) 10 258 ( ) 10 156 (
1 ) 0012 . 0 ( ) 10 124 (
. 6000 ) (
6 2 12 3
9 2
The gain is selected such that the dc gain at corner
frequency becomes unity. Fig. 8 shows the bode plot of
the compensated system.
Fig. 8. Bode plot of the compensated system.
Fig. 9. Simulation results of the inverter as imposed
to a nonlinear load
Fig. 9 demonstrates the simulation results of the
inverter as imposed to a nonlinear load. The measured
THD is about 2.5%, which is below the given standards.
V.CURRENT MODE CONTROLLER
Current mode control strategy is a well-known
technique particularly in motor drive applications. In this
control technique, the inverter output current is directly
controlled by a relatively fast inner control loop, and the
output voltage is regulated with a more sluggish outer
loop. Generally speaking, current mode controller design
is more straight-forward since the above mentioned
control loops can be decoupled. Another salient feature of
current mode control technique is that the inverter output
current is directly controlled, making protection strategy
much more effective.
Fig. 10 shows the block diagram of the proposed
system with current mode control strategy [8]. Different
transfer functions can be obtained using this block
diagram. For example, transfer function from output
voltage to duty cycle is given by:
]
) / 1 / (
1
[ ) (
2
LC RC s s LC
V s G
i vd
+ +
=
And the transfer function from inductor current to
duty cycle is obtained as:
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
1234
]
) / 1 / (
1
[ ) (
2
LC RC s s LC
sRC
R
V
s G
i
id
+ +
+
=
Fig. 11 shows the simulation results obtained using
current mode control method.
VI. INTERNAL MODEL CONTROLLER
From the control theory, a conventional PID
controller can never track a sinusoidal waveform ideally.
To illustrate this, one may consider the block diagram of
Fig. 6. It can be easily seen that an error must always exist
at the controller input to generate sinusoidal output and
consequently drive the inverter. This error is analogous to
steady-state error, which may not be acceptable.
High gain and bandwidth can improve tracking
performance, but other system parameters, specifically
dynamic characteristics, are limiting factors in increasing
gain.
From the block diagram of Fig. 6 one may suggests
that if the controller can generate a sinusoidal output even
in the absence of input, then ideal tracking is achievable.
From the system point of view, a transfer function with
two conjugate poles at the working frequency can perform
this task [9]. This is in agreement with the Principle of
Internal Model Controller which states:
For proper asymptotic tracking, the loop transfer
function must contain and internal model of the
unstable poles of the reference signal.
Fig. 10. Block diagram of the proposed system with
current mode control strategy
Fig. 11. Simulation results using current mode control method
Using internal model controller one can effectively
decouple the steady-state and dynamic performance,
making the controller design more flexible.
Fig. 12 shows different waveforms obtained using
PID controller with high and low gain and also with
internal model controller. It can be observed that the
steady-state error with internal model controller is
practically equal to zero, while it is not zero and depends
on controller gain in PID controller.
VII. DIGITAL CONTROLLER
Recent advances in fast microcontrollers and DSPs
have opened a new perspective for power electronics
designers. Using digital controller extremely increase the
system design flexibility. Time consuming computations
are now less restricting factors due to high performance
controllers available in the market.
Fig. 12. Different waveforms obtained using PID controller with high
gain(top) and low gain(middle) and also with internal model
controller(bottom)
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1235
In designing a system with digital controllers, the
delays associated with sampling and computation time
must be properly considered. The sampling delay due to
the input zero-order-hold is equal to Ts/2, where Ts is the
sampling period, while the computation delay is generally
equal to one sampling time, Ts. The above delays are
added together and included in the original continuous
system model. Then, the controller is designed and
digitized using existing methods, like Euler or Tustin
methods.
Using this approach, the controller is re-designed for
implementation by a digital controller. The controller
transfer function is then given by:
205 . 0 77 . 0 025 . 0
102 . 0 128 . 0 1 . 129 .
) (
2 3
2 3
+
=
z z z
z z z
z G
dig
The digitization is done controller using Tustin
method and sampling frequency equal to switching
frequency (25 KHz). Simulation results are shown
in Fig 13.
IX.EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATIONS
Fig. 14 shows the inverter used in experimental
verifications. At this stage, only the analogue controller
was implemented using op-amps and other relevant
components. The inverter output waveform when
imposed to a non-linear load is shown in Fig 15. Table I
shows the harmonic spectrum of the output voltage.
Fig. 13. System response with a digital controller
Fig14. Inverter used in experimental system
Fig. 15. Inverter output waveform when imposed to
a non-linear load
Table I. Harmonic spectrum of the output voltage
X. CONCLUSION
A single phase inverter used at the output stage of
UPS systems is considered. Various requirements of such
inverter are stated. It is shown that conventional
controllers can not fulfill the necessary requirements
particularly when the inverter is supplying a non-linear
load. A PID controller is designed based on given
specifications. Current mode control technique is also
used to design a controller with desired dynamic
performance and inherent current limiting capability. It is
shown that the concept of Internal Model Controller can
be used to design a controller with zero steady-state error.
Controller design using digital controllers is shown and
some aspects associated with the existing time delays are
addressed.
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[2] N.M. ABdel- Rahim, analysis and design of a multiple feedback
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[3] Kassakian, M.F.Schlecht, and G.C. Vergese, Principles of Power
electronic, Addison-wesley, 1991
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[4] D.N. Mitchell, DC-DC Switching regulator analysis, Mc Graw Hill,
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[6] European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
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