Production theory basics

Production refers to the economic process of converting of inputs into outputs. Production uses
resources to create a good or service that is suitable for exchange. This can include
manufacturing, storing, shipping, and packaging. Some economists define production broadly as
all economic activity other than consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the
final purchase as some form of production.
Production is a process, and as such it occurs through time and space. Because it is a flow
concept, production is measured as a rate of output per period of time. There are three aspects
to production processes:
1. the quantity of the good or service produced,
2. the form of the good or service created,
3. the temporal and spatial distribution of the good or service produced.
A production process can be defined as any activity that increases the similarity between the
pattern of demand for goods and services, and the quantity, form, shape, size, length and
distribution of these goods and services available to the market place.

Contents
[hide]
1 Factors of production
2 Total, average, and marginal product
3 Diminishing returns
4 Diminishing marginal returns
5 Many ways of expressing the production relationship
6 Isoquants
7 The marginal rate of technical substitution
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] Factors of production
Main article: Factors of production
The inputs or resources used in the production process are called factors of production by
economists. The myriad of possible inputs are usually grouped into six categories. These factors
are:
Raw materials
Machinery
Labour services
Capital goods
Land
Entrepreneur
In the long run, all of these factors of production can be adjusted by management. The short
run, however, is defined as a period in which at least one of the factors of production is fixed.
A fixed factor of production is one whose quantity cannot readily be changed. Examples include
major pieces of equipment, suitable factory space, and key managerial personnel.
A variable factor of production is one whose usage rate can be changed easily. Examples include
electrical power consumption, transportation services, and most raw material inputs. In the short
run, a firms scale of operations determines the maximum number of outputs that can be
produced. In the long run, there are no scale limitations.
[edit] Total, average, and marginal product


Total Product Curve
The total product (or total physical product) of a variable factor of production identifies what
outputs are possible using various levels of the variable input. This can be displayed in either a
chart that lists the output level corresponding to various levels of input, or a graph that
summarizes the data into a total product curve. The diagram shows a typical total product
curve. In this example, output increases as more inputs are employed up until point A. The
maximum output possible with this production process is Qm. (If there are other inputs used in
the process, they are assumed to be fixed.)
The average physical product is the total production divided by the number of units of variable
input employed. It is the output of each unit of input. If there are 10 employees working on a
production process that manufactures 50 units per day, then the average product of variable
labour input is 5 units per day.


Average and Marginal Physical Product Curves
The average product typically varies as more of the input is employed, so this relationship can
also be expressed as a chart or as a graph. A typical average physical product curve is shown
(APP). It can be obtained by drawing a vector from the origin to various points on the total
product curve and plotting the slopes of these vectors.
The marginal physical product of a variable input is the change in total output due to a one unit
change in the variable input (called the discrete marginal product) or alternatively the rate of
change in total output due to an infinitesimally small change in the variable input (called the
continuous marginal product). The discrete marginal product of capital is the additional output
resulting from the use of an additional unit of capital (assuming all other factors are fixed). The
continuous marginal product of a variable input can be calculated as the derivative of quantity
produced with respect to variable input employed. The marginal physical product curve is shown
(MPP). It can be obtained from the slope of the total product curve.
Because the marginal product drives changes in the average product, we know that when the
average physical product is falling, the marginal physical product must be less than the average.
Likewise, when the average physical product is rising, it must be due to a marginal physical
product greater than the average. For this reason, the marginal physical product curve must
intersect the maximum point on the average physical product curve.
Notes: MPP keeps increasing until it reaches its maximum. Up until this point every additional
unit has been adding more value to the total product than the previous one. From this point
onwards, every additional unit adds less to the total product compared to the previous one MPP
is decreasing. But the average product is still increasing till MPP touches APP. At this point, an
additional unit is adding the same value as the average product. From this point onwards, APP
starts to reduce because every additional unit is adding less to APP than the average product. But
the total product is still increasing because every additional unit is still contributing positively.
Therefore, during this period, both, the average as well as marginal products, are decreasing, but
the total product is still increasing. Finally we reach a point when MPP crosses the x-axis. At this
point every additional unit starts to diminish the product of previous units, possibly by getting
into their way. Therefore the total product starts to decrease at this point. This is point A on the
total product curve. (Courtesy: Dr. Shehzad Inayat Ali).
[edit] Diminishing returns
Diminishing returns can be divided into three categories: 1. Diminishing Total returns, which
implies reduction in total product with every additional unit of input. This occurs after point A in
the graph. 2. Diminishing Average returns, which refers to the portion of the APP curve after
its intersection with MPP curve. 3. Diminishing Marginal returns, refers to the point where the
MPP curve starts to slope down and travels all the way down to the x-axis and beyond. Putting it
in a chronological order, at first the marginal returns start to diminish, then the average returns,
followed finally by the total returns.
[edit] Diminishing marginal returns
These curves illustrate the principle of diminishing marginal returns to a variable input (not
to be confused with diseconomies of scale which is a long term phenomenon in which all factors
are allowed to change). This states that as you add more and more of a variable input, you will
reach a point beyond which the resulting increase in output starts to diminish. This point is
illustrated as the maximum point on the marginal physical product curve. It assumes that other
factor inputs (if they are used in the process) are held constant. An example is the employment of
labour in the use of trucks to transport goods. Assuming the number of available trucks (capital)
is fixed, then the amount of the variable input labour could be varied and the resultant efficiency
determined. At least one labourer (the driver) is necessary. Additional workers per vehicle could
be productive in loading, unloading, navigation, or around the clock continuous driving. But at
some point the returns to investment in labour will start to diminish and efficiency will decrease.
The most efficient distribution of labour per piece of equipment will likely be one driver plus an
additional worker for other tasks (2 workers per truck would be more efficient than 5 per truck).
Resource allocations and distributive efficiencies in the mix of capital and labour investment will
vary per industry and according to available technology. Trains are able to transport much more
in the way of goods with fewer "drivers" but at the cost of greater investment in infrastructure.
With the advent of mass production of motorized vehicles, the economic niche occupied by
trains (compared with transport trucks) has become more specialized and limited to long haul
delivery.
P.S.: There is an argument that if the theory is holding everything constant, the production
method should not be changed, i.e., division of labour should not be practiced. However, the rise
in marginal product means that the workers use other means of production method, such as in
loading, unloading, navigation, or around the clock continuous driving. For this reason, some
economists think that the keeping other things constant should not be used in this theory.
[edit] Many ways of expressing the production relationship
The total, average, and marginal physical product curves mentioned above are just one way of
showing production relationships. They express the quantity of output relative to the amount of
variable input employed while holding fixed inputs constant. Because they depict a short run
relationship, they are sometimes called short run production functions. If all inputs are allowed to
be varied, then the diagram would express outputs relative to total inputs, and the function would
be a long run production function. If the mix of inputs is held constant, then output would be
expressed relative to inputs of a fixed composition, and the function would indicate long run
economies of scale.
Rather than comparing inputs to outputs, it is also possible to assess the mix of inputs employed
in production. An isoquant (see below) relates the quantities of one input to the quantities of
another input. It indicates all possible combinations of inputs that are capable of producing a
given level of output.
Rather than looking at the inputs used in production, it is possible to look at the mix of outputs
that are possible for any given production process. This is done with a production possibilities
frontier. It indicates what combinations of outputs are possible given the available factor
endowment and the prevailing production technology.
[edit] Isoquants


Isoquant Curve/Isocost Curve


Two Isoquants (Interior and Corner Solutions)
An isoquant represents those combinations of inputs, which will be capable of producing an
equal quantity of output; the producer would be indifferent between them. The isoquants are thus
contour lines, which trace the loci of equal outputs. As the production remains the same on any
point of this line, it is also called equal product curve. Let, Q0 = f(L,K) is a production factor.
Where, Q0 = A fixed level of production.
L = Labour K = Capital
If three combinations of labour and capital A, B and C produces 10 units of product, than the
isoquant will be like Figure 1.
Here we see that the combination of L1 labour and K3 capital can produce 10 unites of product,
which is A on the isoquant. Now to increase the labour keeping the production same the
organization have to decrease capital.In Figure 1 B is the point where capital decreases to K2,
while labour increases to L2. Similarly, 10 unites of product may produce at point C on the
isoquant with capital K1 and labour L3. Each of the factor combinations A, B and C produces
the same level of output, 10 units.


[edit] The marginal rate of technical substitution

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution
Isoquants are typically convex to the origin reflecting the fact that the two factors are
substitutable for each other at varying rates. This rate of substitutability is called the marginal
rate of technical substitution (MRTS) or occasionally the marginal rate of substitution in
production. It measures the reduction in one input per unit increase in the other input that is just
sufficient to maintain a constant level of production. For example, the marginal rate of
substitution of labour for capital gives the amount of capital that can be replaced by one unit of
labour while keeping output unchanged.
To move from point A to point B in the diagram, the amount of capital is reduced from Ka to Kb
while the amount of labour is increased only from La to Lb. To move from point C to point D,
the amount of capital is reduced from Kc to Kd while the amount of labour is increased from Lc
to Ld. The marginal rate of technical substitution of labour for capital is equivalent to the
absolute slope of the isoquant at that point (change in capital divided by change in labour). It is
equal to 0 where the isoquant becomes horizontal, and equal to infinity where it becomes
vertical.
The opposite is true when going in the other direction (from D to C to B to A). In this case we
are looking at the marginal rate of technical substitution capital for labour (which is the
reciprocal of the marginal rate of technical substitution labour for capital).
It can also be shown that the marginal rate of substitution labour for capital, is equal to the
marginal physical product of labour divided by the marginal physical product of capital.
In the unusual case of two inputs that are perfect substitutes for each other in production, the
isoquant would be linear (linear in the sense of a function y = a bx). If, on the other hand, there
is only one production process available, factor proportions would be fixed, and these zero-
substitutability isoquants would be shown as horizontal or vertical lines.