. They
are called "e*ati,e te!perat)re +oe$$i+ie"t" or "t+" thermistors. 3ote the -tL neDt to the
circuit symbol. A typical ntc thermistor is made using semiconductor metal oDide materials.
<emiconductors have resistance properties mid%ay bet%een those of conductors and
insulators.= As the temperature rises" more charge carriers become available and the
resistance falls.
Although less often used" it is possible to manufacture positi,e te!perat)re +oe$$i+ie"t" or
pt+" thermistors. These are made of different materials and sho% an increase in resistance
%ith temperature.
.o% could you ma'e a sensor circuit for use in a fire alarmJ 8ou %ant a circuit %hich %ill
deliver a .!6. voltage %hen hot conditions are detected. 8ou need a voltage divider %ith
the ntc thermistor in the R
top
positionC
.o% could you ma'e a sensor circuit to detect temperatures less than 4L+ to %arn motorists
that there may be ice on the roadJ 8ou %ant a circuit %hich %ill give a .!6. voltage in cold
conditions. 8ou need a voltage divider %ith the thermistor in place of R
bottom
C
This last application raises an important -uestionC .o% do you 'no% %hat value of V
out
you
are going to get at 4L+J
To ans%er this -uestion" you need to estimate the resistance of the thermistor at 4L+.
4ots of different types of thermistor are manufactured and each has its o%n characteristic
pattern of resistance change %ith temperature. The diagram belo% sho%s the t0er!istor
+0ara+teristi+ +)r,e for one particular thermistorC
On the y-aDis" resistance is plotted on a logarithmic scale. This is a %ay of compressing the
graph so that it is easier to see ho% the resistance changes. 7et%een #00 and #000 " each
hori&ontal division corresponds to #00 . On the other hand" bet%een #000 and #0000 "
each division corresponds to #000 . Above #0000 " each division respresents #0000 .
As you can see" this thermistor has a resistance %hich varies from around F0 at 0L+ to
about # at #00L+. uppliers catalogues usually give the resistance at 2)L+" %hich %as 20
in this case. ,sually" catalogues also specify a G7etaG or G7-valueG. Hhen these t%o
numbers are specified" it is possible to calculate an approDimate value for the resistance of
the thermistor at any particular temperature from the e-uationC
HhereC
R
T
is the resistance at temperature T in Oelvin <I L+ P2FB=
R
T0
is the resistance at a reference temperature T
0
in Oelvin. Hhen the reference temperature
is 2)L+" T
0
I 2)P2FB.
e is the natural logarithm base" raised to the po%er in this e-uation.
B is the 7-value specified for this thermistor.
8ou donGt need to thin' about applying this e-uation at the moment" but it is useful to 'no%
that the information provided in catalogues is sufficient to allo% you to predict thermistor
performance. ,sing a spreadsheet such as !cel" it is possible to to generate characteristic
curves for any thermistor by calculating resistance values for a range of temperatures.
Hith R
T0
I 20 and B I4200" resistance changes from 0 to #0L+ are as follo%sC
1rom the graph" the resistance at 4L+ can be estimated as just a little less than @0 . 7y
calculation using the e-uation" the eDact value is )>.2 .
Hhat this means is that selecting a value for R
top
close to )>.2 %ill ma'e the voltage
divider for the ice alert most sensitive at 4L+. The nearest 2#2$224 value is )@ . This
matters because large changes in V
out
ma'e it easier to design the other subsystems in the ice
alert" so that temperatures belo% 4L+ %ill be reliably detected.
ensor devices vary considerably in resistance and you can apply this rule to ma'e sure that
the voltage dividers you build %ill al%ays be as sensitive as possible at the critical point.
Thermistors turn up in more places than you might imagine. They are eDtensively used in
cars" for eDample inC
electronic fuel in(ection, in $hich air-inlet, air,fuel mi'ture and cooling $ater
temperatures are monitored to help determine the fuel concentration for optimum
in(ection.
air conditioning and seat temperature controls.
$arning indicators such as oil and fluid temperatures, oil level and tur%o-charger
s$itch off.
fan motor control, %ased on cooling $ater temperature
frost sensors, for outside temperature measurement
acoustic s"stems
Thermistors are used to measure surface and deep%ater sea temperatures in helping to
monitor l "i#o ocean currents. 4ess obviously" thermistors are used to measure air flo%" for
instance in monitoring breathing in premature babies
4-5. mA Transmitter 2ridge &ircuit
1meg
1meg
1..=
5
1..=
A
0TD 04
6=
!8
-
+-
47= 47=
4
01 05
8S1
47.=
@
*
47.=
+5
A
5
-
4
1
!8
*+
AD741 8BT
4
<#
+-
8S1
1
@
*
+4
8S5 AD741 8BT
4
<#
+4
7
7
1meg
.
7
8S5
1meg
.
<#
<# +4
!8
A
1*
5
4
AD741
-
!8
8S5
*
@
1 :4-5.; mA
1*
8BT
+-
8S1
. .
4
47.
.
PROCESS-CONTROL USE
)or industrial process control instruments, analog 4-5. mA and 1.-*. mA
current loops are commonl" used for analog signaling, $ith 4 mA representing the
lo$est end of the rangeand 5. mA the highest. The =e" advantages of the current
loop are that the accurac" of the signal is not affected %" voltage drop in the
interconnecting $iring, and that the loop can suppl" operating po$er to the device.
Cven if there is significant electrical resistance in the line, the current loop
transmitter $ill maintain the proper current, up to its ma'imum voltage capa%ilit".
The live-Dero represented %" 4 mA allo$s the receiving instrument to detect some
failures of the loop, and also allo$s transmitter devices to %e po$ered %" the same
current loop :called t$o- $ire transmitters;. Such instruments are used to measure
pressure, temperature, flo$, p< or other process varia%les. A current loop can also
%e used to control a valve positioner or other output actuator. An analog current
loop can %e converted to a voltage input $ith a precision resistor. Since input
terminals of instruments ma" have one side of the current loop input tied to the
chassis ground :earth;, analog isolators ma" %e reEuired $hen connecting several
devices in series.
Ta=ing the point of vie$ of the source of current for the loop, devices ma" %e
classified as active :suppl"ing po$er; or passive :rel"ing on loop po$er;. )or
e'ample, a chart recorder ma" provide loop po$er to a transmitter instrument such
as a pressure transmitter. The pressure transmitter modulates the current on the
loop to send the signal to the strip chart recorder, %ut does not in itself suppl"
po$er to the loop and so is passive. Another loop ma" contain t$o passive chart
recorders, a passive pressure transmitter, and a 54 + %atter". :The %atter" is the
active device;. 7anel mount displa"s and chart recorders are commonl" termed
Findicator devicesF or Fprocess monitorsF. Several passive indicator devices ma" %e
connected in series, %ut a loop must have onl" one transmitter device and onl" one
po$er source :active device;.
The relationship %et$een current value and process varia%le measurement is set %"
cali%ration, $hich assigns different ranges of engineering units to the span %et$een
4 and 5. mA. 8ccasionall" the mapping %et$een engineering units and current
$as inverted, so that 4 mA represented the ma'imum and 5. mA the minimum.