Running head: HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT 1
HES424Evaluation of Ground Chia Seed as a Fat Substitute in Carrot Cake
Julia Brandt Fontbonne University
HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 2
Evaluation of Ground Chia Seed as a Fat Substitute in Carrot Cake According to the United States Center of Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], heart disease is the leading cause of death among both men and women in the United States (U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). Over 600,000 Americans die each year from heart disease; this translates to 1 in every 4 deaths each year in the United States is directly related to heart disease (U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). The CDC stated that the Americans at risk included those with Diabetes Mellitus, are overweight or obese, and have a poor diet, physical inactivity, and/or excessive alcohol intake. In order to beat these shocking statistics, the CDC offers Americans lifestyle guidelines to promote heart health, focused mainly around the diet. The CDC encourages Americans to consume diets low in sodium, low in total fat and saturated fat, low in cholesterol, and high in fruits and vegetables (U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). Based on the CDCs suggestion for a diet low in total fat and saturated fat, most bakery items should presumably be eliminated. According to recent Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada statistics, though, Americans are unfortunately not setting down their pastries, cookies, candies, and cakes. In 2013, sales of baked products in the United States ranged between $48 and $71 million, and it is estimated that in 2014 baked products and baked goods retail sales will total $50 to $73 million (Government of Canada, 2012, para. 7). Of these sweets, cake is ranked third as the most frequently consumed baked product in the United States, accounting for about 10% of baked good consumption. This translates to $5 to $7 million spent on cake in 2014 (Government of Canada, 2012, para. 7). This is not an entirely promising forecast for American heart health. HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 3
Fortunately, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada declared that health and wellness bakeries are on the rise in the United States. These include markets that provide healthier baked good options to the American public. The health and wellness bakery market comprises 28.7% of all bakery sales in the United States (Government of Canada, 2012, para.8). Based on the CDCs recommendations, it would be advantageous to see this health and wellness bakery market continue to rise. In hopes of lowering the total fat and saturated fat in a cake, researchers at a Midwestern, private university chose to modify a popular baked goodcarrot cake. If successful, the recipe could be disseminated to promote a satisfyingly sweet baked product that reflects the CDCs suggestions for a diet lower in overall total fat and saturated fat. Fat substitutions have been attempted in baked goods in the past. For example, researchers successfully used Great Northern beans as a fat substitution in oatmeal chocolate chip cookies (Rankin & Bingham, 2000). Although a variety of fat substitutes have been hypothesized, not all have been successful. This may be due in part to the key role fat plays in the baked good. In cakes, fat ingredients contribute to the overall volume, tenderness, moistness, and flavor of the crumb. Particularly in carrot cake, with oil as the primary fat ingredient, the fat prevents gluten formation by enveloping the protein molecules in the flour and thereby inhibiting their ability to cling to water. As a result, oil allows for a much moister crumb (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Because of fats role in the overall acceptability of the cake crumb, certain fat substitutes may have had trouble measuring up in the past. According to Borneo, Aguirre and Leon (2010), though, the chia seed has been successful as oil replacement in cakes (Borneo, Aguirre, & Leon, 2010). An ancient Mesoamerican grain, the chia seed, is taking center stage most recently in health foods. The chia seed is derived from HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 4
the Salvia hispanica L. plant. Although it is gaining in popularity, the chia seed was a staple to Mesoamerican society for quite some time. The chia seed was such a fundamental part of the Central American diet that the only other foods items consumed more often were corn and beans (Pizarro, Almeida, Samman, & Chang, 2013, p. 73). Based on more recent research with the chia seed, it was clear why the pre-Columbian societies chose it as a dietary staple. The chia seed contains fiber, antioxidants, protein, and, most importantly, a very high content of -linolenic acid. The oil derived from the seed contains the highest known content of -linolenic fatty acid (Pizarro, et al., 2013, p. 73). A 2012 research study observing the effects of the chia seed on obese rats indicates that diets high in -linolenic acid contribute to favorable lipid redistribution, improved insulin and glucose tolerance, shrinkage of visceral fat storage, decreased fat accumulation in the liver, reduced inflammation, and reduced hepatic and cardiac fibrosis (Poudyal, Panchal, Waanders, Ward, & Brown, 2012, p. 160). The researchers add in their discussion that these changes are directly related to the - linolenic acid content of the chia seed, and declare that the fatty acid profile provides cardio and hepatoprotection (Poudyal, Panchal, Waanders, Ward, & Brown, 2012, p. 161). Since decreasing cardiovascular health is such a concern in American society, and given the success in using chia seed as a fat substitute in baked products; the researchers in this study chose to use it as a fat substitution in carrot cake. The researchers felt confident in its ability to decrease the saturated fatty profile of the control carrot cake, and also in its capability to increase the favorable fatty acid content of the cake, while contributing antioxidants, fiber, and protein. Research using the chia seed as an oil replacement in cake formulations found the saturated fat content of the cakes decreased as the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid contents in the cakes increased (Borneo, et al., 2010, p. 948). This study explained that while the nutritional HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 5
components of the cake were favorably changed, the functional characteristics of the cake remained unchanged. In the discussion portion of their research brief, the authors affirmed that substituting.oil within the cake formulation with chiaup to a level of 25% maintained the functional and sensory characteristics of the product (Borneo, et al., 2010, p. 949). The purpose of this study was to decrease the total fat and saturated fat content of a carrot cake recipe to yield a reduced-fat cake while maintaining the overall palatability and acceptability of the cake by substituting chia as a fat ingredient (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2013, para. 2). If successful, this would create a healthier carrot cake option for the American public to promote a healthy cardiovascular diet. The researchers developed hypotheses based on two factorsfat content and overall acceptability of the carrot cake. It was hypothesized that the total fat content of the carrot cake will decrease with the elimination of oil. It was also hypothesized that the overall acceptability of the cake would decrease by greater than .5 with the elimination of oil. Methods Subjects/ Setting Eleven untrained, undergraduate college students pursuing a Bachelor of Science degree in Dietetics at a Midwestern, private university and one professor rated the carrot cake control sensory characteristics using a 5-point Likert scale, and the cakes overall acceptability using 5- point Hedonic scale (Elliot, 2014). Ten untrained, undergraduate college students pursuing a Bachelor of Science degree in Dietetics at a Midwestern, private university and one professor rated the modifications sensory characteristics using a 5-point Likert scale, and the cakes overall acceptability was assessed using 5-point Hedonic scale. The sensory characteristics rated include overall appearance, aroma, color, moistness, texture, and flavor of the baked goods HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 6
crumb (See Figures 1 and 2). Each of the control and the modified cake formulations were tested by the panelists in a brightly-lit food demonstration kitchen/classroom environment held at 75 degrees Fahrenheit. In the assessment of the control carrot cake, the subjects were seated at two- person tables without cardboard trifolds separating them. During the assessment of the modifications, the panelists were again seated at two-person tables but separated by cardboard trifolds to discourage conversation during the assessment. Thirty-five minutes after being removed from the oven, each cake, while still in the pan, was placed on a cooling rack for ten minutes. Once those ten minutes passed, each cake was taken out of its pan and cooled on the rack for 10 more minutes. Each cake was then placed in the refrigerator for five more minutes in hopes of quickly reducing its internal temperature closer to room temperature. Once cooled to room temperature, each cake was cut using a template developed by the researchers. After the pieces were cut, one piece from each formulation being tested was placed on an individual cream-colored plate. Each panelist received the same cream- colored plate with two different pieces of cake at each testing. The cakes were numbered on the plate in accordance with their assigned number found on the scorecard in relation to the modification. These numbers assigned were changed for every formulation. The plates were delivered to the panelists, and each panelist tasted and rated two samples at a time every other week in a six week period (See Table 1 for dates of testing). The order in which the formulations were tasted by the panelists was not controlled. Formulations The vegetable oil was the primary fat ingredient in the control carrot cake recipe. Based upon the total weight of the ingredients, the oil accounted for 11.0% of the weight of the formulation. Light brown, ground chia seeds were either substituted for 5.5% or 11% of the fat in carrot cake. HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 7
The team declared that the fat substitution would be executed using ground chia seeds and unsweetened applesauce in place of the vegetable oil called for in the control recipe. Each modifications ingredients can be found in Table 1. The carrot cake was prepared using the ingredients found in Table 1, the equipment listed in Figure 3, and the procedures explained in Figures 4, 5, and 6. Four variations of the control recipe were prepared. Two different variations were tested on each testing date. (See Table 1 for testing dates). Most of the ingredients were held at room temperature. The eggs were refrigerated. The butter and cream cheese used for the frosting assessed in the control recipe were set out prior to the baking process to soften. The cake was served at 75 degrees Fahrenheit. To standardize the control and modification formulations, the control recipe was first converted from U.S. household measurements to metric in grams (See Table 1) (Pennington & Douglas, 2005). Once the control recipe was converted to metric measurements, a set of four formulations were planned. It was discovered in the lab that the resource used to convert to ingredient measurements to metric had some errors. For example, the amount of vanilla converted to grams using Bowes and Church was incorrect once measured using the OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale. Once the errors were identified, each was corrected using the OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scales in the food lab. Objective Evaluation The cakes volume was assessed by measuring the height of the cakes inner crumb from top to bottom using a 12-inch ruler in the control and runs 1 and 2 only. The values were recorded in the researchers lab notebooks and summarized in Table 2. Data were not collected for Runs 3 and 4. HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 8
Sensory Evaluation Each formulation was evaluated by panelists using both a 5-point Likert and a 5-point Hedonic scale. The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The scorecards found in Figure 1 were developed for the control carrot cake formulation. This scorecard evaluated both the crumb and the icing portion of the cake. The scorecard found in Figure 2 was used for all modifications. This scorecard evaluated only the crumb of the modification cakes focusing on the possible differences that could exist within a fat substitution. These differences are based upon the characteristics previously mentioned that fat tends to affecttenderness, moistness, color, aroma, and flavor of the crumb The scorecard data were summarized by a team member and descriptive statistics were assessed. (See Table 3). Nutrition Analysis The ingredients and amounts for each formulation were entered into Food Processor computer software (Version 10.12.0) (See Table 1). Results Subjects/Setting Eleven untrained panelists and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the control carrot cake recipe using sensory scorecards in Figure 1. Ten untrained panelists and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of each modification using sensory scorecards in Figure 2. Each sensory scorecard was thoroughly completed and additional comments were provided by panelists. Formulations The formulations were executed as planned. No additional data to provide.
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Objective Evaluation The cakes volume was assessed by measuring the height of the cakes inner crumb from top to bottom using a 12-inch ruler during the control and Runs 1 and 2 only. The values were recorded in the researchers lab notebooks and summarized in Table 2. The volume of the control was slightly less than Run1. Run 2 had the lowest volume (1.0 inch). Data were not collected for Runs 3 and 4. Sensory Evaluation All formulations were evaluated by each panelist using both a 5-point Likert and a 5- point Hedonic scale. The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The rating scales in Figures 1 and 2 were not the same, and the data for the control cake is scored differently than the subsequent modifications (See Table 3). The scorecard data were summarized by a team member and descriptive statistics were assessed. (See Table 3). The raw sensory scorecard data is located in the Appendix section of J. Livaudaiss paper. A few patterns in the data are worth noting. The visual appearance of the control cake was rated between somewhat and very visually appealing with a mean score at 1.6. The modifications appearances ranged from slightly not visually appealing in Run 2 to somewhat visually appealing in Run 4. The modified cake with the highest score on appearance was Run 4 at somewhat visually appealing. Runs 1, 3, and 4 stayed fairly consistent in their visual appearance with mean scores ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing). Run 2 received the lowest mean appearance score of 1.9 (slightly not visually appealing). The aroma of the cake also increased as modifications of the control carrot cake continued. The aroma of the control carrot cake was average rated at 1.9, somewhat subtle HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 10
aroma. Throughout the modifications, the average scores for aroma remained consistent ranging from 2.4-2.7 (somewhat subtle aroma to pleasing aroma). The color of the cake tended to remain stable as ground chia seed replaced the vegetable oil. The average scores for color of the crumb ranged from 3.0-3.4 (golden brown). The crumb that received the average score of 3.4 in color, nearing the too dark end of the scale, was the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed. The average scores for moistness of the crumb resulted in an interesting variation. The control carrot cake and the modifications that followed a 5.5%/5.5% formulation tended to be rated between 2.4-2.6 ranging between slightly moist and almost pleasingly moist. The cake that received the lowest score of 1.3, much too moist, was Run 2 which was the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed. Although the texture of the ground chia seed upon mixing the cake seemed grainy, the panelists never rated the modifications with ground chia seed higher than a 1.8- somewhat grainy. Run 2, the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed received a 1.7, whereas the initial 5.5% vegetable oil and the 5.5% ground chia seed received an average score of 1.8. No data were collected by the researchers to evaluate the graininess of the control carrot cake. The flavor of the control carrot cake and its modifications remained stable with average scores ranging from 2.0-2.5 (somewhat sweet to almost pleasantly sweet). The cake that received the lowest flavor score was Run 2, the 11.0% ground chia seed modification, at 2.0 somewhat sweet. Nutritional Analysis Table 1 illustrates the nutrient content of the control and each formulation. The researchers used Food Processor computer software (Version 10.12.0). It is quite evident that the HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 11
researchers goal of decreasing the total fat and saturated fat content of the cake to reduced fat was met (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2013). As the formulations progressed, the total fat shrank sequentially from 21 grams to 4 grams per serving. The saturated fat content of the cake also decreased from 2.4 grams in the control to .7 grams per serving in Run 4. It is clear that the control carrot cake formulation provided the most calories, total fat, and saturated fat of the formulations, and Run 4 had the least amount of calories, total fat, and saturated fat. The researchers were able to eliminate 113 total calories from the control recipe to Run 4 per serving. Seventeen grams of total fat per serving were removed from the control recipe to Run 4. This translates to 83% decrease in total fat. The saturated fat content was also reduced, as the researchers had hoped. The saturated fat content went from 2.4 grams in the control recipe to .7 grams in Run 4. This is a 71% decrease in total saturated fat. The fiber content increased from the control recipe to Run 4, but it is worth noting that the highest fiber content was within Run 2, the cake with all ground chia seed. The protein content increased per serving from 4.0 g to as high as 6.0 g in Run 2. The researchers goal of decreasing the total fat and total saturated fat content of the control carrot cake to make it reduced fat was clearly accomplished (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2013, para.2). Discussion Subjects/Setting Eleven untrained panelists and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the control carrot cake recipe. Ten untrained panelists, though not always the same panelists due to absenteeism, and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the subsequent modifications to the control carrot cake recipe. Had there been a more consistent attendance to HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 12
the modification sensory evaluations, the mean scores for the carrot cake modifications with chia seed may have altered. Because the setting of the control carrot cake evaluation was not as tightly controlled as the subsequent modification evaluations, lacking place dividers and direction for the subjects, the control cake sensory evaluations may have been influenced by the panelists peers. Formulations The researchers attended to weight equivalents within each formulation. Therefore, results obtained were not secondary to formulation changes. Objective Evaluation The responsibility of fat in a baked item is to tenderize the crumb by enveloping the proteins in the flour and preventing the proteins absorption of water resulting in gluten formation (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Fat also contributes to the baked goods overall volume by entrapping air particles in the creaming process (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Because the carrot cake called for vegetable oil as opposed to butter or shortening, creaming did not occur. Instead, it was an emulsion which eliminated air particles and a denser, moister crumb resulted (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Lastly, the fat ingredient contributes to a baked goods flavor. Fats also enhance other ingredients flavor and aroma (Brown, 2011, p. 387). As the vegetable oil was eliminated from the formulations and the ground chia seed was introduced, the volume tended to decrease as the crumb became moister and denser. Although one may assume that the volume decreased as the cake became sunken and heavy because of the elimination of oil, this was not one of the reasons that it did. As previously mentioned, oil- shortened cakes do not contribute to the volume of the crumb. Instead, oil-shortened cakes rely on chemical leavers like baking soda to enhance the crumbs volume. Perhaps the error lies not HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 13
in the elimination of oil and the introduction of ground chia seed, but instead a measuring error of the baking soda or a lack of increase in baking soda based on the food science of the chia seed (Brown, 2011, p. 486). Another possibility contributing the decrease in volume of the crumb could be related to the high fiber content of the chia seed in comparison to the lack of fiber in the oil. According to prior research, the high fiber content of the chia could have hindered the leavening process, therefore resulting in a denser crumb (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 76). Prior research also noted that the volume of their cakes tended to decrease as chia seed percentage increased yielding a much denser crumb (Borneo et. al, 2010, p.949). Another reason why the modifications volumes tended to vary was baking time. On both modification testing dates, the cakes were removed prematurely from the oven resulting in an uncooked center crumb. The volume measured by the researchers, when measured, was based on the fully cooked crumb, not the sunken, heavy middle of the cake. This error in measuring the volume of the cake explains why a drastic variance in volume did not exist as it so obviously should have based on the uncooked, sunken cakes observed by the researchers. Sensory Evaluation The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The scorecards differ from the control testing and the subsequent modifications due to panelists reports of confusion in using the first scorecard (Figure 1). Therefore, the rating scales in Figures 1 and 2 were not the same, and the data for the control cake is scored differently than the subsequent modifications (See Table 3). The researchers summarized the sensory evaluations for the control and each modification that followed by calculating the mean, median, and mode scores for each sensory characteristic on the sensory scorecards. The mean score has been deemed most informative, HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 14
though, allowing for variance in panelist responses. These averaged scores for each sensory characteristic can be seen in Table 3. Traditional buttercream frosting was used for the control carrot cake recipe, but removed from the modifications that followed because of the researchers disinterest in testing both the icing and the cake. The lack of icing on the carrot cake modifications seemed to displease the panelists instantly, leaving them unsatisfied. Multiple sensory scorecards had where is the icing? scribbled in the margins. Therefore, sensory evaluations may have reflected this sense of letdown felt by the panelists. The visual appearance of the control cake was rated between somewhat and very visually appealing with a mean score at 1.6. The modifications appearances ranged from slightly not visually appealing in Run 2 to somewhat visually appealing in Run 4. The cake with the highest score on appearance was Run 4 at somewhat visually appealing. The control cake tended to receive a more positive visual appearance score because of its addition of frosting. The comments within the appearance section of the scorecards tended to note how good to frosting looked. Runs 3, 4, and 5 stayed fairly consistent in their visual appearance with mean scores ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing). Run 2 received the lowest mean appearance score of 1.9 (slightly not visually appealing). This was the cake that did not have any other fat ingredient besides the ground chia seed. Excluding the control cake, the cakes rated highest on appearance with mean scores ranging from 3.5-4 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing) were the cakes that had 5.5% ground chia seed. The other 5.5% of fat ingredient that was used, however, did not seem to make a difference. Run 1, the modification that used 5.5% vegetable oil and 5.5% ground chia seed received a mean score of 3.5 on appearance. Run 3, the modification that used HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 15
5.5% ground chia seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce also received a mean score of 3.5 on appearance. Clearly the panelists were not contributing the appearance of the cake to the presence of the vegetable oil. In fact, Run 4, the modification that consisted of 5.5% ground chia seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce and the replacement of pecans with golden raisins received the highest average score in appearance at 4.0somewhat visually appealing. Panelist comments about the cake with the raisins included feedback like love the colors and looks great!. The golden color of the raisins tended to stand out and lighten the inner crumb of the cake, whereas the darker brown pecans may have simply blended in more so with the darker crumb. The aroma of the cake also increased as modifications of the control carrot cake continued. The aroma of the control carrot cake was average rated at 1.9, somewhat subtle aroma. This was because of the icing on the control carrot cake distracting from the aroma of the crumb of the cake. Once the icing was removed in Run 1, the average scores for aroma remained consistent ranging from 2.4-2.7 (somewhat subtle aroma to pleasing aroma). This suggests that the substitution of fat ingredients did not alter the fats role in aroma of the baked good. The fatty acid profile of the ground chia seed contributed to the baked goods aroma just as the vegetable oil did. In fact, the modification with the highest rating in aroma at 2.7 was Run 2, the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed. The color of the cake tended to stay stable as ground chia seed replaced the vegetable oil. The average scores for color of the crumb ranged from 3.0-3.4 (golden brown). The crumb that received the average score of 3.4 in color, nearing the too dark end of the scale, was the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed. This score is easily explained. The chia seed, even with the use of a lighter-colored chia seed as the researchers used, provides much more color than the HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 16
translucent vegetable oil. This, too, was noted in prior research using ground chia as a fat substitute. In Pizarro et. al.s experimentation with chia flour, the color also tended to darken as more chia was introduced in the formulation (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77). The average sensory evaluation scores of moistness of the crumb resulted in an interesting variation. Unlike the research, which noted little to no change in moisture of the crumb as chia was substituted for fat, the moisture of the crumb in the carrot cake formulations tended to vary with chia seed substitution (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77). The control carrot cake and the modifications that followed a 5.5%/5.5% formulation tended to be rated between 2.4-2.6 ranging between slightly moist and almost pleasingly moist. The cake that received the lowest score of 1.3, much too moist, was Run 2 which was the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed. Within the other modifications, the liquid nature of the oil or applesauce offset the mealy ground chia seed, but in Run 2, it was simply the grainy ground chia seed. One would assume that the ground chia seed inhibited gluten formation much more so by itself than when the other liquid ingredients were present. Another possible reason for an increase in moisture with the substitution of chia for oil is explained within the research. Pizarro et. al. note that traditional fat ingredients act as a moisture barrier in the baked good (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77). As the high fiber ground chia seed was substituted for oil, the cake was able to hold on to much more moisture than the oil previously could (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77) An interesting fact to note, however, is the baking time as previously mentioned. The cake in Run 2 was removed from the oven entirely too soon, and was not fully cooked. Therefore, a moister crumb is an obvious consequence to an undercooked cake. Although the texture of the ground chia seed upon mixing the cake seemed grainy, the panelists never rated the modifications with ground chia seed higher than a 1.8- somewhat HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 17
grainy. Run 2, the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed received a 1.7, whereas the initial 5.5% vegetable oil and the 5.5% ground chia seed received an average score of 1.8. The researchers were unable to determine why the panelists deemed the 5.5% substitution modification grainier than the 11.0% substitution. Perhaps because the 5.5% modification was given to the panelists first, they were not used to the ground chia seed, and as they continued to eat, their palates adjusted to the difference in texture. It is unfortunate that no data were collected by the researchers to evaluate the graininess of the control cake carrot, as moisture of the modifications cannot be compared to the control recipe. The flavor of the control carrot cake and its modifications remained stable with average scores ranging from 2.0-2.5 (somewhat sweet to almost pleasantly sweet). The cake that received the lowest flavor score was Run 2, the 11.0% ground chia seed modification, at 2.0 somewhat sweet. Had the researchers altered the formulations based upon ground chia seed substitution, attempting to increase the white sugar to balance the earthy taste of the chia using a high-ratio formulation, perhaps average flavor scores would have hit more around 3.0 pleasantly sweet. Nutritional Analysis As Table 1 illustrates, the nutrition analysis of the control carrot cake versus the modifications that followed differ. In a domino-effect pattern, the total fat and saturated fat continued to decrease with each modification. The elimination of the vegetable oil and the substitution of ground chia and applesauce contributed to this 17 gram decrease in total fat per serving. The fat content of vegetable oil accounted for 14 grams of total fat in one tablespoon (ConAgra Foods, Inc., 2014). Chia seeds, on the other hand, have 3 grams of total fat in one tablespoon (10 grams) (Nutiva, Inc., 2014). HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 18
The amounts of fiber and protein increased with the use of chia seed as well. This is due to the chia seeds protein and fiber content and the vegetable oils lack of protein and fiber entirely. Conclusion The purpose of this study was to decrease the total fat and saturated fat content of a carrot cake recipe to yield a reduced-fat cake while maintaining the overall palatability and acceptability of the cake by substituting chia as a fat ingredient It is now evident that the substitution of ground chia seed for vegetable oil did result in a reduced fat carrot cake with a higher protein and fiber content. It is possible to use ground chia seed in place of vegetable oil in carrot cake with sensory characteristics either improving or remaining relatively stable. The best formulations, in terms of sensory evaluation and overall acceptance, were cakes with 5.5% ground chia seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce. In conclusion, the researchers reject the H O fat content hypothesis that the total fat content in the carrot cake will not change with each subsequent modification. The researchers also accept the null hypothesis that the overall acceptability of the carrot cake will not decrease by greater than .5 with the elimination of oil. Limitations An obvious limitation to this study was time. Perhaps if more time was allotted, more formulations could have been developed and tested to give more fat substitution results and sensory data. Because only two testing dates with only three hours of time were available, the researchers were not able to test any more modifications. Due to the fact that all of the panelists and the professor that participated in the sensory evaluation were either pursuing or practicing degrees in Dietetics, their evaluations may have HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 19
been influenced by the promise of a healthier cake. The Dietetic students and professor may have had a more flexible palate based on their acceptance of health foods. The final limitation to this study was timing. The researchers developed their formulations prior to fully reviewing the literature and learning more about the chemical dimension of the chia seed. Therefore, the researchers simply developed formulations based off of more trial and error, rather than concrete facts about how to chia seed would behave as a fat substitute in a cake. Perhaps if the research about chia had been explored more thoroughly prior to formulation development, more evidence-based formulations could have been tested. Areas of Future Research Future research would be useful in the following areas: subjects/settings, formulations, and equipment used. Future trials may benefit by being evaluated by a more unbiased panelist group. Future research could be done in the success of chia seed gel, as opposed to ground chia seed, in the acceptability as a fat substitute in carrot cake. Some research has been conducted in the success rate of chia seed gel used as an egg or oil replacer in cake formulations. A chia seed gel is formed when the seeds are soaked in water for a period of time. The hydrocholloidal property of the chia seed absorbs the water and creates a gel (Borneo et. al., 2010, pp.947-949). Future modifications could be developed to alter the degree of fat substitution to yield a certified low-fat cake as opposed to a reduced-fat cake. Future formulations would benefit in longer baking times, proper volume measurement, and perhaps cupcake pans to encourage a more thorough, evenly-baked product, instead of 13X9 or loaf pans.
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References Borneo, R., Aguirre, A., & Leon, A.E. (2010). Chia (Salvia hispanica L) gel can be used as egg or oil replacer in cake formulations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 110 (6), pp. 946-949. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.011. Brown, A. (2011). Cakes and cookies. In Understanding food: Principles & preparation (4 th ed., pp.478-497). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Brown, A. (2011). Flours and flour mixtures. In Understanding food: Principles & preparation (4 th ed., p. 387). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ConAgra Foods, Inc. (2014). Vegetable oil. Retrieved from http://www.wessonoil.com/vegetable_oil.jsp Government of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (2012). Bakery products in the united states. Retrieved from http://www.ats-sea.agr.gc.ca/amr/6113-eng.htm Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III. Retrieved from: http://allrecipes.com/Recipe/Carrot CakeIII/Detail.aspx?event8=1&prop24=SR_Title&e11=carrot%20cake%20iii&e8=Qui %20Search&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1 Food Processor (Version 10.12.0) [Computer software]. Salem, OR: ESHA Research, Inc.. Nutiva, Inc. (2014). Organic chia seeds. Retrieved from https://store.nutiva.com/chia-seed/ Pennington, J. T., & Douglass, J. S. (2005). Bowes and Churchs food values of portions commonly used. (18th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Pizarro, P.L., Almeida, E.L., Samman, N.C., & Chang, Y.K. (2013). Evaluation of whole chia (Salvia hispanica L) flour and hydrogenated vegetable fat in pound cake. LWTFood Science and Technology, 54, pp. 73-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2013.04.017. HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 21
Poudyal, H., Panchal, S.K., Waanders, J., Ward, L., & Brown, L. (2012). Lipid redistribution by -linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 23, pp. 153-162. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.11.011. Rankin, L.L, & Bingham, M. (2000). Acceptability of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies prepared using pureed white beans as a fat ingredient substitute. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 100(7), pp. 831-833. U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention (2013). Heart disease fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_heart_disease.htm U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2013). Guidance for industry: A food labeling guide (9: Appendix A: Definitions of nutrient content claims). Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/l belingnutrition/ucm064911.htm
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Table 1 Ingredients and Nutrition Content for Carrot Cake Prepared with Various Fat Substitutes. Variable Carrot cake formula Control Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 With buttercream frosting 5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce 5.5% chia 5.5% chia 5% raisins (2/25/14) (3/11/14) (3/11/14) (4/8/14) (4/8/14) Ingredient (g) Eggs 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 Vegetable oil 280.0 144.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 White sugar 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0 Vanilla extract 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 All-purpose flour 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 Baking soda 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 Baking powder 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 Salt 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Ground cinnamon 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 Grated carrots 384.0 384.0 384.0 384.0 384.0 Chopped pecans 128.0 128.0 128.0 128.0 0.0 Butter, softened 120.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cream cheese, softened 224.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Confectioners sugar 480.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Vanilla extract 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chia seeds, ground 0.0 144.5 280.0 144.5 144.5 HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 23
Applesauce, unsweetened 0.0 0.0 0.0 144.5 144.5 Raisins, golden 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 128.0 Nutrition content of the cake Per serving (serves 18) Energy (kcal) 339.0 320.0 288.0 254.0 226.0 Energy from fat (kcal) 184.0 148.0 100.0 80.0 34.0 Fat (g) 21.0 17.0 11.0 8.8 4.0 Saturated fat (g) 2.4 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 Fiber (g) 2.0 5.0 7.0 5.0 4.0 Protein (g) 4.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 Nutrition content of the frosting Per serving (serves 18) Energy (kcal) 235.0 Energy from fat (kcal) 123.0 Fat (g) 14.0 Saturated fat (g) 6.0 Fiber (g) 1.0 Protein (g) 2.0 *Ground chia seeds with a Vitamix on speed 8 until fully ground (about 45 seconds). HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 24
Table 2 Volume of Each Carrot Cake Formulation Variable Carrot cake formula Control Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce 5.5% chia 5.5% chia 5% raisins Height (in) 1.4 1.5 1.0 no data no data
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Table 3 Mean Scores for the Sensory Characteristics and Overall Acceptability of Carrot Cake Crumb Sensory characteristic Formulation Control Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 With buttercream frosting 5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce 5.5% chia 5.5% chia 5% raisins
Appearance 1.6 3.5 1.9 3.5 4 Aroma 1.9 2.5 2.7 2.4 2.5 Color 3.1 3.1 3.4 3 3.2 Moisture no data 2.4 1.3 2.2 2.6 Texture 2.4 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 Flavor 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.4 Acceptability 4 3.2 2.1 3.6 3.6 *Scale for sensory attributes: Sensory scorecard in Figure 1 Appearance: 1=very visually appealing; 2= somewhat visually appealing; 3= visually appealing; 4= slightly not visually appealing; 5= not visually appealing Aroma: 1=no aroma; 2= somewhat subtle aroma; 3= pleasing aroma; 4= somewhat strong aroma; 5= unpleasant aroma Color: 1=much too pale; 2=somewhat pale; 3= golden brown; 4= somewhat dark; 5= much too dark Texture: 1=much too moist; 2= slightly moist; 3= pleasing texture; 4= slightly too dry; 5= much too dry Flavor: 1=not at all sweet; 2= somewhat sweet; 3= pleasantly sweet; 4= somewhat too sweet; 5= much too sweet Overall acceptability: 1= dislike very much; 2= dislike somewhat; 3= neither like nor dislike; 4= like somewhat; 5= liked very much Sensory scorecard in Figure 2 Appearance: 1= not visually appealing; 2= slightly not visually appealing; 3=visually appealing; 4=somewhat visually appealing; 5=very visually appealing Aroma: 1=no aroma; 2=somewhat subtle aroma; 3=pleasing aroma; 4=somewhat strong aroma; 5=unpleasant aroma Color: 1=much too pale; 2= somewhat pale; 3=golden brown; 4=somewhat dark; 5=much too dark HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 26
Moisture: 1=much too moist; 2=slightly moist; 3=pleasingly moist; 4=slightly too dry; 5=much too dry Texture: 1=not at all grainy; 2=somewhat grainy; 3=grainy; 4=somewhat too grainy; 5=much too grainy Flavor: 1=Not at all sweet; 2=Somewhat sweet; 3=Pleasantly sweet; 4=Somewhat too sweet; 5=Much too sweet Overall acceptability: 1= dislike very much; 2=dislike somewhat; 3=neither like nor dislike; 4=like somewhat; 5=liked very much
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Cake Judges Name: Date: Instructions: Start by judging the appearance and aroma of #581, then eat half of the sample and rate the remaining characteristics. After sampling, rate your overall satisfaction with the cake. Repeat this procedure for sample #361. Characteristic 581 Comments 361 Comments 1. Overall Appearance 1= not visually appealing 2= slightly not visually appealing 3=visually appealing 4=somewhat visually appealing 5=very visually appealing
6. Color of Crumb 1=much too pale 2= somewhat pale 3=golden brown 4=somewhat dark 5=much too dark
7. Texture of cake 1=much too moist 2=slightly moist 3=pleasingly moist 4=slightly too dry 5=much too dry
8. Flavor of cake 1=Not at all sweet 2=Somewhat sweet 3=Pleasantly sweet 4=Somewhat too sweet 5=Much too sweet
Overall, how would you rate each item 1= dislike very much 2=dislike somewhat 3=neither like nor dislike 4=like somewhat 5=liked very much
Figure 1 Scorecard used to evaluate carrot cake control recipe.
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Cake Judges Name: Date: Instructions: Start by judging the appearance and aroma of #xxx, then eat half of the sample and rate the remaining characteristics. After sampling, rate your overall satisfaction with the cake. Repeat this procedure for sample #xxx. Characteristic xxx Comments xxx Comments 1. Overall Appearance 1= not visually appealing 2= slightly not visually appealing 3=visually appealing 4=somewhat visually appealing 5=very visually appealing
3. Color of Crumb 1=much too pale 2= somewhat pale 3=golden brown 4=somewhat dark 5=much too dark
4. Moisture of crumb 1=much too moist 2=slightly moist 3=pleasingly moist 4=slightly too dry 5=much too dry
8. Texture of crumb 1=not at all grainy 2=somewhat grainy 3=grainy 4=somewhat too
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grainy 5=much too grainy 5. Flavor of cake 1=Not at all sweet 2=Somewhat sweet 3=Pleasantly sweet 4=Somewhat too sweet 5=Much too sweet
Overall, how would you rate each item 1= dislike very much 2=dislike somewhat 3=neither like nor dislike 4=like somewhat 5=liked very much
Figure 2 Scorecard used to evaluate carrot cake Runs 1-4.
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GE Profile gas oven at 350 degrees F 13 X 9 metal pan 2 large graters using the smallest grain OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scales 4 large (908 g) glass bowls 2 (Cheryl, I need to re-measure this bowl) medium glass bowls Vitamix Sunbeam hand mixer 1 large spatula 1 large wire rack Figure 3 Equipment used for carrot cake formulation
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1. Place rock in the center of the oven (fifth position from the top). 2. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F (should preheat within 10 minutes). 3. Grate 384 g of carrots into a large glass bowl. 4. Weigh all wet ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) using an OXO Good Grips food scale 5. Pour measured wet ingredients into a large (908 g) glass bowl. 6. Weight all dry ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) by spooning ingredients into desired bowl using an OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale 7. Pour measured dry ingredients into wet ingredients. 8. Combine dry ingredients with wet ingredients. 9. Stir in 384 g of grated carrots. 10. Fold in 128 g of chopped pecans. 11. Grease and flour a 13 X 9 (221 g) metal pan using butter (4 g) and all-purpose flour (6 g). 12. Pat sides of pan over a trash can to evenly disperse flour, covering entire inner surface of the pan. 13. Pour cake batter into prepared pan. (1610 g of batter) 14. Bake cake in the preheated oven for 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of the cake comes out clean. Let cool in pan for 10 minutes, then turn out onto a wire rack and cool for 10 minutes. Place cake on rack in the refrigerator for cool for an additional 5 minutes. 15. Remove .5 inch of the edges around the cake, and cut the cake using the template 1.75 inch by 1.75 inch square per piece. 16. To make frosting: (Refer to the amounts noted in Table 1). In a large glass bowl, combine butter, cream cheese, and half of the confectioners sugar. Beat with a hand-held mixer until combined. Add the other half of confectioners sugar and vanilla. Beat until smooth and creamy. Frost the cooled cake. 17. To make glaze: (Refer to the amounts noted in Table 1). In a medium glass bowl, combine orange zest, juice, and confectioners sugar. Whisk for about 5 minutes or until smooth. Pour onto cooled cake.
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Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III; Retrieved from: http://allrecipes.com/Recipe/Carrot- CakeIII/Detail.aspx?event8=1&prop24=SR_Title&e11=carrot%20cake%20iii&e8=Quick%20Se arch&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1
Figure 4 Formulation instructions used for control.
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1. Place rock in the center of the oven (fifth position from the top). 2. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F (should preheat within 10 minutes). 3. Grate 384 g of carrots into a large glass bowl. 4. Grind 144.5 g (Modification 1)/ 280 g (Modification 2) of light brown chia seeds in a Vitamix on speed 8 for about 45 seconds or until fully ground. 5. Weigh all wet ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) using an OXO Good Grips food scale 6. Pour measured wet ingredients into a large (908 g) glass bowl. 7. Weight all dry ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) by spooning ingredients into desired bowl using an OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale 8. Pour measured dry ingredients into wet ingredients. 9. Combine dry ingredients with wet ingredients. 10. Stir in 384 g of grated carrots. 11. Fold in 128 g of chopped pecans. 12. Grease and flour a 13 X 9 (221 g) metal pan using butter (4 g) and all-purpose flour (6 g). 13. Pat sides of pan over a trash can to evenly disperse flour, covering entire inner surface of the pan. 14. Pour cake batter into prepared pan. 15. Bake cake in the preheated oven for 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of the cake comes out clean. Let cool in pan for 10 minutes, then turn out onto a wire rack and cool for 10 minutes. Place cake on rack in the refrigerator for cool for an additional 5 minutes. 16. Remove .5 inch of the edges around the cake, and cut the cake using the template 1.75 inch by 1.75 inch square per piece. Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III; Retrieved from: http://allrecipes.com/Recipe/Carrot- CakeIII/Detail.aspx?event8=1&prop24=SR_Title&e11=carrot%20cake%20iii&e8=Quick%20Se arch&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1
Figure 5 Formulation instructions used for modifications 1 & 2. 1. Place rock in the center of the oven (fifth position from the top). HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 35
2. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F (should preheat within 10 minutes). 3. Grate 384 g of carrots into a large glass bowl. 4. Grind 144.5 g of light brown chia seeds in a Vitamix on speed 8 for about 45 seconds or until fully ground. 5. Weigh all wet ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) using an OXO Good Grips food scale 6. Pour measured wet ingredients into a large (908 g) glass bowl. 7. Weight all dry ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) by spooning ingredients into desired bowl using an OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale 8. Pour measured dry ingredients into wet ingredients. 9. Combine dry ingredients with wet ingredients. 10. Stir in 384 g of grated carrots. 11. Fold in 128 g of golden raisins. 12. Grease and flour a 13 X 9 (221 g) metal pan using butter (4 g) and all-purpose flour (6 g). 13. Pat sides of pan over a trash can to evenly disperse flour, covering entire inner surface of the pan. 14. Pour cake batter into prepared pan. 15. Bake cake in the preheated oven for 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of the cake comes out clean. Let cool in pan for 10 minutes, then turn out onto a wire rack and cool for 10 minutes. Place cake on rack in the refrigerator for cool for an additional 5 minutes. 16. Remove .5 inch of the edges around the cake, and cut the cake using the template 1.75 inch by 1.75 inch square per piece. Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III.; Retrieved from: http://allrecipes.com/Recipe/Carrot- CakeIII/Detail.aspx?event8=1&prop24=SR_Title&e11=carrot%20cake%20iii&e8=Quick%20Se arch&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1
Figure 6 Formulation instructions used for modifications 3 & 4.