1.

INTRODUCTION
The science and technology of deep refrigeration processing occurring at temperature lower
than about 150 k. is the field of cryogenics. The name cryogenics is evolved from Greek
word Cryos meaning icy cold. !henomena that occurs at cryogenic temperatures include
li"uefaction and solidification of ambient gases# loss of ductility and embrittlement of some
structural materials such as carbon steel# increase in thermal conductivity to a ma$imum
value% followed by further decrease in temperature. Cryogenics is the low temperature &150
'( refrigeration. )t e$plains the properties of cryogens used and their principles. *torage
methods and handling techni"ues are covered.
Cryogenics are applied in different fields of production% transportation% medicine%
aerospace% physics research etc. +ocket propulsion is imparting force to a flying vehicle
such as missile or spacecraft. ,ifferent types of rockets and their parts are e$plained.
Cryogenics has future applications in many fields like superconductivity and propulsion
fields. Cryogenics is being applied to variety of research areas# a few of which are- food
processing and refrigeration% space craft life supporting system% space simulation%
microbiology% medicine% surgery% electronics% data processing and metal working.
The origin of cryogenics as a scientific discipline coincided with the discovery by
nineteenth.century scientists that the permanent gases can be li"uefied at e$ceedingly low
temperatures. Conse"uently% the term /cryogenic/ applies to temperatures from
appro$imately 01001C &012314( down to absolute 5ero &the coldest point a material could
reach(. )n 1323% 6nglish physicist 7illiam Thomson &later known as 8ord 'elvin# 1392:
1;0<( pointed out the possibility of having a material in which particles had ceased all
forms of motion.
The absence of all forms of motion would result in a complete absence of heat and
temperature. Thomson defined that condition as absolute 5ero.
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2. HISTROY
Cryogenics developed in the nineteenth century as a result of efforts by scientists to li"uefy
the permanent gases. =ne of the most successful of these scientists was 6nglish physicist
>ichael 4araday &1<;1:13?<(. @y 1325% 4araday had managed to li"uefy most permanent
gases then known to e$ist. Ais procedure consisted of cooling the gas by immersion in a
bath of ether and dry ice and then pressuri5ing the gas until it li"uefied.
*i$ gases% however% resisted every attempt at li"uefaction and were known at the time as
permanent gases. They were o$ygen% hydrogen% nitrogen% carbon mono$ide% methane% and
nitric o$ide. The noble gasesBhelium% neon% argon% krypton% and $enonBwere yet to be
discovered. =f the known permanent gases% o$ygen and nitrogen &the primary constituents
of air(% received the most attention.
4or many years investigators labored to li"uefy air. 4inally% in 13<<% 8ouis Cailletet &13C9:
1;1C( in 4rance and +aoul !ictet &132?:1;9;( in *wit5erland succeeded in producing the
first droplets of li"uid air. Then% in 133C% the first measurable "uantity of li"uid o$ygen was
produced by *. 4. von 7roblewski &1325:1333( at the Dniversity of 'rakow. =$ygen was
found to li"uefy at ;0 '% and nitrogen at << '.
4ollowing the li"uefaction of air% a race to li"uefy hydrogen ensued. Eames ,ewar &1329:
1;9C(% a *cottish chemist% succeeded in 13;3. Ae found the boiling point of hydrogen to be
a frosty 90 '. )n the same year% ,ewar succeeded in free5ing hydrogen% thus reaching the
lowest temperature achieved to that time% 12 '. Flong the way% argon was discovered
&13;2( as an impurity in li"uid nitrogen. *omewhat later% krypton and $enon were
discovered &13;3( during the fractional distillation of li"uid argon. &4ractional distillation is
accomplished by li"uefying a mi$ture of gases% each of which has a different boiling point.
7hen the mi$ture is evaporated% the gas with the highest boiling point evaporates first%
followed by the gas with the second highest boiling point% and so on.(
6ach of the newly discovered gases condensed at temperatures higher than the boiling point
of hydrogen but lower than 1<C '. The last element to be li"uefied was helium gas. 4irst
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discovered in 13?3 in the spectrum of the *un and later on 6arth &1335(% helium has the
lowest boiling point of any known substance. )n 1;03% ,utch physicist Aeike 'amerlingh
=nnes &135C:1;9?( finally succeeded in li"uefying helium at a temperature of 2.9 '.
2.1 Words to Know:
Absolute zero: The lowest temperature possible at which all molecular motion ceases. )t is
e"ual to 09<C1C &025;14(.
Kel!n te"#er$ture s%$le: F temperature scale based on absolute 5ero with a unit% called
the 'elvin% having the same si5e as a Celsius degree.
Su#er%ondu%t!!t&: The ability of a material to conduct electricity without resistance. Fn
electrical current in a superconductive ring will flow indefinitely if a low temperature
&about 09?01C( is maintained.
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'. ()THODS O* +RODUCIN, CRYO,)NIC T)(+)RATUR)S
Cryogenic conditions are produced by one of four basic techni"ues-
1. Aeat conduction%
9. 6vaporative cooling%
C. Cooling by rapid e$pansion &the Eoule.Thomson effect(% and
2. Fdiabatic demagneti5ation.
The first two are well known in terms of everyday e$perience. The third is less well known
but is commonly used in ordinary refrigeration and air conditioning units% as well as in
cryogenic applications. The fourth process is used primarily in cryogenic applications and
provides a means of approaching absolute 5ero.
'.1 H)AT CONDUCTION T)CHNI-U):
Aeat conduction is a relatively simple concept to understand. 7hen two bodies are in
contact% heat flows from the body with the higher temperature to the body with a lower
temperature. Conduction can occur between any and all forms of matter% whether gas%
li"uid% or solid. )t is essential in the production of cryogenic temperatures and
environments. 4or e$ample% samples may be cooled to cryogenic temperatures by
immersing them directly in a cryogenic li"uid or by placing them in an atmosphere cooled
by cryogenic refrigeration. )n either case% the sample cools by conduction &or transfer( of
heat to its colder surroundings.
C+G=TD@6*-
Cryotubes used to store strains of bacteria at low temperature. @acteria are placed in little
holes in the beads inside the tubes and then stored in li"uid nitrogen.
2
'.2 ).O+ARATI.) COO/IN, T)CHNI-U):
The second process for producing cryogenic conditions is evaporative cooling. Aumans are
familiar with this process because it is a mechanism by which our bodies lose heat. Ftoms
and molecules in the gaseous state are moving faster than atoms and molecules in the li"uid
state. Fdd heat energy to the particles in a li"uid and they will become gaseous. 8i"uid
perspiration on human skin behaves in this way. !erspiration absorbs body heat% becomes a
gas% and evaporates from the skin. Fs a result of that heat loss% the body cools down.
Cr&o0ens $nd T1e!r 2o!l!n0 +o!nts
5
)n cryogenics% a container of li"uid is allowed to evaporate. Aeat from within the li"uid is
used to convert particles at the surface of the li"uid to gas. The gas is then pumped away.
>ore heat from the li"uid converts another surface layer of particles to the gaseous state%
which is also pumped away. The longer this process continues% the more heat is removed
from the li"uid and the lower its temperature drops. =nce some given temperature is
reached% pumping continues at a reduced level in order to maintain the lower temperature.
This method can be used to reduce the temperature of any li"uid. 4or e$ample% it can be
used to reduce the temperature of li"uid nitrogen to its free5ing point or to lower the
temperature of li"uid helium to appro$imately 1 '.
'.' COO/IN, 2Y RA+ID )3+ANSION 45OU/)S THO(SON )**)CT6:
F third process makes use of the Eoule.Thomson effect% which was discovered by 6nglish
physicist Eames !rescott Eoule &1313:133;(% and 7illiam Thomson% 8ord 'elvin% in 1359.
The Eoule.Thomson effect depends on the relationship of volume &bulk or mass(% pressure%
and temperature in a gas. Change any one of these three variables% and at least one of the
other two &or both( will also change. Eoule and Thomson found% for e$ample% that allowing
a gas to e$pand very rapidly causes its temperature to drop dramatically. +educing the
pressure on a gas accomplishes the same effect.
?
To cool a gas using the Eoule.Thomson effect% the gas is first pumped into a container under
high pressure. The container is fitted with a valve with a very small opening. 7hen the
valve is opened% the gas escapes from the container and e$pands "uickly. Ft the same time%
its temperature drops. The first great success for the Eoule.Thomson effect in cryogenics
was achieved by 'amerlingh =nnes in 1;03 when he li"uefied helium.
<
The Eoule.Thomson effect is an important part of our lives today% even though we may not
be aware of it. =rdinary household refrigerators and air conditioners operate on this
principle. 4irst% a gas is pressuri5ed and cooled to an intermediate temperature by contact
with a colder gas or li"uid. Then% the gas is e$panded% and its temperature drops still
further. The heat needed to keep this cycle operating comes from the inside of the
refrigerator or the interior of a room% producing the desired cooling effect.
'.7 ADIA2ATIC D)(A,N)TI8ATION T)CHNI-U):
The fourth process for producing cryogenic temperatures uses a phenomenon known as
adiabatic demagneti5ation. Fdiabatic demagneti5ation makes use of special substances
known as paramagnetic salts. F paramagnetic salt consists of a very large collection of
particles that act like tiny &atom.si5ed( magnets. Hormally these magnetic particles are
spread out in all possible directions. Fs a result% the salt itself is not magnetic. That
condition changes when the salt is placed between the poles of a magnet. The magnetic
field of the magnet causes all the tiny magnetic particles in the salt to line up in the same
direction. The salt becomes magnetic% too.
3
Ft this e$act moment% however% suppose that the e$ternal magnet is taken away and the
paramagnetic salt is placed within a li"uid. Flmost immediately% the tiny magnetic particles
within the salt return to their random% every.which.way condition. To make this change%
however% the particles re"uire an input of energy. )n this e$ample% the energy is taken from
the li"uid into which the salt was placed. Fs the li"uid gives up energy to the paramagnetic
salt% its temperature drops.
Fdiabatic demagneti5ation has been used to produce some of the coldest temperatures ever
observedBwithin a few thousandths of a degree 'elvin of absolute 5ero. F related process
involving the magneti5ation and demagneti5ation of atomic nuclei is known as nuclear
demagneti5ation. 7ith nuclear demagneti5ation% temperatures within a few millionths of a
degree of absolute 5ero have been reached.
;
7. A++/ICATIONS
7.1 INDUSTRIA/ A++/ICATIONS:
Cryogenic treatment works on +eamers &carbide or A**(% Tool @its% Tool !unches &carbide
or A**(% Carbide ,rills% Carbide Cutters% >illing Cutters% 4iles% *haping 6"uipment%
*cissors% +a5ors% Clippers% 'nives% @and *aw @lades% *aw @lades% +eciprocating @lades%
*aber *aw% *teel 7oodworking and 4orm Tooling% Cutting Tools and ,ies. )n all cases% this
treatment will result a stronger and more wear resistant metal.
7.2 AUTO(OTI.) A++/ICATIONS:
)magine a racer and crew who would normally tear down their engine after every race or
two% suddenly discovering a process that would allow them to safely go up to C0 races or
more without a maIor rebuild. Cryogenic treatment of automotive parts can certainly help
make this a reality.
Cryogenics works with almost all metal engine parts. !istons% rings% rockers% push rods%
connecting rods% valves% the crank and camshaft and even the block itself. Together% a
treated engine can last substantially longer in terms of wear than any other process could
achieve. 6ven parts like brake rotors% drums% and brake pads can benefit from cryogenic
treatment. +eally% almost any part that is normally subIect to wear can benefit. Eust imagine
what cryogenic treatment would do for the parts in your family vehicleJ
7.' ()DIC/ A+++/ICATIONS:
Cryogenics has also been used by the medical industry. *urgical tools used by doctors%
surgeons% dentists% and other specialists can all benefit from the increased wear resistance
of the treatment. *urgical tools% like many other industrial tools% are e$pensive to replace%
so cryogenic treatment can really pay off.
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)n addition% many surgical implants are also treated. This helps prevent the part from
wearing% it increases the tensile and bending strength of the part% as well as reducing the
likelihood of micro fracturing. Cryogenics really is a healthy choice for the medical field.
7.7 S+AC) A++/ICATIONS:
Cryogenic li"uids are also used in the space program. 4or e$ample% cryogenic materials are
used to propel rockets into space. F tank of li"uid hydrogen provides the fuel to be burned
and a second tank of li"uid o$ygen is provided for combustion. Fnother space application
of cryogenics is the use of li"uid helium to cool orbiting infrared telescopes. )nfrared
telescopes detect obIects in space not from the light they give off but from the infrared
radiation &heat( they emit. Aowever% the operation of the telescope itself also gives off heat.
7hat can be done to prevent the instrument from being blinded by its own heat to the
infrared radiation from starsK The answer is to cool parts of the telescope with li"uid
helium. Ft the temperature of li"uid helium &1.3 '( the telescope can easily pick up
infrared radiation of the stars% whose temperature is about C '.
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9. AD.ANTA,)S AND DISAD.ANTA,)S
AD.ANTA,)S:
Cryogenics can produce large "uantities of high purity &parts per billion contaminations(
nitrogen. *ome processes like the humid.air e$pansion process have a yield of about 20L.
?0L per pass% which allows you produce large "uantities of nitrogen efficiently. =ther
processes% like the waste e$pansion% have a yield of about 95.20L per pass.
Cryogenic processes do not have economics of scale% i.e.% e$pansion or reduction of
product "uantity re"uirements generally does not necessitate new e"uipment.
DISAD.ANTA,)S:
Cryogenic processes in general have very large capital cost% due mostly to the cost of
compressors and turbines. The high pressure re"uirements and the recovery of refrigeration
energy e$plain the need for this e"uipment. Cryogenic separation re"uires the use of not
only the compressors and turbines% but also numerous heat e$changers% insulators% and a
distillation column# all of which add to the high costs of the process.
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:. CONC/USION
)n this seminar report titled MC+G=G6H)C*N having the methods to produce the
cryogenics temperatures and many advantages which are used for industries% automotives%
medical field% space crafts% etc...This seminar report has given me more e$perience and
knowledge on the cold generation and helped me to understand what cryogenics is% how it
is produced% where it has been used and what is the use of cryogenics.

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