7-1

7. Runoff Processes
Rain and snowmelt water take various paths to streams.
Each path contributes differently to;
- peak and timing of storm runoff
- erosion
- transport of chemicals into streams
Planners need to understand runoff processes to;
- identify the area contributing to runoff generation
- assess the impact of deforestation, road construction, and
other landuse change on runoff characteristics
- evaluate the risk of stream pollution
Possible paths of water moving downhill: path 1 is Horton overland flow; path 2 is groundwater
flow; path 3 is shallow subsurface storm flow; path 4 is saturation overland flow. The unshaded
zone indicates highly permeable topsoil, and the shaded zone represents less permeable subsoil (D
& L, Fig. 9-1).
7-2
Three types of runoff processes having different
characteristics (peak flow, lag to peak, chemical transport).
Horton overland flow
Infiltration capacity decreases as the soil gets wet.
Overland flow occurs when rainfall intensity exceeds
infiltration capacity.
Rainfall, runoff, infiltration, and surface storage (D&L, Fig. 9-4)
lag to peak
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 10 20 30
base flow
storm runoff
precipitation
d
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)
time (hr)
2
0

m
m
7-3
Infiltration capacity varies considerably within a catchment
depending on soil types and vegetation cover. Horton
overland flow may occur in localized areas within the
catchment; partial-area concept.
Horton overland flow is rare in vegetated humid region. It
is common in areas devoid of vegetation such as;
- semi-arid rangelands
- compacted soil, e.g. logging roads
- paved urban area, e.g. parking lots
Runoff to rainfall ratio varies significantly. On catchements
of less than 1km
2
, the ratio can be over 50 %. Peak rate of
runoff generation can be as high as 100 mm/hr for these
catchments. The flow velocity can reach up to 10
2
m/hr.
depression storage
Sheet flow occurs when depression
storage is exhausted. Runoff peak
is sharp and time lag is small.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
water content
d
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
2

h
r
4

h
r
7

h
r
Subsurface storm flow
This graph shows water content
profiles during a hypothetical
storm event (100 mm of rain in
10 hours). The wetting front
reaches the water table if the
storm lasts long enough. As a
result, the water table rises
substantially.
7-4
A hill slope with a stream at its base, the water table, and water content profiles (D & L, Fig. 9-7).
Before the onset of a storm, the water table declines gently
toward the stream providing base flow (BF). During the
storm, the water table near the stream rises rapidly and
increases the volume of groundwater flow. This is called
subsurface storm flow (SSSF).
7-5
If a low permeability layer exists at some depth, water
accumulates above this layer and flows horizontally toward
the stream (Path 3 in 6-1).
Subsurface storm flow generates lower volume of runoff
than Horton overland flow. Runoff to rainfall ratio is usually
less than 20 %. Most of the rain is stored in the sediments
and is released slowly to supply steady base flow.
Hydrograph peaks lag rainfall by a few hours to one day,
even for small catchments, and the shape of the hydrograph
is broader than that of Horton overland flow. The peak rate
of runoff generation is usually less than 10 mm/hr for small
catchments. Flow velocity of SSSF is several orders of
magnitude smaller than that of Horton overland flow.
Saturation overland flow
If the rainstorm is large enough, the water table near the
stream rises to the ground surface (see the bottom figure in
the last page). Groundwater seeps out from the ground
surface and generates overland flow. This is called return
flow (RF). The rain falling on the saturated area cannot
infiltrate because groundwater flow direction is upward
under the area. Direct precipitation onto saturated areas
(DPS) also generates overland flow. The combination of
RF and DPS is called saturation overland flow.
Hydrographs of saturation overland flow have much
higher peaks and shorter lag times than SSSF.
7-6
Runoff from a steep, well-drained hillside covered with a sandy loam in Vermont (D & L, Fig. 9-9).
The peak rate of runoff generation varies, but it is less than
that of Horton overland flow, because only a portion of the
drainage basin is contributing saturation overland flow.
Flow velocity is somewhat smaller than that of Horton
overland flow, because saturation overland flow takes place
on gentle vegetated surface.
This figure shows three components of storm flow.
Saturation overland flow dominates in the early stage.
7-7
Variable source concept
Before a storm, saturated areas are limited to the close
vicinity of the stream. They expand during the storm
resulting in larger rate of runoff generation (Fig. 9-11).
Some areas also expand and contract seasonally (Fig. 9-12).
Because this runoff-producing zone occupies only a small
portion of the watershed, even small changes can cause
important differences in the volume and rate of storm runoff.
Map of saturated areas showing expansion
during a single rainstorm of 46 mm. The solid
black shows the saturated area at the
beginning of rain; the shaded area is saturated
by the end of the storm (D&L, Fig. 9-11).
Seasonal variation of pre-storm saturated area
in a catchment in Vermont (D&L, Fig. 9-12).
7-8
Runoff processes in rural areas
In arid and semi-arid regions with scarce vegetation and
those disturbed by humans (urbanization, logging, etc.),
infiltration capacity is a limiting factor and Horton
overland flow is a dominant process. This also happens
when the top soil is frozen. In most humid regions,
subsurface storm flow and saturation overland flow are
dominant processes.
Where the soils are well-drained, deep and very
permeable, the water table is deep and the saturated zone is
confined to the valley floor. Saturation overland flow is
less important than subsurface storm flow in this situation.
Where the soils are thin and only moderately permeable,
and slope is gentle and concave shaped, the water table is
shallow and the saturated zone expand readily. Saturation
overland flow dominates in this situation.
D&L, Fig. 9-16.
7-9
Runoff processes in urban areas
Modification of the land surface during urbanization
changes the type and magnitude of runoff processes.
Covering parts of the catchment with impervious roofs and
concrete lots increases the volume and rate of Horton
overland flow. Planners have to design detention ponds to
accommodate increased runoff.
Gutters and storm sewers convey runoff rapidly to stream
channels. The channels are straightened and lined with
concrete to increase the efficiency, so that they transmit the
flood wave downstream more quickly. A storm hydrograph
after urbanization has larger peak flow and shorter lag time
than before. The capacity of culverts and bridges are
overtaxed and residential areas become flooded during
large storms.
Effects of urbanization on storm hydrographs (D&L, Fig. 9-19).
7-10
Overland flow and contaminant transport
(1) Experiments by Dunne and his colleagues.
Fertilizers were applied on the ground surface before an
artificial rainstorm. Extent of saturated area during the
storm was marked. On the saturated area, fertilizers were
lost to runoff resulting in a clear boundary between good
and poor vegetation growth after the storm.
(2) Snowmelt runoff in western Canada.
Soil frost reduces the effective permeability, and hence
infiltration capacity. Spring runoff occurs probably as a
combination of Horton and saturation overland flow. What
will be the fate of manure applied on the field in the fall?
(3) Feed-lot operation in southern Alberta
A large number of live stock are fed in small feed lots
producing a large quantity of manure. Soils within feed lots
are compacted and susceptible to Horton overland flow.
What is the risk of bacteria and excess nutrients
contaminating streams?
These problems are not well understood at the moment.
There are needs for fundamental and practical research.