Ecology (from Greek: , "house"; -, "study of"[A]) s the s!e"tf!

study of the
re#$to"sh%s th$t #&"' or'$"sms h$&e (th e$!h other $"d (th ther "$tur$# e"&ro"me"t)
*o%!s of "terest to e!o#o'sts "!#ude the !om%osto", dstr+uto", $mou"t (+om$ss),
"um+er, $"d !h$"'"' st$tes of or'$"sms (th" $"d $mo"' e!osystems) ,!osystems
$re !om%osed of dy"$m!$##y "ter$!t"' %$rts "!#ud"' or'$"sms, the !ommu"tes they
m$ke u%, $"d the "o"-#&"' !om%o"e"ts of ther e"&ro"me"t) ,!osystem %ro!esses, su!h
$s %rm$ry %rodu!to", %edo'e"ess, "utre"t !y!#"', $"d &$rous "!he !o"stru!to"
$!t&tes, re'u#$te the f#u- of e"er'y $"d m$tter throu'h $" e"&ro"me"t) *hese %ro!esses
$re sust$"ed +y the +od&ersty (th" them) .od&ersty refers to the &$retes of s%e!es
" e!osystems, the 'e"et! &$r$to"s they !o"t$", $"d the %ro!esses th$t $re fu"!to"$##y
e"r!hed +y the d&ersty of e!o#o'!$# "ter$!to"s)
Ecology closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An
understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus
area in ecological studies. Ecologists seek to explain:
/fe %ro!esses $"d $d$%t$to"s
0str+uto" $"d $+u"d$"!e of or'$"sms
*he mo&eme"t of m$ter$#s $"d e"er'y throu'h #&"' !ommu"tes
*he su!!esso"$# de&e#o%me"t of e!osystems, $"d
*he $+u"d$"!e $"d dstr+uto" of +od&ersty
To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the
biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes,
to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, and up to the level of the
biosphere.!" This framework forms a panarchy #" and exhibits non$linear
behaviours% this means that &effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small
changes in critical variables, such as the numbers of nitrogen fixers, can lead to
disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties.&'":()

asdddd*ain articl*ain article: +iodiversity
.od&ersty s the &$rety of #fe $"d ts %ro!esses) 1t "!#udes the &$rety of #&"'
or'$"sms, the 'e"et! dffere"!es $mo"' them, the !ommu"tes $"d e!osystems "
(h!h they o!!ur, $"d the e!o#o'!$# $"d e&o#uto"$ry %ro!esses th$t kee% them
fu"!to""', yet e&er !h$"'"' $"
.od&ersty s the
&$rety of #fe $"d ts
%ro!esses) 1t
"!#udes the &$rety
of #&"' or'$"sms,
the 'e"et!
dffere"!es $mo"'
them, the
!ommu"tes $"d
e!osystems " (h!h
they o!!ur, $"d the
e!o#o'!$# $"d
e&o#uto"$ry
%ro!esses th$t kee%
them fu"!to""', yet
e&er !h$"'"' $"
.od&ersty s the
&$rety of #fe $"d ts
%ro!esses) 1t
"!#udes the &$rety
of #&"' or'$"sms,
the 'e"et!
dffere"!es $mo"'
them, the
!ommu"tes $"d
e!osystems " (h!h
they o!!ur, $"d the
e!o#o'!$# $"d
e&o#uto"$ry
%ro!esses th$t kee%
them fu"!to""', yet
e&er !h$"'"' $"
Habitat
2$" $rt!#e: 3$+t$t
*he h$+t$t of $ s%e!es des!r+es the e"&ro"me"t o&er (h!h $
s%e!es s k"o(" to o!!ur $"d the ty%e of !ommu"ty th$t s formed
$s $ resu#t)[45] 2ore s%e!f!$##y, "h$+t$ts !$" +e def"ed $s
re'o"s " e"&ro"me"t$# s%$!e th$t $re !om%osed of mu#t%#e
dme"so"s, e$!h re%rese"t"' $ +ot! or $+ot! e"&ro"me"t$#
&$r$+#e; th$t s, $"y !om%o"e"t or !h$r$!terst! of the e"&ro"me"t
re#$ted dre!t#y (e)') for$'e +om$ss $"d 6u$#ty) or "dre!t#y (e)')
e#e&$to") to the use of $ #o!$to" +y the $"m$#)"[44]:789 :or
e-$m%#e, $ h$+t$t m'ht +e $" $6u$t! or terrestr$# e"&ro"me"t
th$t !$" +e further !$te'or;ed $s $ mo"t$"e or $#%"e e!osystem)
3$+t$t shfts %ro&de m%ort$"t e&de"!e of !om%etto" " "$ture
(here o"e %o%u#$to" !h$"'es re#$t&e to the h$+t$ts th$t most
other "d&du$#s of the s%e!es o!!u%y) :or e-$m%#e, o"e %o%u#$to" of $ s%e!es of
tro%!$# #;$rds (Tropidurus hispidus) h$s $ f#$tte"ed +ody re#$t&e to the m$" %o%u#$to"s
th$t #&e " o%e" s$&$""$) *he %o%u#$to" th$t #&es " $" so#$ted ro!k out!ro% hdes "
!re&$sses (here ts f#$tte"ed +ody offers $ se#e!t&e $d&$"t$'e) 3$+t$t shfts $#so o!!ur
" the de&e#o%me"t$# #fe hstory of $m%h+$"s $"d " "se!ts th$t tr$"sto" from $6u$t! to
terrestr$# h$+t$ts) .oto%e $"d h$+t$t $re sometmes used "ter!h$"'e$+#y, +ut the
former $%%#es to $ !ommu"ty<s e"&ro"me"t, (here$s the #$tter $%%#es to $ s%e!es<
e"&ro"me"t)[45] [4=] [48]

.od&ersty of $ !or$# reef) >or$#s $d$%t $"d modfy ther e"&ro"me"t +y form"' !$#!um
!$r+o"$te ske#eto"s) *hs %ro&des 'ro("' !o"dto"s for future 'e"er$to"s $"d forms $
h$+t$t for m$"y other s%e!es)[49]
Niche
2$" $rt!#e: ,!o#o'!$# "!he
.od&ersty s the
&$rety of #fe $"d ts
%ro!esses) 1t
"!#udes the &$rety
of #&"' or'$"sms,
the 'e"et!
dffere"!es $mo"'
them, the
!ommu"tes $"d
e!osystems " (h!h
they o!!ur, $"d the
e!o#o'!$# $"d
e&o#uto"$ry
%ro!esses th$t kee%
them fu"!to""', yet
e&er !h$"'"' $"

*ermte mou"ds (th &$red he'hts of !hm"eys re'u#$te '$s e-!h$"'e, tem%er$ture $"d
other e"&ro"me"t$# %$r$meters th$t $re "eeded to sust$" the "ter"$# %hyso#o'y of the
e"tre !o#o"y)[4?] [47]
0ef"to"s of the "!he d$te +$!k to 5@57,[4A] +ut G) ,&e#y" 3ut!h"so" m$de !o"!e%tu$#
$d&$"!es " 5@97[4@] [=B] +y "trodu!"' $ (de#y $do%ted def"to": "the set of +ot! $"d
$+ot! !o"dto"s " (h!h $ s%e!es s $+#e to %ersst $"d m$"t$" st$+#e %o%u#$to"
s;es)"[4A]:95@ *.ome
2$" $rt!#e: .ome
.omes $re #$r'er u"ts of or'$";$to" th$t !$te'or;e re'o"s of the ,$rth<s e!osystems,
m$"#y $!!ord"' to the stru!ture $"d !om%osto" of &e'et$to")[8B] *here $re dffere"t
methods to def"e the !o"t"e"t$# +ou"d$res of +omes dom"$ted +y dffere"t fu"!to"$#
ty%es of &e'et$t&e !ommu"tes th$t $re #mted " dstr+uto" +y !#m$te, %re!%t$to",
(e$ther $"d other e"&ro"me"t$# &$r$+#es) .omes "!#ude tro%!$# r$"forest, tem%er$te
+ro$d#e$f $"d m-ed forest, tem%er$te de!duous forest, t$'$, tu"dr$, hot desert, $"d
%o#$r desert)[85] Cther rese$r!hers h$&e re!e"t#y !$te'or;ed other +omes, su!h $s the
hum$" $"d o!e$"! m!ro+omes) *o $ m!ro+e, the hum$" +ody s $ h$+t$t $"d $
#$"ds!$%e)[84] 2!ro+omes (ere ds!o&ered #$r'e#y throu'h $d&$"!es " mo#e!u#$r
'e"et!s, (h!h h$&e re&e$#ed $ hdde" r!h"ess of m!ro+$# d&ersty o" the %#$"et) *he
o!e$"! m!ro+ome %#$ys $ s'"f!
Biome
2$" $rt!#e: .ome
.omes $re #$r'er u"ts of or'$";$to" th$t !$te'or;e re'o"s of the ,$rth<s e!osystems,
m$"#y $!!ord"' to the stru!ture $"d !om%osto" of &e'et$to")[8B] *here $re dffere"t
methods to def"e the !o"t"e"t$# +ou"d$res of +omes dom"$ted +y dffere"t fu"!to"$#
ty%es of &e'et$t&e !ommu"tes th$t $re #mted " dstr+uto" +y !#m$te, %re!%t$to",
(e$ther $"d other e"&ro"me"t$# &$r$+#es) .omes "!#ude tro%!$# r$"forest, tem%er$te
+ro$d#e$f $"d m-ed forest, tem%er$te de!duous forest, t$'$, tu"dr$, hot desert, $"d
%o#$r desert)[85] Cther rese$r!hers h$&e re!e"t#y !$te'or;ed other +omes, su!h $s the
hum$" $"d o!e$"! m!ro+omes) *o $ m!ro+e, the hum$" +ody s $ h$+t$t $"d $
#$"ds!$%e)[84] 2!ro+omes (ere ds!o&ered #$r'e#y throu'h $d&$"!es " mo#e!u#$r 'e"e
,oral -eefs: occur in neritic
zones of warm, tropical
water, dominated by
cnidarians .corals/% very
productive, protect land
from storms% most are now
dying from rise in global
temperatures
Biome
2$" $rt!#e: .ome
.omes $re #$r'er u"ts of or'$";$to" th$t !$te'or;e re'o"s of the ,$rth<s e!osystems,
m$"#y $!!ord"' to the stru!ture $"d !om%osto" of &e'et$to")[8B] *here $re dffere"t
methods to def"e the !o"t"e"t$# +ou"d$res of +omes dom"$ted +y dffere"t fu"!to"$#
ty%es of &e'et$t&e !ommu"tes th$t $re #mted " dstr+uto" +y !#m$te, %re!%t$to",
(e$ther $"d other e"&ro"me"t$# &$r$+#es) .omes "!#ude tro%!$# r$"forest, tem%er$te
+ro$d#e$f $"d m-ed forest, tem%er$te de!duous forest, t$'$, tu"dr$, hot desert, $"d
%o#$r desert)[85] Cther rese$r!hers h$&e re!e"t#y !$te'or;ed other +omes, su!h $s the
hum$" $"d o!e$"! m!ro+omes) *o $ m!ro+e, the hum$" +ody s $ h$+t$t $"d $
#$"ds!$%e)[84] 2!ro+omes (ere ds!o&ered #$r'e#y throu'h $d&$"!es " mo#e!u#$r
'e"et!s, (h!h h$&e re&e$#ed $ hdde" r!h"ess of m!ro+$# d&ersty o" the %#$"et) *he
o!e$"! m!ro+ome %#$ys $ s'"f!$"t ro#e
Population ecology
2$" $rt!#e: Do%u#$to" e!o#o'y
Eee $#so: /sts of or'$"sms +y %o%u#$to"
Do%u#$to" e!o#o'y studes the dy"$m!s of s%e!es %o%u#$to"s $"d ho( these
%o%u#$to"s "ter$!t (th the e"&ro"me"t)[=] A %o%u#$to" !o"ssts of "d&du$#s of the
s$me s%e!es th$t #&e, "ter$!t $"d m'r$te throu'h the s$me "!he $"d h$+t$t)[87]
A %rm$ry #$( of %o%u#$to" e!o#o'y s the 2$#thus$" 'ro(th mode# [8A] (h!h st$tes, "$
%o%u#$to" (## 'ro( (or de!#"e) e-%o"e"t$##y $s #o"' $s the e"&ro"me"t e-%ere"!ed +y
$## "d&du$#s " the %o%u#$to" rem$"s !o"st$"t)"[8A]:5A Em%#fed %o%u#$to" mode#s
usu$##y st$rt (th four &$r$+#es: de$th, +rth, mm'r$to", $"d em'r$to")
>ommu"ty e!o#o'y:
>ommu"ty e!o#o'y s the study of the "ter$!to"s $mo"' $ !o##e!to"s of s%e!es th$t
"h$+t the s$me 'eo'r$%h! $re$) Fese$r!h " !ommu"ty e!o#o'y m'ht me$sure %rm$ry
%rodu!to" " $ (et#$"d " re#$to" to de!om%osto" $"d !o"sum%to" r$tes) *hs re6ures
$" u"derst$"d"' of the !ommu"ty !o""e!to"s +et(ee" %#$"ts ()e), %rm$ry %rodu!ers)
$"d the de!om%osers (e)'), fu"' $"d +$!ter$),[?=] or the $"$#yss of %red$tor-%rey
dy"$m!s $ffe!t"' $m%h+$" +om$ss
):ood (e+s
2$" $rt!#e: :ood (e+
Eee $#so: :ood !h$"
A food (e+ s the $r!hety%$# e!o#o'!$# "et(ork) D#$"ts !$%ture so#$r e"er'y $"d use t to
sy"thes;e sm%#e su'$rs dur"' %hotosy"thess) As %#$"ts 'ro(, they $!!umu#$te "utre"ts
$"d $re e$te" +y 'r$;"' her+&ores, $"d the e"er'y s tr$"sferred throu'h $ !h$" of
or'$"sms +y !o"sum%to") *he sm%#fed #"e$r feed"' %$th($ys th$t mo&e from $ +$s$#
tro%h! s%e!es to $ to% !o"sumer s !$##ed the food !h$") *he #$r'er "ter#o!k"' %$tter"
of food !h$"s " $" e!o#o'!$# !ommu"ty !re$tes $ !om%#e- food (e+) :ood (e+s $re $
ty%e of !o"!e%t m$% or $ heurst! de&!e th$t s used to ##ustr$te $"d study %$th($ys of
e"er'y $"d m$ter$# f#o(s)[8] [?@] [7B]
Trophic levels
tro%h! %yr$md ($) $"d $ food-(e+ (+) ##ustr$t"' e!o#o'!$# re#$to"sh%s $mo"'
!re$tures th$t $re ty%!$# of $ "orther" .ore$# terrestr$# e!osystem) *he tro%h! %yr$md
rou'h#y re%rese"ts the +om$ss (usu$##y me$sured $s tot$# dry-(e'ht) $t e$!h #e&e#)
D#$"ts 'e"er$##y h$&e the 're$test +om$ss) G$mes of tro%h! !$te'ores $re sho(" to the
r'ht of the %yr$md) Eome e!osystems, su!h $s m$"y (et#$"ds, do "ot or'$";e $s $
str!t %yr$md, +e!$use $6u$t! %#$"ts $re "ot $s %rodu!t&e $s #o"'-#&ed terrestr$# %#$"ts
su!h $s trees) ,!o#o'!$# tro%h! %yr$mds $re ty%!$##y o"e of three k"ds: 5) %yr$md of
"um+ers, 4) %yr$md of +om$ss =)%yr$md of e"er'y