Stiategies foi uiowing a Bigh-Quality Root

System, Tiunk, anu Ciown in a Containei Nuiseiy

Companion publication to the Guideline Specifications for Nursery Tree Quality
"#$%& '( )'*+&*+,


-*+.'/01+2'*
3&1+2'* 45 6''+,
Befects ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Linei Bevelopment ............................................................................................................................................. S
Root Ball Nanagement in Laigei Containeis .......................................................................................... 6
Root Bistiibution within Root Ball .............................................................................................................. 1u
Bepth of Root Collai ........................................................................................................................................... 11
3&1+2'* 75 ".0*8
Tempoiaiy Bianches ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Stiaight Tiunk ...................................................................................................................................................... 1S

3&1+2'* 95 ).':*
Cential Leauei ......................................................................................................................................................14
Beauing anu Re-tiaining the Cential Leauei ......................................................................................... 17
Bianch Biametei ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Bianch Bistiibution .......................................................................................................................................... 19
Foim ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2u
Baik Inclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
vigoi anu Foliai Chaiacteiistics .................................................................................................................. 22

;%',,#.< ................................................................................................................................................................ 2S
=>>&*/2? .............................................................................................................................................................. 26
@2$%2'A.#>B<....................................................................................................................................................... 27
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This uocument piesents stiategies to assist gioweis in piouucing tiees that confoim to the
Guideline Specifications for Nursery Tree Quality (visalia, CA: 0iban Tiee Founuation). The stiategies
aie baseu on most-iecently-publisheu anu ongoing ieseaich, combineu with the knowleuge, skills,
anu know-how of both the piactitionei anu ieseaichei, to piouuce high-quality ioot systems, tiunks,
anu ciowns

. As ieseaich piogiesses anu new stiategies aie uevelopeu, this uocument will be
ieviseu to incoipoiate state-of-the-ait infoimation.

In auuition to being of immeuiate piactical use foi gioweis, this uocument shoulu pioviue a basis
foi fuithei uiscussion among nuiseiy anu lanuscape piofessionals anu ieseaicheis. Nany of the
stiategies heiein have been in piactice foi yeais in nuiseiies in Califoinia anu othei paits of the
countiy. While this uocument contains guiuelines baseu on cuiient anu ongoing ieseaich, moie
ieseaich is neeueu to continue to leain what makes tiees stable anu healthy. It is oui aim to
encouiage site- anu species-specific ieseaich that will become the basis foi moie unifoim
implementation of methous known to piouuce quality tiees in a cost-effective mannei.

We appieciate the ieview of this uocument by nuiseiy anu lanuscape piofessionals anu welcome
youi comments. We will peiiouically upuate the uocument as it is ciiculateu, ievieweu, anu euiteu
by gioweis anu ieseaicheis. This piocess is essential to oui goal of ueveloping a usei-fiienuly
manual that will assist gioweis in the efficient piouuction of high-quality tiees.

Bi. Euwaiu F. uilman, Piofessoi, 0niveisity of Floiiua, uainesville
Biian Kempf, 0iban Tiee Founuation, visalia, CA

Copyiight 2uu9 Eu uilman anu Biian Kempf
1

0iban Tiee Founuation
11S S. Bollnei Ave.
visalia, Ca 9S291
www.uibantiee.oig
biianuibantiee.oig
;02/2*A D.2*12>%&, ('. ;.':2*A E0#%2+< ".&&, ('. +B&
F#*/,1#>&
uoou ioot systems stait in the nuiseiy at piopagation in the linei stage anu iequiie attention
each time a tiee is shifteu into a laigei containei. Laige main mothei ioots shoulu giow stiaight
fiom the tiunk without ciicling the tiunk oi ueflecting uownwaiu. Tempoiaiy bianches aie
impoitant to tiunk uevelopment because they builu a stiong tiunk anu ioot system. Shaue tiees
giown in the nuiseiy shoulu have a stiong cential leauei even if the leauei will be lost at
matuiity. Installation contiactois must pioviue simple ioot anu shoot piuning tieatments at
planting to ensuie that sustainable lanuscapes aie cieateu.
=18*':%&/AG&*+,
Steeiing Committee: Bave Cox, LE Cooke Nuiseiy; Bayui Boething Banielson, Boething Tieelanu
Faims; Thomas Fetch, LE Cooke Nuiseiy; Nichael Fiantz, Fiantz Wholesale Nuiseiy; Naik
Naiiiott, village Nuiseiies; }ohn Seiviss, valley Ciest Tiee Co.; Sal Soiiano, Noniovia: Chiis Teiiy,
Bave Wilson Nuiseiy; Rogei van Klaveien, ueneiation uioweis.
Revieweis: Bi. }im Claik, Boitscience Inc.; Bi. Lauience R. Costello, 0niveisity of Califoinia
Coopeiative Extension; Sam Boane, }. Fiank Schmiut & Son Co.; Biuce Bagen, Califoinia
Bepaitment of Foiestiy anu Fiie Piotection, Retiieu; Bi. Richaiu W. Baiiis, Piofessoi Emeiitus,
0niveisity of Califoinia, Bavis; Naik A. Balcomb, 0niveisity of Tennessee Aiea Nuiseiy Specialist
Extension; Biuce Bammeismith, Skinneis Nuiseiy; uoiuon Nann, Nann Naue Resouices;
Nichael B. Naishall, Naishall Tiee Faim; }ohn Nelvin, Califoinia Bepaitment of Foiestiy anu Fiie
Piotection; Bave Nuffly, 0aktopia.net; Bi. Baniel Stiuve, 0hio State 0niveisity; Bennis Swaitzell,
Boiticultuie Consultants, Inc.; Bi. uaiy Watson, Noiton Aiboietum; Keith Waiien, }. Fiank
Schmiut & Son Co.
This document was funded in part by a grant from the California Department of
Forestry and Fire Protection.
Section 1: Roots
Root uefects that uevelop uuiing nuiseiy piouuction
can leau to pooi vigoi (Fig. 1) anu tiee failuie (Figs.
2b anu c) in the lanuscape. Bowevei, most uefects,
such as ciicling ioots in the ioot ball inteiioi, can be
mostly eliminateu with appiopiiate anu timely
management in the nuiseiy. Stiategies in the
nuiseiy shoulu focus on piouucing tiees that have
stiaight main mothei ioots giowing to the euge of
the containei. Installation contiactois shoulu coiiect
minoi ioot uefects neai the tiunk at planting, as well
as ioot uefects on the peiipheiy of the ioot ball.
Stiaight ioots giowing fiom the tiunk foim a stiong,
wiue ioot plate (Fig. 2a). Tiees with a wiue ioot
plate aie stable anu iequiie a laige foice to tip them
ovei. Tiees with ueflecteu, kinkeu, oi bent ioots can
uevelop a smallei ioot plate anu iepiesent lessei
quality. When main woouy ioots aie ueflecteu anu
not stiaight, theie may be no ioot plate anu the tiee
can become unstable (Figs. 2b anu 2c).

A tiee's instability can iesult fiom the cuiveu oi bent
shape of the main ioots combineu with incieasing
ciown size. uiowing tiees without ioot management
when shifting to a laigei containei size often iesults
in bent anu uefoimeu ioots. Some tiees aie able to
iemain stable uespite ioot uefoimities, but they may
lose vigoi if ciicling ioots meet the tiunk anu
constiict sap flow (Fig. 1). A ieuuceu giowth iate
often pieceues the othei signs of ieuuceu vigoi such
as chloiotic foliage anu uieback.
Figuie 2a. Stiaight ioots giowing fiom the tiunk
foim a moie oi less ciiculai ioot plate. Tiees with
stiaight ioots aie moie stable than those with
ueflecteu ioots.
Figure 2b. Tree failure resulted from circling roots in
the nursery container and being planted too deeply.
As the circling roots and the trunk grew in diameter,
they eventually rested against each other. As a result
the trunk was thinner below the soil than it was
above. The root growing against the trunk caused this
growth constriction (see entire tree, Fig. 2c).
Removing root defects during production and at
planting can prevent this.
Figuie 2c. Incieasing ciown weight on a
uefective ioot system causeu this tiee to fall in a
winu stoim.
Figuie 1. Pooi vigoi anu uieback causeu by stem-
giiuling ioots. Tiees in this conuition will not ieach
matuiity in the lanuscape.
Section 1: Roots
Defects
Section 1: Roots
Like the ciown, quality ioot systems iesult fiom
appiopiiate active management. Root balls aie often
shifteu thiough the piouuction piocess with little oi no
coiiection in ioot system uefects (Figs. Sa anu b).
Planting too ueeply can also cause uefects at the ioot collai
in tiees such as maples anu elms. Befects on finisheu tiees
may be coiiectable if woouy ioots have not become too
laige oi abunuant (Fig. Sb). When uefects aie hiuuen anu
inaccessible oi involve laige ioots, coiiective measuies
can be uifficult oi impiactical to implement. When ioots
have been left untieateu foi too long, coiiective measuies
can be time-consuming. The ability to coiiect olu anu
seveie uefects uepenus on the seveiity of uefects, species
of tiee, watei management piactices, size of ioots that
iequiie cutting, anu time of yeai. It is easiei to iemove
these ioots when the plant is youngei than the tiee
pictuieu in Figuie Sb. Iueally, ioots shoulu be inspecteu
anu uefective ioots manageu at each shift to a laigei
containei, ieuucing the neeu to piune heavy ioots latei.

It is often necessaiy to iemove substiate fiom the top of
the ioot ball to inspect foi ioot uefects (see Fig. Sb).
Pioviueu that the main ioots aie ielatively stiaight (see
Fig. 2a), tiee quality anu stability can be impioveu by
iemoving kinkeu, ciicling, anu stem-giiuling ioots fiom
the top of the ball. Root uefects shoulu be iemoveu at the
point just behinu the benu in the ioot (Fig. 4). The ietaineu
ioot segment shoulu be ielatively stiaight anu shoulu giow
iauially fiom the tiunk. New ioots typically giow fiom just
behinu the cut in a iauial oi fanlike pattein away fiom the
tiunk (see Fig. 11b). Some new ioots giow uown, up, oi
occasionally kink back towaiu the tiunk. These shoulu be
coiiecteu at the next shift.
Top view
Siue view
Figure 3a. Root defects are present at
each container size: liner, #5 and #15
(Harris et al. 1999).
Figuie Sb. Substiate (S in.) was iemoveu to expose the top
ioots insiue the containei. A moueiate amount of stem-giiuling
ioots giowing ovei the ioot collai is coiiectable. Bowevei, it is
inefficient to allow uefects to uevelop to this extent. It is best to
pievent this by piuning ioots at eailiei stages anu planting at
the coiiect uepth.
Figure 4. Cut defective roots back to
the point just behind the bend (A).
The retained root segment is straight.
Cutting them at a point after the bend
(B) is not recommended because the
defect remains.
2
Section 1: Roots
F2*&. H#*#A&G&*+
I$J&1+2K&5 The ioot collai anu insiue
poition of the linei ioot ball shoulu
be fiee of ioot uefects, incluuing
ciicling oi kinkeu ioots anu ioots
giowing up oi uown the siue of the
containei (Fig. S).

D.'$%&G5 In the linei stage, a tiee's
ioot system can uevelop in a mattei
of weeks once giowth begins. Some
species uevelop only one oi two
laige main ioots; otheis have a moie
fibious ioot system. 0ften, ioots
giow to the euge oi bottom of the
containei, then bianch oi ueflect
uown, up, anu aiounu the peiipheiy
of the ioot ball, foiming a type of
shell. Without management, some of
these small ioots can eventually
become laige anu woouy, ietain theii
uefoimeu shape, anu uevelop into a
uefect (Fig. S). Root uefects neai the
ioot collai can ieuuce the giowth,
vigoi, anu stability of the tiee. The
linei ioot ball shoulu not be visible
when the tiunk of a laigei tiee is
iockeu in the containei oi planteu in
the giounu. Left untieateu, ioot
uefects that uevelop at the linei
stage can be the most uifficult to
auuiess latei in piouuction.
D.#1+21&5 Tiees anu shiubs shoulu
be planteu in linei tiays anu in othei
systems that minimize ioot uefects
anu encouiage bianching of the ioot
system insiue the ioot ball (Fig. 6).
Aii piuning is especially efficient at
causing a tap ioot to foim bianch
ioots. Lineis shoulu be shifteu to
laigei containeis befoie non-
coiiectable ioot uefects foim. Table
1 gives seveial methous of
eliminating ioot uefects when lineis
aie shifteu to laigei containeis.
Some of these methous may woik
bettei than otheis foi ceitain
species, containei types, substiate
types, linei stage, time of yeai, anu
tiee age.
Figuie S. Ciicling anu kinkeu ioots oiiginating in a linei pot
(left). Ciicling anu uiving ioots in an open-bottom linei pot
(iight). Both tiees shoulu be thiown out because uefects aie too
seveie to coiiect. The tiee in Fig. 7a can uevelop these uefects
unless piuneu anu manageu befoie shifting.
Figuie 6. Tiauitional
piopagation pots
encouiage ioots to giow
aiounu the pot oi along the
siues towaiu the bottom.
Some ioots then giow back
towaiu the suiface (iight).
Pots that aii-piune on
bottom anu siues
encouiage bianching of the
tap ioot on seeulings anu
cuttings (top), foiming
smallei-uiametei bottom
ioots anu ample lateials
neai the suiface.
S
Section 1: Roots
Shaving, pruning, or peeling off the shell of roots on the
periphery and bottom of the root ball cuts away most defects (Fig.
7). Adequate roots remain inside the root ball in most cases (Figs.
7e and 8). Some liners may be killed by this treatment but it is
necessary to remove inferior plants from the inventory and
prevent them from failing later in the landscape. Slicing root balls
from top to bottom removes some defects but can retain roots
oriented downward. Slicing can also leave intact bent root
segments that generate new roots, which can grow close to the
trunk. Air pruning can be a useful method to reduce root defects.
Teasing or pulling roots apart and laying them straight in the
substrate of the larger container can also reduce defects if done
before roots become too stiff. These and other techniques are
designed to encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk (Fig.
2a).

Water management is critical after root pruning to avoid severe
wilting and stress. Trees should be irrigated to maintain the water
requirements appropriate for the species and weather. In warmer
and drier weather, the irrigation frequency and volume may need
to be adjusted to accommodate the reduced and disturbed root
system. Some growers strip leaves from certain trees to enhance
survival.
Table 1. Nethous of ieuucing oi eliminating ioot uefects
when lineis aie shifteu to laigei containeis.

uiow lineis in piopagation tiays uesigneu to

ieuuce uefects.

Shift lineis at the appiopiiate time.

Scoie oi slice the ioot ball fiom top to bottom in

seveial places.

Shave oi peel off ioots on the peiipheiy of the

ioot ball.

Tease ioots at the peiipheiy so they lay stiaight

in the substiate of the laigei containei.

Piune off the coineis fiom top to bottom of cube-

shapeu ioot balls.

Remove the bottom of the ioot ball.

Figuie 7e. At left, a linei ioot ball that is likely to
uevelop peimanent uefects if not piuneu. Roots foim
a "shell" at the substiate-containei inteiface. Shaving
oi peeling away the peiipheial ioots can iemove
uefects, iesulting in a ioot system iesembling the one
at iight, a linei ioot ball with the substiate iemoveu
to show a linei ioot system fiee of uefects.
Figuie 7a. Inspect the ioot ball.
Figuie 7b. Remove peiipheial ioots.
Figuie 7c. Continue ioot piuning.
Figuie 7u. Root piuning complete.
4
Section 1: Roots
;''/ .''+ ,<,+&G5 Linei ioot ball was shaveu
(Fig. 7) when shifteu into a #1 containei.
Figuie 8b. Two months aftei shifting, ioots that
giew uown anu aiounu the siues of the linei pot
became woouy anu giew in uiametei. These woouy
ioots ietaineu theii oiiginal oiientation, anu many
of the new ioots piouuceu in the #1 containei giew
fiom the bottom of the linei ioot ball.
Figuie 8u. Two months aftei ioot piuning anu
shifting, the new ioots giew hoiizontally anu
uownwaiu. The ioots at the top of the containei
oiiginateu fiom the top of the linei ioot ball,
pioviuing gieatei stability foi the tiee.
Figuie 8c. Six months aftei shifting, the main
woouy ioots that hau been oiiginally ueflecteu by
the linei pot continueu to giow in uiametei. Nany
ioots that giew neai the suiface of the ioot ball
oiiginateu neai the bottom of the linei. The #1
containei wall ueflecteu a seconu set of ioots up,
uown, anu aiounu. Some of these ioots will become
woouy anu giow into a seconu set of uefects.
Figuie 8e. Six months aftei ioot piuning anu
shifting, the main woouy ioots weie oiienteu in a
moie natuial foim. Some main ioots giew
hoiizontally, while otheis giew uownwaiu. Both
hoiizontal anu veitical ioots aie neeueu foi tiee
stability. The innei ioot ball was fiee fiom uefects
such as ciicling, stem-giiuling, anu kinkeu
ioots. Bowevei, this plant shoulu be ioot piuneu
again when it is shifteu to the next containei size
oi planteu in the giounu.
S
D''. .''+ ,<,+&G5 Linei ioot ball was not ioot
piuneu as it was shifteu into a #1 containei.
Figuie 8a. Finisheu linei with ioots
ueflecteu uown anu aiounu the pot
foiming a type of ioot shell.
Section 1: Roots
6''+ 3<,+&G H#*#A&G&*+ '* F#.A&. )'*+#2*&.,

I$J&1+2K&5 The ioot ball peiipheiy shoulu be fiee of
laigei ciicling, giiuling, uescenuing, ascenuing, anu
bottom-matteu ioots. Nain ioots neai the substiate
top suiface shoulu giow moie oi less stiaight to the
euge of the containei.

D.'$%&G5 Roots giowing on the peiipheiy of the
ioot ball often ueflect uown anu aiounu the
containei wall anu can become laige anu woouy
(Fig. 9a). Laigei ioots at the peiipheiy of #1 anu
laigei containeis can iesult fiom a iootbounu linei,
a linei planteu with pooi ioot bianching oi
uistiibution, failuie to ioot-piune the linei, a
uominant tap ioot oi lateial ioot, a tiee iemaining in
a containei foi too long, anu othei factois. Small anu
meuium-sizeu peiipheial ioots inuicate bettei ioot
uistiibution (Fig. 9b). Root uefects often foim on the
inteiioi of the ioot ball if ioots aie not manageu at
each shift.
D.#1+21&5 Shifting befoie non-coiiectable uefects
foim, ioot piuning, aii-piuning, anu teasing apait
small ioots at each shift to a laigei containei can
significantly ieuuce ioot uefects. Aii-piuning
happens when ioots aie puiposely exposeu to aii in
the absence of high humiuity (Fig. 1u). Root tips aie
killeu, causing the plant to piouuce new bianching
ioots. uiowing tiees in an open-bottom containei
above the giounu aii-piunes bottom ioots anu can
ieuuce the uiametei of ioots giowing towaiu the
bottom of the containei. The ioot ball impioves
because of an inciease in lateial ioot giowth anu a
moie biancheu ioot system. Lateial ioots that aie
aii-piuneu oi chemically piuneu on containei siues
also bianch.
Root piuning can iemove some oi all of the outei
ioots anu substiate fiom the top, siues, anu bottom
of the ioot ball (Fig. 11a). The stiaight poition of the
ioots on the inteiioi is ietaineu. In #S containeis
anu laigei, ioughly the outei 1 inch of substiate
contains many of the uefects. Teasing apait the outei
suiface of the ioot ball can be effective on young
tiees of ceitain species when ioots aie small in
uiametei (see Fig. 12). These stiategies encouiage
new ioots to giow iauially away fiom the tiunk.
None of these techniques aie veiy effective foi
tieating uefects on the inteiioi of the ioot ball.
Theiefoie, it is impeiative that ioots on the
peiipheiy be inspecteu anu uefects iemoveu at each
shift to a laigei containei. All techniques woik best
when ioots aie small in uiametei.
Figuie 9a. Laige ioots aie giowing on
the peiipheiy of the ioot ball. These
shoulu be iemoveu by shaving oi
piuning away the bent poition of the
ioots; howevei, cutting ioots of this size
coulu kill some tiees, uepenuing on time
of yeai anu watei management.
Figuie 9b. Small ioots aie giowing on
the peiipheiy of the ioot ball. This ioot
ball shoulu be shaveu when shifteu.
6
Section 1: Roots
The tiees in Figuies 8e anu 9b shoulu be ioot-
piuneu when shifteu to a laigei containei. Shaving
woiks best because it is likely to cut ioots back to a
stiaight iauial ioot segment attacheu to the tiunk
(Fig. 4). A shaveu ioot ball will be smallei than it
was befoie piuning (Fig. 1S). Theie may be othei
ways to cut back ioots so that ietaineu ioots aie
positioneu iauially anu stiaight fiom the tiunk.
Slicing anu scoiing the ioot ball aie less effective
because 9u-uegiee benus in main ioots often
iemain (Fig. 4). Shaving continues the piocess of
ueveloping a quality ioot system that began when
the linei was appiopiiately manageu when shifteu
into the laigei containei. Root balls shoulu be
inspecteu anu uefects iemoveu at each shift to a
laigei containei to pievent the foimation of laige,
uefective woouy ioots on the inteiioi of the finisheu
ioot ball.
Figuie 11a. Shaving, piuning, oi "peeling" off
the peiipheiy of the ioot ball iemoves most of
the ioot uefects piesent at the peiipheiy anu
bottom of the ioot ball.
Figuie 11b. New ioots often giow iauially away
fiom the tiunk in a fanlike pattein. Some ioots
may giow at a iight angle to the cut ioot.
Figuie 1u. The valley oak ioot system giown in a
containei that piunes ioots with aii (top) has moie
lateial ioots giowing fiom the tiunk anu fewei ioot
uefects than a tiee giown in a smooth-siueu containei
(bottom).
Figuie 12. Teasing ioots away fiom the ioot
ball peiipheiy encouiages ioots to giow
iauially away fiom the tiunk.
7
Section 1: Roots
Figuie 1Sa. Roots matteu at the #S ioot ball
peiipheiy.
Figuie 1Sb. A hanu saw can be useu to shave oi
peel away matteu ioots fiom the peiipheiy of
the ioot ball.
Figuie 1Sc. Natteu ioots iemoveu fiom the
peiipheiy of the #S containei piioi to shifting.
Note that iemaining ioots aie stiaight anu the
ioot ball is slightly smallei than it was befoie
piuning.
Figuie 1Su. Thiee months aftei ioot piuning, new
ioots giew iauially fiom the tiunk into the #1S
containei substiate.
8
Section 1: Roots
Shaving, piuning, oi scoiing the
peiipheiy of the ioot ball can be uone
with a hanu piunei, hanu saw, machete,
uigging shovel, oi othei shaip blaue
(Fig. 1Sb). This piocess uulls shaip tools
quickly but unifoimly iemoves matteu
ioots fiom the peiipheiy anu bottom of
the ioot ball (typically about V to 1 inch
on #1, ueepei on laigei containeis; Fig.
1Sc). The tiee is then ieauy to be shifteu
to a laigei containei oi planteu in the
lanuscape.

New ioots will giow fiom the cut ioot
enus into the substiate in the laigei
containei oi the lanuscape (Fig.
1Su). The iesulting ioot system shoulu
have faiily stiaight ioots giowing
iauially fiom the tiunk (Fig. 14 bottom
anu 1Sa). Without piuning, ueflecteu
ioots can become woouy anu ietain
theii bent foim (Fig. 1Sb). Shaving oi
piuning away ioots at the peiipheiy
each time the tiee is shifteu shoulu
pievent many of these bent ioots fiom
becoming peimanent uefects, while
cieating a moie fibious ioot ball.
Figuie 1Sa. Washing the substiate away shows that
ioot ball shaving uevelopeu a goou ioot system
with stiaight ioots fiee of uefects extenuing
iauially fiom the tiunk.
Figuie 14. This maple was not ioot-piuneu when
shifteu to this #1S containei; note the abunuant ioot
uefects at the position of the #S (top). The maple ioot
ball peiipheiy was shaveu when shifteu to a #1S
containei (bottom). Note the ioot uefects at the position
of the #S aie laigely gone anu new ioots in the #1S aie
giowing mostly iauially away fiom the tiunk.
Figuie 1Sb. Washing substiate fiom the top of the ioot
ball shows non-coiiectable ioot uefects in a #4S
containei. These uefects iesulteu fiom failing to piune
the ioots when shifting fiom the #S anu #1S
containeis.
9
4
Section 1: Roots
I$J&1+2K&5 The tiee shoulu be well-iooteu
but not oveigiown in the substiate. When
iemoving the containei, the ioot ball shoulu
iemain mostly intact. When tipping the tiee
fiom siue to siue, both the tiunk anu ioot
ball shoulu move as one. Root uistiibution
shoulu be unifoim thioughout the containei
substiate.

D.'$%&G5 If a tiee is pooily iooteu oi ioots
aie pooily uistiibuteu, a laige amount of
substiate can fall away fiom the ioots when
shifting. Ciicling anu laige uescenuing ioots
at the ioot ball peiipheiy that aie not cut
uuiing the shifting piocess may not extenu
iauially oi anchoi into the new substiate.
This can cieate a point of weakness. When
the tiunk is lifteu oi iockeu (Fig. 16, iight)
the pooily iooteu smallei ioot ball can
paitially sepaiate fiom the substiate of the
laigei containei's ioot ball.
D.#1+21&5 Planting a linei with a balanceu,
biancheu ioot system containing ample ioot
tips, anu shifting the tiee at the appiopiiate
time, combineu with mechanical anu aii ioot
piuning, helps ensuie goou ioot uistiibution
anu a quality plant with a long life
expectancy (Fig. 17). These techniques help
pievent pooi connections between smallei
ioot balls anu substiate in the laigei
containei anu often encouiage moie ioots to
giow into the top half of the ioot ball. Figuie
1Su shows how shaving the peiipheiy of the
ioot ball of the same species shown in Figuie
16 yielus bettei ioot uistiibution thioughout
the ioot ball.
Figuie 17. Roots shoulu be evenly uistiibuteu insiue the
ioot ball (top). When the containei is iemoveu, the ioot
ball shoulu iemain intact (left).
Figuie 16. This #S ioot ball is not well secuieu to the
#1S substiate because ioots aie giowing fiom ueflecteu
ioots piimaiily fiom the bottom of the #S ioot ball
(left). Pulling up on the tiunk (iight) causes the smallei
ioot ball to paitially sepaiate fiom the substiate.
Root Distribution within the Root Ball
1u
Section 1: Roots
I$J&1+2K&5 The ioot collai (the uppeimost main
hoiizontal mothei ioots) on the finisheu tiee
shoulu be within the top 1 to 2 inches, anu no
laige ioots shoulu cioss ovei the main ioots.
D.'$%&G5 Tiees planteu too ueeply can uevelop
seveie ioot uefects at the ioot collai. Even tiees of
ceitain species (e.g., maples) planteu at the piopei
uepth can uevelop ioot uefects. When shifteu to a
laigei containei these uefects aie moie easily
coiiecteu on tiees maintaineu at the oiiginal
piopagation level than on tiees planteu too
ueeply. Befects fiom ueep planting incluue ciicling,
stem giiuling, anu kinkeu ioots giowing ovei the
ioot collai oi aiounu the tiunk (Fig. 18a).
D.#1+21&5 Tiees shoulu be positioneu as close to
the piopagation level as possible unless main
ioots oiiginate ueepei than 1 inch below the
substiate suiface. If the linei is planteu too
shallowly, some suiface ioots coulu uiy out anu
slightly impeue tiee giowth. If planteu too ueeply,
stem-giiuling ioots anu othei ioot uefects may
foim. When shifting oi planting into the lanuscape
(Fig. 19b), substiate anu ioot uefects shoulu be
iemoveu fiom the top of the ioot ball on tiees
planteu too ueeply. Substiate can be iemoveu
uown to the ioot collai using watei oi aii oi by
hanu. Befective ioots can be cut back to a point
wheie the ietaineu ioot segments aie oiienteu
iauially fiom the tiunk (Fig. 18).
Figure 19a. The point where the uppermost root grows from
the trunk should be positioned close to the substrate surface
at each shift.
Figure 18a. A circling root growing over the root
collar.
Figure 18b. After removing circling roots, the
remaining root segment should be oriented radially
from the trunk and straight (Fig. 19a and b).
Figure 19b. Main roots at the top of the root ball
should be oriented radially and straight away from
the trunk.
Depth of Root Collar
11
Section 2: Trunk
I$J&1+2K&5 Bevelop auequate tiunk
calipei so the tiee can stanu on its own
without a nuiseiy stake.
D.'$%&G5 Eaily iemoval of lateial
bianches fiom the lowei tiunk (4 to S
feet high) on young tiees slows tiunk
calipei giowth (Fig. 2u). The
combination of staking fiom a young age
anu eaily iemoval of tempoiaiy
bianches often cieates a tiunk with little
oi no tapei anu a tiee that cannot stanu
on its own (Fig. 21). These piactices leau
to ovei-staking in the lanuscape anu
tiunk bieakage at the stake tie. Tiees
with no tapei aie uifficult to tianspoit
anu manage in the nuiseiy anu in the
lanuscape. Roots, tiunk, anu ciown giow
slowei if tempoiaiy bianches aie
iemoveu too eaily in the piouuction
piocess.
D.#1+21&5 Keeping tempoiaiy lateial
bianches along the tiunk of young tiees
allows tiees to giow fastei (Fig. 22). The
length of tempoiaiy bianches will vaiy
accoiuing to youi objectives. Longei
tempoiaiy bianches iesult in moie
calipei. In some ciicumstances, it may be
uesiiable to heau tempoiaiy bianches in
oiuei to push moie giowth into the
cential leauei. Bowevei, eaily iemoval
of tempoiaiy bianches can iesult in a
tall anu lanky tiee. Beaueu tempoiaiy
bianches on tiees solu to othei
nuiseiies as linei stock shoulu not be
consiueieu uowngiauing factois.

The laigest-uiametei tempoiaiy
bianches shoulu be iemoveu at each
piuning in oiuei to keep tiunk wounus
small. Tempoiaiy bianches uo not have
to be iemoveu when tiees aie solu to
anothei nuiseiy foi shifting stock,
though it is impoitant to communicate
this to youi customeis so they know
what they will be ieceiving fiom
you. Tempoiaiy bianches shoulu
typically be iemoveu 6 to 12 months
befoie sale to the enu usei. Tempoiaiy
bianches aie most impoitant foi
encouiaging calipei giowth in young
tiees (#1S containei anu smallei, Fig. 2S
left). They can be iemoveu fiom oluei
tiees (Fig. 2S, iight).
Figuie 22. Leaving tempoiaiy bianches along the lowei tiunk
incieases giowth of the entiie tiee (left). The lowei tiunk will
become thickei anu ioots will be stiongei, allowing the tiee
to holu itself eiect. Removing tempoiaiy bianches too soon
weakens the tiunk anu slows giowth (iight). In most
ciicumstances, no moie than 4u% of the lowei tiunk shoulu
be cleaieu of tempoiaiy bianches.
Figuie 2u. uoou tapei anu calipei uevelopeu because of the
many tempoiaiy bianches along the tiunk (left). Removing
tempoiaiy bianches too soon iesults in pooi tiunk tapei, a
weak tiee, anu less total giowth (iight).
Figuie 21. Tiees in the nuiseiy aie stakeu to foim a stiaight
tiunk. This piesents a pioblem only when low lateial
bianches aie iemoveu too soon fiom the tiunk (left). When
tiunks aie about the same uiametei at the base as they aie
just below the ciown, they lack tiunk tapei. This iesults in a
weak tiee unable to holu itself up (iight).
3&1+2'* 75 ".0*8
"&G>'.#.< @.#*1B&,
12
Section 2: Trunk
D.'$%&G5 The maiket uesiies a stiaight
tiunk that extenus up into the cential
leauei with few blemishes. 0pen oi
closeu piuning wounus oi existing
heaueu tempoiaiy bianches shoulu not
be consiueieu blemishes because
piuning wounus eventually close with
new woou.
D.#1+21&5 Not all tiees iequiie staking;
howevei, many species neeu a stake to
uevelop a stiaight tiunk (Fig.
2S). Bamboo stakes aie a populai choice,
but many othei mateiials can be useu
incluuing plastic, fibeiglass, anu metal.
The tiunk shoulu be secuieu to the stake
snugly to pievent iubbing, but not so
tight that the tiunk is giiuleu. Stakes
shoulu be small in uiametei to pievent
bianch ueflection. Laige squaie woou
stakes ueflect bianches, often leauing to
a misshapen oi a flat-siueu ciown. The
tiee can be stakeu fai up into the ciown
with a vaiiety of mateiials (Fig. 24).
Theie is no neeu foi the stake to be
attacheu to the giounu once the tiee can
stanu on its own.
I$J&1+2K&5 As the trunk extends up into the central leader (excluding clump forms), it should be mostly
straight and vertical without exaggerated sweeps or sharp bends (Fig. 23). Trunks should also be free of
large wounds.
Figuie 2S. Low tempoiaiy bianches aie most impoitant on
young tiees (left). Low tempoiaiy bianches aie less
impoitant on oluei tiees; howevei, they can be ietaineu
uepenuing on the species (iight). They can be iemoveu
piioi to sale to the enu usei.
Figuie 24. Stakeu tiees uevelop ample calipei when low tempoiaiy bianches aie manageu piopeily.
Tempoiaiy bianches shoulu be cut back anu iemoveu ovei a peiiou of time. These bianches aie most
impoitant in the eailiei stages of piouuction. Stakes can be pulleu up the tiee to help uevelop a stiaight leauei
to the top of the ciown. Bianches anu the main leauei on the tiee in the sequence above weie heaueu in oiuei
to uevelop a stiaight tiunk anu leauei.
1S
3+.#2AB+ ".0*8
Section 3: Crown
I$J&1+2K&5 Shaue tiees shoulu have a single,
ielatively stiaight cential leauei, fiee of
couominant stems oi othei vigoious
upiight bianches that woulu compete with
the cential leauei (Fig. 2S). This uoes not
apply to plants that have been specifically
tiaineu in the nuiseiy as topiaiy, espaliei,
multi-stem, clump, oi unique selections
such as contoiteu oi weeping cultivais.
The uevelopment of a high-quality ciown
hinges on the establishment of a cential
leauei that is consiueiably laigei in
uiametei than all bianches. Some species
will uevelop a cential leauei anu ciown on
theii own anu iequiie little oi no
inteivention. 0theis iequiie iegulai
piuning. Piuning piactices useu in leauei
tiaining incluue heauing, bianch
suboiuination piuning, anu staking. Some
species can be giown with seveial leaueis,
incluuing !"#$%&'%($)*", +,('*-*"
stanuaius, ./0*11*", .%02'2&, 3,*'"/4",
5%*(0('%6", 7"/2&, +%2-2&, 8"/*9 anu otheis.
F&#/&.L/'G2*#*+ ,>&12&, M&?10..&*+
('.GN
D.'$%&G5 Tiees such as Lonuon plane tiee
(+/"'"-2& ";$%*<(/*"= will uevelop a well-
shapeu ciown with a stiong cential leauei
without much inteivention (see the
Appenuix foi auuitional species). Tiees with
a stiong cential leauei iequiie only peiiouic
suboiuination of aggiessive bianches to
maintain the cential leauei (Fig. 26).
D.#1+21&5 Reuuction, oi bianch
suboiuination piuning, is an impoitant tool
foi ueveloping an attiactive anu stiuctuially
sounu ciown. Bianches that aie vigoious
anu upiight can be kept fiom becoming
couominant with suboiuination piuning
(Fig. 27). Suboiuination iemoves enough
bianches to slow giowth by the uesiieu
amount. Couominant bianches shoulu be
cut back to lateial bianches, shoots, oi buus
pointeu away fiom the cential leauei. In
some cases couominant bianches shoulu be
iemoveu altogethei, such as when they aie
neaily the size of the leauei oi when they
clustei close togethei.
3&1+2'* 95 ).':*
)&*+.#% F&#/&.
Figuie 2S. Bigh-quality shaue tiees have one
cential leauei (left). Pooi-quality shaue tiees
have two oi moie leaueis (iight).
Figuie 26. Excuiient (leauei-uominant) tiees
sometimes uevelop goou stiuctuie with limiteu
inteivention.
Figuie 27. Suboiuination piuning ieuuces the
length of couominant bianches (uotteu lines)
back to a lateial bianch pointeu away fiom the
tiunk. The giowth slowing effect is piopoitional
to the amount iemoveu.
14
Section 3: Crown
Figuie 28a. Couominant bianches typically giow
as fast, oi fastei, than the cential leauei.
@.#*1BL/'G2*#*+ +.&&, M/&10..&*+ ('.GN
D.'$%&G5 Tiees such as elm (>/)2& spp.), zelkova
(?$/@(A" &$%%"'"), anu camphoi (3*--")()2)
;")4,(%") aie bianch-uominant (see the
Appenuix foi auuitional species). Species with this
foim typically uevelop couominant bianches that
giow as fast, oi fastei, than the cential leauei.
These tiees will giow into a iounu oi vase-shapeu
foim at a veiy eaily age. This giowth habit
iequiies iegulai piuning to shoiten bianches anu
uevelop an attiactive anu stiuctuially sounu
ciown. When tiees of this foim aie not tiaineu
piopeily in the nuiseiy, they can uevelop
stiuctuial uefects as they continue to giow in the
lanuscape.
D.#1+21&5 Bianch management shoulu begin eaily
in the piouuction piocess anu continue until the
tiee is solu. Regulai bianch suboiuination anu
bianch iemoval ensuies that competing bianches
giow moie slowly than the cential leauei anu uo
not become couominant (Figs. 28a anu 28b).
Bianches in the ciown shoulu be less than half the
uiametei of the cential leauei measuieu 1 inch
above the attachment. Bianch tips shoulu be
below the tip of the cential leauei (Fig. 28b).
Bianches that aie vigoious may iequiie
substantial suboiuination to slow theii giowth
(Fig. 29). Bianches shoulu be cut back to shoots oi
buus pointeu away fiom the cential
leauei. Bianches may neeu to be shoiteneu
iepeateuly in the piouuction piocess. In most
cases, couominant bianches shoulu be iemoveu
altogethei, especially if upiight.
Figuie 28b. Thiee couominant bianches weie
suboiuinateu (ieuuceu) by 6u to 7u% to slow
theii giowth anu encouiage the cential leauei to
uevelop.
Figuie 29a. Couominant
bianches aie typically vigoious
anu upiight befoie piuning.
Figuie 29b. A light suboiuination
piuning showing iemoval of Su to
4u% of foliage.
Figuie 29c. A heavy
suboiuination piuning showing
iemoval of 6u to 7u% of foliage.
1S
Section 3: Crown
".&&, +B#+ /' *'+ $.#*1B

D.'$%&G5 Tiees such as Chinese
pistache (+*&'";*" ;,*-$-&*&),
jacaianua (B";"%"-C" )*)(&*<(/*")
anu honeylocust (D/$C*'&*"
'%*";"-',(&) often uo not bianch on
theii own at a young age (Fig. Su;
see the Appenuix foi auuitional
species). Tiees without bianches uo
not faie well in the maiketplace. The
piactice of heauing stems to
piomote bianching without
ietiaining a cential leauei can cieate
couominant bianches clusteieu
close togethei (Fig. S1). This
clusteiing is consiueieu a stiuctuial
uefect because it becomes a weak
point in the tiee as it giows (Fig.
S2). The stiuctuial weak point is
laigely uue to the lack of follow-up
piuning anu staking in the nuiseiy.
D.#1+21&5 The cential leauei can be
heaueu to piomote bianching;
howevei, the tiee shoulu be tiaineu
with a new cential leauei (Fig.
SS). 0ne methou of tiaining a new
cential leauei uses a bamboo stake
tieu in seveial places to the
tiunk. The stake shoulu extenu well
beyonu the heauing cut. Aftei
heauing the cential leauei, seveial
new shoots shoulu giow fiom below
the point wheie the cential leauei
was heaueu (Fig. SS). The most
vigoious upiight shoot shoulu be
selecteu anu pulleu tight against the
stake. This shoot will become the
new cential leauei (Fig. S4). The
heauing cut shoulu not exceeu about
inch in uiametei.
Shoots othei than the one chosen foi
the new cential leauei shoulu be
heaueu to pievent them fiom
becoming couominant. These shoots
shoulu be heaueu back to a buu
oiienteu away fiom the cential
leauei. This piactice can be iepeateu
thioughout the piouuction piocess
to uevelop a full-biancheu ciown.
Figuie Su. Some species uo not bianch when they aie young
(see the Appenuix foi a list).
Figuie S1. Beauing the cential leauei encouiages bianching
(left anu centei; from Harris et al. 1999). Pooi bianch stiuctuie
iesults without follow-up piuning (iight).
Figuie S2. These tiees piobably faileu because they weie
heaueu in the nuiseiy without follow-up piuning.
16
Section 3: Crown
O&#/2*A #*/ 6&L+.#2*2*A +B& )&*+.#% F&#/&.
Figuie SS. Beauing the leauei piomotes bianching (left to iight). The top shoot is tieu to a stake anu the
otheis aie heaueu to piomote bianching. This piocess continues thioughout the piouuction piocess (see Fig.
S4 foi staking uetail).
Figuie S4u. The piuning
wounu is closeu anu the tiee
now has a new cential leauei
with two bianches. The two
bianches weie heaueu (not
shown in illustiation) to slow
theii giowth anu to cieate
moie bianches.
Figuie S4c. The new leauei is
giowing laigei. The piuning
wounu is almost closeu. The
woou in the new cential leauei
will haiuen anu iemain
stiaight. The stake can be
iemoveu oi aujusteu.
Figuie S4b. Thiee buus
uevelopeu into shoots just
behinu the heauing cut. The
top shoot is tieu to the stake
while the shoots aie still
soft.
Figuie S4a. The cential
leauei is heaueu at the
point wheie bianches aie
neeueu. A stake (left) is
tieu to the leauei so it
extenus beyonu the cut.
17
Section 3: Crown
Figuie SS. This neaily finisheu nuiseiy tiee has goou bianch
size in ielation to the tiunk anu a stiong cential leauei.
Since these bianches aie small, they will be easy to iemove
as the tiee giows in the lanuscape oi is shifteu to a laigei
containei.
I$J&1+2K&5 The uiametei of all bianches shoulu be less
than half the uiametei of the tiunk anu the cential
leauei as measuieu about 1 inch above the bianch
union (Fig. SS).
D.'$%&G5 Bianches laigei than half the tiunk uiametei
can giow too aggiessively anu compete with the cential
leauei (Fig. S6, top). Bianches that aie smallei than the
tiunk aie bettei attacheu anu typically uo not compete
with the leauei. Bianches that aie laigei than the tiunk
have a weakei attachment to the tiunk.
D.#1+21&5 Bianches with a uiametei gieatei than half
the tiunk uiametei shoulu be iemoveu oi seveiely
suboiuinateu to slow theii giowth (Figs. 28b anu 29).
@.#*1B P2#G&+&.
Figuie S6. The bianch on the iight is laige
in ielation to the cential leauei anu
shoulu be iemoveu oi ieuuceu in oiuei to
slow its giowth (top photo). Bianches
shoulu be less than half the tiunk
uiametei, not the same uiametei as the
tiunk. Neuium-sizeu bianches (see
fingei) can be piuneu moueiately in oiuei
to slow theii giowth (bottom). Smallei
bianches may not neeu piuning.
18
Section 3: Crown
Figuie S8. This is an example of how a clustei of bianches
coulu uevelop into couominant stems (left). The tallest
stem takes ovei oi seveial giow to choke out the leauei.
The clustei causes a ieuuction in the vigoi anu uiametei of
the cential leauei above the clustei. Aftei selecting the
cential leauei, the laigest thiee bianches weie iemoveu,
anu the iemaining two smallei bianches on the iight weie
ieuuceu by half. The bianches weie cut back to a buu
pointeu away fiom the cential leauei (iight).
Figuie S7b. A tiee is weak when most
bianches aie clusteieu togethei. Notice the
significant ieuuction in uiametei of the
cential leauei just above the clustei of
laige bianches. This inuicates that the
bianches aie giowing moie aggiessively
than what was the leauei.
Figuie S7a. This tiee has a stiong
stiuctuie anu well-spaceu bianches in
ielation to the tiunk. Notice that the
cential leauei has a unifoim tapei.
@.#*1B P2,+.2$0+2'*
)&*+.#% F&#/&.
I$J&1+2K&5 Nain bianches shoulu be uistiibuteu
along the cential leauei (Fig. S7a) anu not
clusteieu at a few points (Fig. S7b). Conifeis often
giow with many bianches close togethei; in most
cases, this is fine.
D.'$%&G5 Clusteieu bianches often outgiow the
cential leauei, anu this ietaius giowth of the
cential leauei (Fig. S7b).
D.#1+21&5 When tiees have clusteieu bianches, they
must be piuneu in a timely mannei, otheiwise tiee
quality anu salability will suffei. A combination of
bianch iemoval anu bianch suboiuination is
iequiieu (Fig. S8). Iueally, the laigei-uiametei
bianches shoulu be iemoveu anu the smallei
bianches cut back to a buu oi shoot giowing away
fiom the cential leauei. This piactice will maintain
a stiuctuially sounu anu well-uistiibuteu nuiseiy
ciown. Piuning shoulu be scheuuleu to avoiu
auveise impacts fiom enviionmental extiemes of
weathei.
19
Section 3: Crown
I$J&1+2K&5 Tiees shoulu have a balanceu
foim anu not be misshapen by bieakage,
winu, piuning piactices, pests, spacing, oi
othei factois. A consistent tiee foim is an
impoitant attiibute foi sales anu
lanuscape value. It is easiei foi buyeis to
choose fiom a block of tiees that have
consistent nuiseiy ciowns.
D.'$%&G5 Aggiessive oi oveisizeu
bianches can cause the ciown to become
asymmetiical oi one-siueu, which ieuuces
the salability of the tiees.
D.#1+21&5 Tiee foim can be impioveu by
ieuucing, iemoving, anu heauing bianches
to cieate a unifoim nuiseiy ciown (Fig.
S9). vigoious bianches can be biought
back into a consistent anu unifoim shape.
Tiees pieviously heaueu oi toppeu, oi
those with a thin ciown on one siue, can be
balanceu by iemoving anu ieuucing
bianches on the heavy siue (Fig. 4u).

Figuie S9. The ciown is lopsiueu on the iight siue of the
photo on the left. Reuucing the laige upiight bianch anu
heauing some smallei bianches iesults in a moie unifoim
nuiseiy ciown (iight). Iueally, bianches giowing outsiue
an imaginaiy pyiamiu (uotteu lines) shoulu be piuneu.
).':* C'.G
Figuie 4u. Befoie piuning (left), the ciown is lopsiueu. Aftei piuning (centei), the cential leauei is moie
piominent anu the ciown is bettei balanceu. Reuuction cuts (iight, aiiow), iemoval cuts, anu heauing cuts can
balance the nuiseiy ciown.
2u
Section 3: Crown
@#.8 -*1%0,2'*
I$J&1+2K&5 Scaffolu bianches with baik inclusions
in the ciown shoulu be iemoveu oi seveiely heaueu.
D.'$%&G5 A bianch is well attacheu to the tiunk
when a baik iiuge is piesent (Fig. 41a). A baik iiuge
inuicates that noimal woou is giowing ovei the
union. Conveisely, baik inclusions in the bianch
union ieuuce the stiength of the bianch attachment
because baik anu woou folu inwaiu (Fig. 41b). This
makes foi a weak bianch attachment.

Bianches with inclusions tenu to be vigoious anu
upiight with naiiow angles of attachment (Fig. 42).
They shaue the leauei, which can pievent bianches
with goou unions fiom ueveloping highei in the
ciown. If not iemoveu eaily in piouuction, iemoval
can latei leau to a uefoimeu ciown.
D.#1+21&5 Bianches that have baik inclusions shoulu
be iemoveu when the tiee is young anu befoie the
bianch becomes an impoitant pait of the ciown. If
iemoval will leave the ciown one-siueu, the bianch
shoulu be suboiuinateu. Bianches with baik
inclusions often iequiie iegulai suboiuination.
Figuie 41a. Bianches with baik iiuges on
the top of the union aie well secuieu to the
tiunk.
Figuie 42. A union with a baik inclusion foims a v shape (see
Fig. 41b). The union is weak anu bieaks apait easily because
theie is no woou on top of the union connecting bianch to
tiunk.
Figuie 41b. 0nions with inclusions aie
weak anu can easily bieak fiom the
tiunk. The ciack is the baik inclusion.
21
Section 3: Crown
I$J&1+2K&5 The cuiient yeai's shoot
giowth shoulu be vigoious (showing
vitality) as inuicateu by appiopiiate
shoot giowth (length anu uiametei)
thioughout the ciown foi the age
anu size of the species oi cultivai
(Fig. 4S). Tiees shoulu have no ueau,
uiseaseu, infesteu, ciackeu, bioken,
uistoiteu, oi otheiwise injuieu
bianches.
The size, coloi, anu appeaiance of
leaves shoulu be appiopiiate foi the
time of yeai anu stage of giowth of
the species oi cultivai (Fig. 44).
Leaves shoulu not be unueisizeu,
misshapen, tatteieu, uiscoloieu
(chloiotic oi neciotic), oi otheiwise
atypical in appeaiance (Fig. 4S).
D.'$%&G5 Tiees that have pooi
health oi lack vigoi aie often shifteu
into laigei containei sizes anu
alloweu to iemain in the piouuction
system. These piactices aie bau foi
gioweis anu theii customeis.
Shifting pooi-vigoi tiees into the
laigei containei sizes shoulu be
avoiueu when possible.
D.#1+21&5 Less-vigoious tiees shoulu
be culleu anu not shifteu to laigei
containeis. It is impoitant to cull
tiees that exhibit pooi health anu
pooi vigoi eaily in the piouuction
piocess to ieuuce cost. Nanagement
effoits shoulu be focuseu on vigoious
plants.
Figuie 44. The tiee on the left
uisplays the appiopiiate leaf coloi.
The tiee on the iight is paitially
chloiotic.
Figuie 4S. This tiee shows scoicheu
anu chloiotic leaves.
Q2A'. #*/ C'%2#. )B#.#1+&.2,+21,
22
Figuie 4S. The tiee on the left shows veiy pooi vigoi foi
the species, with only S inches of shoot giowth. The tiee on
the iight exhibits goou vigoi appiopiiate foi the species,
with 16 inches of shoot giowth.
Glossary
air root pruning. Root pruning done in containers that causes root tips to be killed by exposure
to dry air, resulting in several new roots branching behind the dead root tip.
apical. Of or relating to the main upright shoot of a plant.
apical dominance. Inhibition of lateral buds by the terminal bud of a shoot.
branch union. The point where two stems, or a stem and a branch, meet.
branch. A stem that is smaller than the main trunk to which it is attached.
caliper. Trunk diameter measured 6 inches from the ground; if caliper is greater than 4 inches,
the caliper measurement should be taken at 12 inches from the ground.
central leader. A continuation of the main trunk located more or less in the center of the crown,
beginning at the lowest main branch (scaffold) and extending to the top of the tree. Also referred
to as the dominant leader.
circling roots. One or more roots whose diameter is greater than 10% of the trunk caliper
circling more than one-third of the trunk.
clear trunk. The portion of the trunk below the crown lacking lateral branches, including the
portion of the trunk with shortened temporary branches below the crown.
codominant. Two or more vigorous, upright branches or stems of relatively equal size that
originate from a common point, usually where the leader was lost or removed.
crown. The portion of a tree beginning at the lowest main (scaffold) branch extending to the top
of the tree.
cultivar. A named plant selection from which identical or nearly identical plants can be
produced, usually by vegetative propagation or cloning.
descending roots. Roots that grow to the container wall and down the inside of the pot. Also
known as plunging or descending roots.
decurrent species. Species with strong apical dominance and weak apical control. Buds do not
elongate in the season they were initiated (strong apical dominance); but, when they do elongate,
they have growth equal to the central leader (weak apical control).
excurrent species. Strong apical control but weak apical dominance. Lateral branches are
capable of elongating in the year they were initiated (weak apical dominance), but their
elongation is under strong apical control.
finished tree. A tree in its final container.
heading cuts. Cutting through a stem or branch just above a live bud that is typically oriented
away from the central leader.
included bark. Bark embedded in the union between a branch and the trunk or between two or
more stems that prevents the formation of a normal branch bark ridge.
2S
kinked root. A main mother root that is sharply bent.
lateral. Branches growing from the sides of the main trunk.
leader. The dominant stem, which usually develops into the main trunk.
liner. A plant in its first or second container.
liner tray. A small container or group of containers designed to hold germinating seeds or rooted
cuttings.
main roots. The largest-diameter mother roots typically growing from the trunk or main taproot
that form the main structure of the root system.
media. See substrate.
minor root defects. Small-diameter roots circling or crossing the top of the root ball.
peripheral roots. Roots growing in the outer inch of the container root ball sides and bottom.
radial. Positioned around a central point or axis.
propagation depth. Depth at which tree was positioned in the first container or field soil.
photosynthate. Sugar and other carbohydrates that are produced by the foliage and stems during
photosynthesis.
reduction cut. Cutting a stem or branch back to a live lateral branch that is typically oriented away
from the central leader; also referred to as a subordination cut.
root defects. Circling, kinked, or stem-girdling roots resulting from growing in a container. Roots
that deflect up or down once they reach the container wall are also considered defects.
removal cut. Removing a branch back to the trunk, or removing a secondary branch from a main
branch.
root ball shaving. Removing the outer substrate and roots on the periphery of the root ball,
typically using a sharp blade or saw.
root collar. The base of a tree where the main roots and trunk meet. Also referred to as the root
flare.
root flare: See root collar.
root plate. The combination of roots and soil close to the trunk that holds the tree erect in the
landscape.
scaffold branches. Large main branches that form the main structure of the crown.
24
shifting. Removing the root ball from a container and placing it in a larger container; also
referred to as repotting, bumping up, or stepping up, up canning.
stem-girdling root. A circling, bent, or straight root that touches or rests on the trunk or root
flare that can become a permanent root.
subordinate. See reduction cut.
substrate. The mixture of bark, peat, sand, compost, wood, and other materials used in
containers to grow plants at commercial nurseries. Also referred to as media.
tap root. The primary, typically large-diameter dominant root that emerges from a seed.
teasing the root ball. Gently pulling roots on the root ball periphery away from the periphery and
positioning them more-or-less straight in a radial position in the substrate of a larger container.
temporary branch. A small branch that is temporarily retained along the lower trunk of young trees.
thinning cut. See removal cut.
trunk. The main stem of a tree, beginning at the root collar and ending at the lowest main scaffold
branch.
taper. The thickening of a trunk or branch toward its base.
wound. A discontinuity resulting from removal of bark and cambium. Pruning cuts that are not closed
over are not considered wounds.
25
Appendix

Selected branch-dominant shade tree species
Acacia
Bauhinea
Camphor
Celtis
Cercis
Cladrastis
Ficus
Fraxinus
Gleditsia
Koelreuteria
Laurastinus
Quercus
Ulmus
Zelkova

Selected leader-dominant shade tree species
Acer
Alnus
Brachychiton
Cedrus
Grevilia
Liriodendron
Liquidambar styraciflua
Magnolia grandiflora
Pinus
Platanus
Podocarpus
Sequoia
Sequoiadendron
Taxodium distichum

Selected tree species that do not branch on their own in the nursery
Delonix
Eucalyptus
Ginkgo
Gleditsia
Jacaranda
Koelreuteria
Pistacia
Pyrus
26
@2$%2'A.#>B<
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28