Amplitude Modulation, AM

- a tutorial, information, or overview about what is amplitude modulation or AM, the advantages of amplitude modulation and
the disadvantages of amplitude modulation as well as its use in broadcasting and two way radio communication.
Amplitude modulation or AM as it is often called, is a form of modulation used for radio transmissions for broadcasting and
two way radio communication applications. Although one of the earliest used forms of modulation it is still in widespread use
today.
The first amplitude modulated signal was transmitted in 1901 by a anadian engineer named !eginald "essenden. #e too$
a continuous spar$ transmission and placed a carbon microphone in the antenna lead. The sound waves impacting on the
microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the intensity of the transmission. Although very crude, signals were
audible over a distance of a few hundred metres, although there was a rasping sound caused by the spar$.
%ith the introduction of continuous sine wave signals, transmissions improved significantly, and AM soon became the
standard for voice transmissions. &owadays, amplitude modulation, AM is used for audio broadcasting on the long medium
and short wave bands, and for two way radio communication at '#" for aircraft. #owever as there now are more efficient
and convenient methods of modulating a signal, its use is declining, although it will still be very many years before it is no
longer used.
What is amplitude modulation?
(n order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for two way radio communication, it must
be modulated or changed in some way. Although there are a number of ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one
of the easiest, and one of the first methods to be used was to change its amplitude in line with variations of the sound.
The basic concept surrounding what is amplitude modulation, AM, is )uite straightforward. The amplitude of the signal is
changed in line with the instantaneous intensity of the sound. (n this way the radio fre)uency signal has a representation of
the sound wave superimposed in it. (n view of the way the basic signal *carries* the sound or modulation, the radio fre)uency
signal is often termed the *carrier*.
Amplitude Modulation, AM
%hen a carrier is modulated in any way, further signals are created that carry the actual modulation information. (t is found
that when a carrier is amplitude modulated, further signals are generated above and below the main carrier. To see how this
happens, ta$e the e+ample of a carrier on a fre)uency of 1 M#, which is modulated by a steady tone of 1 $#,.
The process of modulating a carrier is e+actly the same as mi+ing two signals together, and as a result both sum and
difference fre)uencies are produced. Therefore when a tone of 1 $#, is mi+ed with a carrier of 1 M#,, a *sum* fre)uency is
produced at 1 M#, - 1 $#,, and a difference fre)uency is produced at 1 M#, - 1 $#,, i.e. 1 $#, above and below the carrier.
(f the steady state tones are replaced with audio li$e that encountered with speech of music, these comprise many different
fre)uencies and an audio spectrum with fre)uencies over a band of fre)uencies is seen. %hen modulated onto the carrier,
these spectra are seen above and below the carrier.
(t can be seen that if the top fre)uency that is modulated onto the carrier is . $#,, then the top spectra will e+tend to . $#,
above and below the signal. (n other words the bandwidth occupied by the AM signal is twice the ma+imum fre)uency of the
signal that is used to modulated the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.
Amplitude demodulation
Amplitude modulation, AM, is one of the most straightforward ways of modulating a radio signal or carrier. The process of
demodulation, where the audio signal is removed from the radio carrier in the receiver is also )uite simple as well. The
easiest method of achieving amplitude demodulation is to use a simple diode detector. This consists of /ust a handful of
components0- a diode, resistor and a capacitor.
AM Diode Detector
(n this circuit, the diode rectifies the signal, allowing only half of the alternating waveform through. The capacitor is used to
store the charge and provide a smoothed output from the detector, and also to remove any unwanted radio fre)uency
components. The resistor is used to enable the capacitor to discharge. (f it were not there and no other load was present,
then the charge on the capacitor would not lea$ away, and the circuit would reach a pea$ and remain there.
Advantages of Amplitude Modulation, AM
There are several advantages of amplitude modulation, and some of these reasons have meant that it is still in widespread
use today0
(t is simple to implement
it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components
AM receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.
Disadvantages of amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is a very basic form of modulation, and although its simplicity is one of its ma/or advantages, other
more sophisticated systems provide a number of advantages. Accordingly it is worth loo$ing at some of the disadvantages of
amplitude modulation.
(t is not efficient in terms of its power usage
(t is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, re)uiring a bandwidth e)ual to twice that of the highest audio
fre)uency
(t is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and obviously AM detectors are sensitive
to it.
Summary
AM has advantages of simplicity, but it is not the most efficient mode to use, both in terms of the amount of space or
spectrum it ta$es up, and the way in which it uses the power that is transmitted. This is the reason why it is not widely used
these days both for broadcasting and for two way radio communication. 1ven the long, medium and short wave broadcasts
will ultimately change because of the fact that amplitude modulation, AM, is sub/ect to much higher levels of noise than are
other modes. "or the moment, its simplicity, and its wide usage, mean that it will be difficult to change )uic$ly, and it will be in
use for many years to come.
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What is radio
- an overview of radio and wireless and their applications today
!adio is very widely used in everyday life now, and it is becoming more widely used as new applications are being found all
the time. 4ne of the original terms for radio was wireless, end even today many people refer to a radio as a wireless set.
#owever the term describes this form of communication very well because it is a form of wire-less communication. &ow this
term is coming bac$ into use because radio or wireless applications are becoming more widespread. &owadays the term is
being used to describe short range applications that might have used a wired connections not long ago. %ith these and many
other applications, radio, or wireless technology is very widely used, and will continue to become more so as time progresses
because of the fle+ibility it provides.
Beginnings
The story of radio dates bac$ to some of the early discoveries into electrical science. (t could be said these were started by
the ancient hinese and 5ree$s.
Applications
!adio technology is used in a wide number of applications, and the list is growing all the time. 6ome of the earliest
applications were to enable communications where wired lin$s were not possible. Marconi, one of the early pioneers saw a
need for radio communications between ships and the shore, and of course radio is still used for this today. #owever as radio
became more established people started to use the medium for broadcasting. Today a huge number of stations broadcast
both sound and vision using radio to deliver the programmes to the listener.
There are many more applications for radio. Apart from being used for ship to shore communications, radio is used for other
forms of communications. 6hort wave radio was one of the first applications for radio. %ith ships sailing over vast distances it
was seen that radio could provide a means for them to communicate when they were in the middle of an ocean. 7y
*bouncing* the signals off reflecting layers in the upper atmosphere, great distances could be achieved. 4nce it was sent hat
this could be done, many others also started to use the short wave bands were long distance communications could be
made. (t was used by everyone from the military to news agencies, weather stations, and even radio hams.
!adio is also used for telecommunications lin$s. 6ignals with fre)uencies in the microwave region are normally used. These
signals have fre)uencies much higher than those in the short wave band and they are not affected by the ionosphere.
#owever they provide reliable direct line of sight lin$s that are able to carry many telephone conversations or other forms of
traffic. #owever as they are only line of sight, they re)uire towers on which to mount the antennas to enable them to transmit
over sufficiently long distances.
Satellites
6atellites are also used for radio communication. As short wave communications are unreliable, and cannot carry the level of
traffic re)uired, higher fre)uencies must be used. (t is possible to transmit signals up to satellites in outer space. These can
receive the signals and broadcast them bac$ down to 1arth. 8sing this concept it is possible to transmit signals over vast
distances, such as over the oceans. Additionally it is possible to use the satellites for broadcasting. Transmitting a signal up
to the satellite, it is then relayed on a different fre)uency, and can give coverage over a whole country using /ust one satellite.
A land based system may re)uire many transmitters to cover the whole country.
6atellites may also be used for many other applications. 4ne of these is for observation. %eather satellites, for e+ample, ta$e
images of the 1arth and relay them bac$ to 1arth using radio signals. Another application for satellites is for navigation. 596,
the 5lobal 9ositioning 6ystem uses a number of satellites in orbit around the 1arth to provide very accurate positioning. &ow
further systems including 5alileo :a 1uropean based system; and 5lonass :a !ussian based system; are being planned and
put into operation.
Radar
!adar is an application of radio technology that has proved to be very useful. (t was first used by the 7ritish in the 6econd
%orld %ar :19<9 - 19=>; to detect incoming enemy bombers. 7y $nowing where they were, it was possible to send up
fighters to intercept them and thereby gain a significant advantage. The system operates by sending out a short burst of
wireless energy. The signal is sent out and reflects bac$ from the ob/ects in the area that is ?illuminated? by the radio signal.
7y $nowing the angle at which the signal is returned, and the time it ta$es for the reflection to be received, it is possible to
pinpoint the ob/ect that reflected the signal.
Mobile communications
(n recent years there has been an e+plosion in personal communications. 4ne of the first ma/or applications was the mobile
phone. 6ince their introduction in the last @0 years of the @0th century, their use has mushroomed. Their growth has shown
the value of mobile communications and mobile connectivity. Accordingly other applications such as 7luetooth, %i-"i and
others been developed and are now part of the wireless scene.
Future
%ith the growth in the re)uirement for mobile connectivity, it is certain that wireless technologies with radio at the core will
continue to thrive and become more widespread. To meet the demand it is li$ely that new technologies will be developed to
ma+imi,e the use of the available radio spectrum. (t is also anticipated that the user will be less aware of the underlying
technology. %ith the increasing comple+ity, it will be necessary that all the technicalities are handled by the software, leaving
the user free to use the device, whatever it may be, easily and freely.
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Amplitude modulation ave and easy AM theory
The wireless broadcasting of the medium wave does broadcasting that uses the amplitude modulation. 1ven if the scale is
small, what produced with *Aesign and production of AM wireless microphone* puts out an almost similar electric wave with
the broadcasting station. The AM wireless broadcasting generates high fre)uency :>=0$#,-1.00$#,; of the medium wave in
signal :100#,-B.>$#,; of the voice and the electric wave for broadcasting has been generated by the amplitude?s modulating.
!rocess of ma"ing amplitude modulation ave
This figure shows the process of creating a wave amplitude modulation. :; the carrier wave :radio wave; waveforms in the
time a+is, :6; is a single low-fre)uency signal wave. :A; is the :6; :; when the AM modulation amplitude modulation
waveform. This is similar to an oscilloscope waveform.
#ere, the modulation depth indicates the depth of modulation m is as follows.
m C :9-D; 2 :9 - D;
Amplitude#modulated spectrum by single audio fre$uency
The AM and viewed on a spectrum analy,er using a fre)uency modulated wave loo$s li$e this figure. (n other words, the
voltage 1 as a carrier, the modulating signal fre)uency fs E#,F and. Then the upper and lower carrier fs E#,F as far away,
m12@ wave upper and lower side-band are as left figure.
%here m is the modulation inde+ of 1. ompared to the si,e of the carrier wave,upper or lower side-bnd voltage is -.d7.
Total power of the upper and lower sideband is -<d7. 6o 100G modulation power of the modulated wave is 1.> times.
Amplitude#modulated spectrum by audio fre$uency
An upper and lower sideband can be done in the top and bottom of the transportation wave fre)uency when modulating by
an actual voice as shown in this figure.
The bandwidth of the broadcasting channel is 1>$#, though the channel interval of the broadcasting station of the medium
wave :separation; is 9$#,. Therefore, the fre)uency of the voice becomes this less than B.>$#, of the half.
The tone )uality of the wireless broadcasting of the medium wave is not so good because there is a cause in this
broadcasting system compared with the fre)uency modulation broadcasting.
Any signal is not, and is the one that the electric power is large and is )uite useless in this signal carrier though the signal
carrier is always launched in the amplitude modulation of the wireless broadcasting of the medium wave as shown in this
figure. :There is an advantage that the receiver side becomes easy. ;
Moreover, an upper and lower side-band wave is upper and lower, the same, and it is useless one that sends two. (t is an
electric wave that is called removing this useless one, and the transmission only of a lower side-band wave on 667. This is
used for amateur radio etc. , and a very efficient electric wave form.
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Signals
Summary
The principles of signal generation and amplitude modulation are covered in Mi+ers. Those fundamentals are used here to
form signals for transmission.
Speech
"or radio communication purposes we can consider the range of audio fre)uencies in human speech to e+tend from <00 #,
to <000 #, - a band of @.B $#,. This audio spectrum for speech can be drawn as shown in "ig. 1. #ere the low end of the
wedge represents <00 #, and the high end of the wedge represents <000 #,. This diagram is for purposes of e+planation
only and should not be ta$en to represent the voice energy distribution of speech in actual practice. (t is usually the other way
around - the low notes contain most of the voice energy, whilst the high pitch notes are wea$ but are very necessary for
speech recognition purposes. The band of audio fre)uencies <00 to <000 #,, this audio band, when illustrated as a wedge
with each end identifiable, is useful for e+planation purposes.
%nmodulated &arrier
The signal from a typical simple transmitter is a single-fre)uency signal, constant in amplitude. 6uch a signal carries no
information. The only information is the deduction that, by its presence at a receiver, it is $nown that the transmitter is
transmitting. !efer to "ig. @ which represents an unmodulated carrier signal at <.. M#,. "or our purposes at the moment,
such a signal has no bandwidth - this matter will be covered elsewhere in these study notes.
&W Signals 'continuous ave(
A fundamental and time-honoured way to transmit information is to turn the transmitter on and off. This can be done by a
Morse $ey :a switch;. %ith the key down, the transmitter is on, with the key up the transmitter is off. The dits and dahs :the
dots and dashes; of the Morse code can be sent by careful manipulation of the $ey. Morse code
The term CW comes from the constant-amplitude signal transmitted with the $ey down, compared to damped waves - waves
which changed in amplitude - as generated by spar$-transmitters in the early days of radio communication and now totally
obselete. The term CW can be considered as synonymous with Morse code transmission.
Modulation
The techni)ue to impress information :voice, music, picture, or data; on a radio-fre)uency carrier wave by varying one or
more characteristics of the wave in accordance with the intelligence signal is called modulation. There are various forms of
modulation, each designed to alter a particular characteristic of the carrier wave. "or our study purposes, the most commonly
altered characteristics are amplitude and fre)uency.
Amplitude Modulation
(n amplitude modulation :AM;, auditory or visual information is impressed on a carrier wave by varying the amplitude of the
carrier to match the fluctuations in the audio or video signal being transmitted. AM is the oldest method of broadcasting radio
programs. ommercial AM stations operate at fre)uencies between ><> and 1,.0> $#, and in shortwave radio broadcasts.
There is little use of conventional AM systems by radio amateurs today, the 667 and "M modes predominate.
%hen a carrier is amplitude-modulated by an audio signal, the audio signal will increase the amplitude of the transmitted
signal during part of the audio cycle, and at other times in the audio cycle the amplitude of the transmitted signal will
decrease. 6ee "ig <.
Amplitude modulating a carrier signal with a constant amplitude sinusoidal audio fre)uency tone results in a comple+ signal.
(t comprises three separate component parts0 the carrier :in which most of the signal energy is contained; and two side
fre)uencies. 6ee "ig. =. :!efer to Mi+ers where this is e+plained;.
6o an amplitude-modulated signal, with a single modulating tone, can be viewed in two different ways0
The first plot is "ig. <. #ere the plot is signal amplitude on the vertical a+is and with time on the hori,ontal a+is - an
oscilloscope diagram. This is sometimes referred to as the time domain.
The second plot is "ig. =. The plot is still signal amplitude on the vertical a+is but with fre)uency on hori,ontal a+is - a
6pectrum Aiagram. This is sometimes referred to as the frequency domain.
!emember that with &4 audio input signal, there is then no modulating signal, so the modulated output reverts to being an
unmodulated carrier only.
A speech-input amplitude modulated :AM; transmission can be shown as "ig. > using the diagrammatic wedgesymbol.
6peech is made up of many different audio fre)uencies - a band of audio fre)uencies. #ere is a radio fre)uency carrier
signal with two ad/acent sidebands - the wedges shown above and below the carrier fre)uency - each indicated here as 867
:upper sideband; and H67 :lower sideband;. The energy of the AM signal is contained in these three components - the lower
sideband, the carrier, and the upper sideband.
(t can now be seen that with no input speech to the amplitude-modulated transmitter, there are no output sidebands - but the
carrier continues on unchanged.
The bandwidth of an AM signal can be seen to be0 Twice the highest modulating fre)uency. 6o for our <00 to <000 #, audio
modulating signal, the bandwidth will be . $#,.
Distortion &onsiderations
There is a limit placed on the level of audio signal that an AM system can accept. !eferring to "ig. < above, if the amplitude
of the modulating audio signal is further increased, a point is reached at which the level of modulated signal output can no
longer be a replica of the input signal. The audio-shaped envelope of the modulated wave e+hibits pea$ flattening -
introducing distortion. The ma+imum amplitude audio signal is the point at which the envelope shapes meet at the ,ero-
output a+is. This level is given the e+pression 100% modulation.
!oer &onsiderations
(t is important to note the energy distribution in the carrier and the two side fre)uencies of the resulting AM signal. At the
100G modulation level, the amplitude of the two side fre)uencies can add together to e)ual the carrier in amplitude and
either add to or subtract from the carrier signal. (f the carrier is transmitting 100 watt, and if the amplitude of each single side-
fre)uency is half that of the carrier :full modulation;, then the power in the upper side-fre)uency and the power in the lower
side-fre)uency will each be one-)uarter of the carrier power.
The power distribution at full modulation then becomes 100 watt in the carrier, @> watt in the upper side-fre)uency and @>
watt in the lower side-fre)uency. The total radiated power is 1>0 watt, of which only >0 watt - or <<G - is from the
modulating intelligence. %ith no modulation, the output power is the unmodulated carrier alone - 100 watt. Modulation
changes the output between 100 and 1>0 watt, from no modulation to full modulation.
6o, depending on the modulation level, more than two-thirds of the radiated energy from an amplitude-modulated transmitter
is carrier power - which does not contribute to the intelligence of this system.
AM Reception
An AM signal can be successfully demodulated at the receiver in several ways but the easiest is to use a simple diode
rectifier followed by a filter smoothing circuit. !efer to "ig. ..
Single#Sideband 'SSB(
(n a 667 transmission, only one sideband is radiated - both the carrier and the other sideband :of AM; are suppressed. 6o,
with 667, with no input speech, no signal at all is transmittedI %ith no carrier signal at all being transmitted, all the radiated
energy is related to the input modulating signal. The total transmitter output is useful.
Jou will now recognise that 667 transmissions are a particular category or variant of amplitude-modulatedtransmissions.
The convention generally followed by radio amateurs is that on amateur bands above 10 M#, the 8pper 6ideband will be
used and on bands below 10 M#, the lower sideband will be used.
6o on the K0m band, it is customary for amateur stations to use the lower sideband for a 667 transmission. Amateurs use
the :suppressed; carrier fre)uency when referring to the fre)uency of a 667 signal. 6o the "ig. B applies. The position for
the re-inserted carrier :your receiver does this;, needed as the reference to restore the signal during demodulation in your
receiver, is shown in "ig. B.
&ote that the H67 signal appears inverted. The <00 #, component of the speech is now the higher fre)uency component in
the transmitted signal. The <000 #, component is the lower fre)uency component.The bandwidth of a 667 signal is the
same as that of the modulating signal. "or our speech band <00 to <000 $#,, the bandwidth is @.B $#,. ompare that with
the e)uivalent for the AM signal to see the spectrum-conserving value of 667 - /ust one of its advantages. !emember too
that all the radiated energy from a 667 transmitter is useful energy :there is no power-consuming carrier;.
Reception of SSB Signals
A local carrier is re-inserted at the receiver and is used as the reference for the demodulation process. Jou can resolve an
667 signal by carefully ad/usting your 667 receiver. This inserted carrier can be the receiver?s beat fre)uency oscillator
:7"4;. (n effect, the 7"4 beats with the incoming side-fre)uencies to produce the restored audio fre)uencies. Jou can hear
the full <00 to <000 #, range of the transmitted audio in the spea$er.
A receiver without a 7"4 cannot resolve 667 signals. 6o a receiver fitted with a 7"4 for reception of % signals can receive
both % and 667 signals. AM signals can also be received on this receiver when the 7"4 is switched off - the 7"4 then
being unnecessary.
6ometimes a receiver is fitted with a mi+er to demodulate 667 signals. 6ee Mi+ers for the product detector.
The oscillator in the receiver which provides the re-inserted carrier for 667 reception is sometimes called thecarrier insertion
oscillator :(4;. This is especially so if a product detector is used and the receiver is specifically designed for 667 reception.
"or most amateur radio purposes, receivers are designed for % and for 667 reception and the terms 7"4 and (4 are
interchangeable.
Aepending on the characteristics of the filter in the receiver, at times you may also hear an interfering signal. (f there are two
)uite separate but ad/acent 667 signals - shown as 6671 and 667@ in "ig. K, and you are listening to the lower fre)uency
one :6671;, you may hear the higher fre)uency one as ?inverted speech?. The <000 #, component of that higher-fre)uency
667 signal will be heard by you as a low-pitch audio signal and its <00 #, component as a high pitchI "ortunately this
interference is almost indecipherable by the human ear. Jour ear will tend to discard it as noise and will receive and listen to
the ?natural-sounding? wanted signal. 4f course this ear-discrimination characteristic also depends upon the relative levels of
the two signals.
Fre$uency Modulation
(n fre)uency modulation :"M;, unli$e AM, the amplitude of the carrier is $ept constant, but its fre)uency is altered in
accordance with variations in the audio signal being sent. 6ee "ig. 9. &ote how compression andstretching of the modulated
signal is shown in the diagram of the modulated signal - indicating increase and decrease of the carrier signal fre)uency.
The fre)uency of the fre)uency-modulated signal deviates up and down in fre)uency. The e+tent of the fre)uency sweep is
called the deviation and it depends upon the loudness :i.e. amplitude; of the modulating signal. The rate at which deviations
are made depends on the fre)uency of the modulating signal.
The deviation is usually given the symbol Lf :delta f;.
"M is less susceptible than is AM to certain $inds of interference, such as random electrical noise from machinery and other
related sources. These noise-producing signals affect the amplitude of a radio wave but not its fre)uency, so an "M signal
remains virtually unchanged.
A fre)uency-modulated signal is passed through a limiter stage prior to demodulation. The limiter clips off the tops of the "M
signal, removing any amplitude changes, restoring the signal to a constant-amplitude signal. (n this way, noise-spi$es are
clipped off, unwanted interfering noise - principally appearing as amplitude-changes - is reduced.
ommercial "M broadcasting stations are assigned higher fre)uencies than are AM stations. The assigned fre)uencies
range from KK to 10K M#,. Amateurs use "M principally on '#" and higher bands for speech communication.
(t appears from these diagrams that the amplitude of the fre)uency-modulated carrier signal remains unchanged. This is not
so. 1nergy from the carrier signal is distributed across a range of fre)uencies ad/acent to the carrier fre)uency in a comple+
system of sidebands. 6o the carrier itself reduces in amplitude as its energy is distributed to the ad/acent side-fre)uencies.
The spectrum diagram of a fre)uency-modulated signal is comple+ and is beyond the re)uirements for the amateur radio
e+amination.
The bandwidth of a fre)uency-modulated signal is appro+imately C @:Lf - fa;. This is an empirical formula. 6o the bandwidth
is appro+imately twice the sum of the deviation plus the audio modulating fre)uency. Jou can now see why "M is generally
constrained to the '#" and higher bands.
The typical deviation for an amateur hand-held "M transceiver is about > $#, - a transmitted signal bandwidth of about 1@
$#,. This depends on how loud you tal$ into the microphone. 6hout, and over-deviation can ta$e place, with the received
signal being distorted because the receiver bandwidth has been e+ceeded.
Reception of Fre$uency#Modulated Signals
A circuit $nown as a discriminator is used to demodulate fre)uency-modulated signals. (t can ta$e many forms but the
general type involves a tuned circuit with a pair of diodes. As the fre)uency of the input signal moves up and down across the
resonant fre)uency of the tuned circuit, a rectified output voltage varies positive and negative to provide the output audio
signal. The e+act details are not re)uired for the amateur radio e+amination but it is recommended that you loo$ up a typical
discriminator circuit in a radio te+tboo$.
A phase-loc$ed loop :9HH; can be used as a demodulator for fre)uency-modulated signals . 6ee 4scillators
!hase Modulation
The phase of a carrier wave can be varied in response to the vibrations of the sound source in phase modulation :9M;. This
form of modulation is a variation of "M. The two processes are closely related because phase cannot be changed without
also varying fre)uency, and vice versa. Also, the rate at which the phase of a carrier changes is directly proportional to the
fre)uency of the audio signal. "or the purposes of the amateur radio e+amination, 9M can be ignoredI
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Mi)ers And Modulators
Mi)ers
Mi+ers :sometimes $nown as fre)uency converters;, modulators, balanced modulators and other circuit bloc$s are
considered below. 1ach wor$s on the same basic principles.
*o a Mi)er Wor"s
A mi+er circuit normally has two inputs - from two separate signal sources. (n the diagram below, the sources are two
oscillators. 1ach oscillator is a generator producing a sinewave output, one at fre)uency f
1
and the other at fre)uency
f
@
. %e will use numerical e+amples later.
The mi+er multiplies the signals together. Jou don?t need to $now the details. Must remember that the output comprises a
comple+ mi+ture of separate sinewaves at many different fre)uencies. The ma/or output fre)uencies are shown on the
diagram.

The main point to note is that the output comprises the two separate input fre)uencies f
1
and f
@
and their sum, :f
1
-
f
@
;, and their difference, :f
1
- f
@
;. (n practice, there are other component signals too - but we can ignore those.
A filter - which can be any one of various sorts - selects the re)uired output from the mi+er. (n this diagram, a simple parallel
tuned circuit is shown. The output will normally be tuned to the S%M, :f
1
- f
@
;, or tuned to theD+FF,R,-&,, :f
1
- f
@
;, signal
as re)uired.
."or the mathematicians among us, refreshment of school trigonometry can illustrate what happens. &ote this multiplication0
@ sinA cos7 C sin :A - 7; - sin :A - 7;/
6ubstituting numerical values and using typical e+amples for the two input fre)uencies in the diagram can illustrate the
effect0
onsider 4scillator 1 to generate a 9 M#, signal and 4scillator @ to generate a > M#, signal. The output from a mi+er will
contain these two signals, plus their sum, 1= M#,, and the difference, = M#,. The mi+er output tuned circuit could be tuned
to 1= M#, if that output was re)uired, or tuned to = M#,, should that output be re)uired.
The output from a mi+er contains many more combinations of fre)uencies - generated from the harmonics of the input
signals mi+ing with the component signals. "or purposes of this amateur radio e+amination these can be ignored.
An alternative name for a mi+er is frequency converter.
What Ma"es a Mi)er?
Almost any electronic device, diode, transistor, valve, can be used as a mi+er. A square-law characteristic device is preferred
- to minimise unwanted outputs. !efer to a radio te+t-boo$ for circuits using a single diode, several diodes, transistors - of all
$inds - and valves. Jou need to $now the principles, not the details.
The principle is: (n a mi+er stage, the output contains the 68M and the A(""1!1&1 of the input signal fre)uencies.
Modulators
A modulator to produce an amplitude modulated signal is generally nothing more than a mi+er. (n the following e+ample,
the radio fre)uency carrier signal : shown as f
c
; forms one input, and a band of audio fre)uencies : the incoming speech -
shown as f
a
;, is the other input. :6ee 6ignals;. The audio signal f
a
does not appear in the output because of the filter action
of the modulator output circuits.
6o the output from an amplitude modulator is a band of fre)uencies above and below the carrier fre)uency plus the carrier
fre)uency itself.
The signal f
c
is $nown as the carrier fre)uency.
The signal at :f
c
- f
a
; is the upper side frequency.
The signal at :f
c
- f
a
; is the lower side frequency. :6ee 6ignals;
To get the feel of the modulation principle, try this numerical example:
A signal at !"0 #$% is amplitude-modulated with a 1 k$% tone! What are the output frequencies from this modulator&
'Answers at the bottom of this page!(!
0he Balanced Modulator
8sing clever circuitry, it is possible to arrange a modulator in which one of the input signals does not appear in the
output. 6ometimes both of the input signals may be balanced out :suppressed;, so that only the products of the modulation
process will appear in the output.
"or e+ample, in the modulator e+ample given above, we saw that the output comprised the carrier fre)uency f
c,
the sum,
:f
c
- f
a
;, and the difference, :f
c
- f
a
;.
%ith a balanced modulator, only the sum :f
c
- f
a
;, and the difference :f
c
- f
a
;, components appear at the output. The
carrier signal f
c
has been cleverly cancelled and does not appear at the output.
6o the output from a balanced modulator comprises two side fre)uencies only - at :f
c
- f
a
; and at :f
c
- f
a
;. The carrier at
f
c
has been removed. :6ee 6ignals;
9lease refer to your radio te+tboo$ to see e+amples of the symmetrical circuitry of balanced modulators. This diagram is one
e+ample0
This modulator use a ring of diodes :a ring modulator;.
&ote the symmetrical form of the circuit. The oscillator is fed to a centre-tap point across a tuned circuit.
The pre-set controls :a trimmer capacitor;, and 9 :a potentiometer;, are used to balance out the carrier :the oscillator
signal; appearing at the output.
The output signal is a double-sideband signal - i.e. upper sideband and lower sideband with no carrier. The carrier :oscillator
signal; has been suppressed.
0he Product Detector
This device is /ust another mi+er - used for demodulating a signal in a receiver. The term product refers to the multiplication
of the two input signals - with sum and difference outputs.
%ebsite0http022www.n,art.org.n,2assets2e+am2sg2sg-mi+er.html