Chapter 1

1
1 Introduction
1.1 Power situation in Nepal and world: Historical Background and Development
1.1.1 Basic Definitions
Power is the rate of energy supply/consumption/demand. It is represented by P and Standard unit
of measurements in SI Unit is Watt.

( )
s Nm S J W
S Time
m nt Displaceme N Force
Time
done Work
S Time
J Energy
watt Power / 1 / 1 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
) ( = = =

= = =
Energy can be in any form like Heat, Light, and Electricity

Energy in the form of Electricity is commonly termed as power and used widely all over the
world as it is easily transportable at high speed and convertible in to different form of energy
efficiently as per requirement. Electricity is taken as basic commodity as it is essential for running
communications and electronics equipments.

Energy is essential for anybody to perform work- day to day work (cooking, transportation,
heating, cooling, lighting etc); Commercial activities (shopping complex, theatres, and cinema
halls) and Industrial use (production of goods, commodities, processing and refining etc)

Common units of Energy and Power measurements used in hydropower Engineering
Energy Power
Value Name Symbol Value Name Symbol
10
1
j Deca joule Daj 10
1
w Deca watt d w
10
2
j Hecta joule Hj 10
2
w Hecta watt h w
10
3
j Killo joule Kj 10
3
w Killo watt k w
10
6
j Mega joule MJ 10
6
w Mega watt Mw
10
9
j Giga joule GJ 10
9
w Giga watt Gw
10
12
j Tera joule TJ 10
12
w Tera watt Tw
10
15
j Penta joule PJ 10
15
w Penta watt Pw
10
18
j Exa joule EJ 10
18
w Exa watt Ew
10
21
j Zetta joule ZJ 10
21
w Zetta watt Zw

1 HP = 735.5 W in Metric (MKS) system mostly used in Hydropower Engineering academic
courses but 1 HP = 746 W in FPS system not more used in academic exercise.

Hydropower engineering deals with the Electricity energy generated from the electro-mechanical
equipment (turbine-generator) and the unit of electricity energy measurement is KWh or Unit.

1 KWh or 1 Unit of electricity is the energy obtained from a heater (or other electrical appliances)
of 1 KW capacity in 1 hour.
J s s J hr W hour KW KWh
5
10 36 3600 / 1000 1 1000 1 1 1 = = = =
Common Energy Conversion factors
Unit MJ KWh Ton of oil
Equivalent (TOE)
Standard
m
3
gas
Raw Oil
Barel
Fuel wood
(1 bhary)
1 MJ
1 0.278 0.0000236 0.025 0.000176 7.8E-05
1 KWh
3.6 1 0.000085 0.09 0.000635 0.00028
1 Ton of oil Equivalent (TOE) 42300 11750 1 1190 7.49 3.31
1 Standard m3 gas
40 11.11 0.00084 1 0.00629 0.00279
1 Raw Oil Barel
5650 1569 0.134 159 1 0.44
1 Fuel wood (1 bhary = 2.4
m
3
)
12800 3556 0.302 359 2.25 1
Source: 10 Yr 10000 MW Task force report 2009 (BS 2065)
Chapter 1
2

1.1.2 Sources of Energy and its consumption in world:

Sun is the main source of Energy in the form of solar radiation. Some of that
energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable;
for example, via wind, hydro- or wave power.
The term solar constant is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation
per unit area, measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, in a plane
perpendicular to the rays.
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just visible light.
It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1366 watts per square meter, though it
fluctuates by about 6.9% during a yearfrom 1412 W m
2
in early January to1321
W m
2
in early July, due to the Earth's varying distance from the sun by a few parts
per thousand from day to day.
For the whole Earth, with a area of 127,400,000 km
2
, the total energy rate is 174
petawatts (1.74010
17
W), plus or minus 3.5%. This value is the total rate of solar
energy received by the planet; about half, 89 PW, reaches the Earth's surface.

Primary Sources of Energy

Fossil fuels oil, natural gas and coal
Non Fossil fuels- namely nuclear power and renewable sources
Renewable sources- hydro, solar, wind, Geo-thermal, Tidal

Consumption of Energy and Power Situation in World




In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 474 exajoules (47410
18
J) with 80 to
90 percent derived from the combustion of fossil fuels This is equivalent to an average
power consumption rate of 15 terawatts (1.50410
13
W)
Economic Crisis from 2006-2009 the energy consumption has not been increased but
slightly decreased

Rise of Energy consumption between 2005 and 2030 is approximately 41 percent.
This demand increase will take place in developing countries, where the present demand
of energy is low due to less or small economic activities which are expected to grow most
rapidly during its development process.


Chapter 1
3



Global economic output, as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), (Nepal = 65 KWh/capita in
2005 and targeted to reach 100 KWh/capita by 2012)
*OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Member Countries
(30)
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
United Kingdom, United States
The linkage between electricity demand and economic progress is evident when considering
electricity use (kilowatt-hours, kWh) on a per-capita basis relative to GDP per capita in countries
Chapter 1
4
around the world. China, South Korea and the United States are specifically highlighted in the
chart above, which displays OECD*countries in red and non-OECD nations in blue.
Source: The Outlook for Energy A View to 2030 http://exxonmobil.com/corporate/images/enlarged_eoworld.jpg

Modern energy supplies (Nuclear Energy) are still a precious commodity for millions of
people due to complex technology and higher risk posed to human and environmental
health due to leakage of radioactive radiation.

1.1.3 Energy /Power consumption or situation in Nepal

Yearly Energy Supply (Production) by type in MGJ
Type 51/52 52/53 53/54 54/55 55/56 56/57 57/58 58/59 59/60 60/61 61/62 62/63 63/64 64/65 65/66
Year 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09
Traditional 258.11 263.48 267.02 272.77 278.60 284.61 290.86 302.08 308.61 315.27 322.10 328.09 334.78 341.62 348.87
Fuel wood 230.55 235.37 237.45 242.56 247.76 253.09 258.64 269.16 274.96 280.89 286.96 292.46 298.33 304.72 311.17
Agri. Residue 10.35 10.56 11.63 11.89 12.14 12.44 12.73 13.03 13.33 13.63 13.96 14.01 14.37 14.36 14.68
Animal dung 17.21 17.55 17.93 18.32 18.70 19.08 19.49 19.90 20.32 20.75 21.18 21.63 22.08 22.54 23.02
Commercial 24.79 27.69 29.48 35.10 34.85 44.90 43.34 43.85 43.27 44.86 43.20 46.60 43.96 44.26 48.90
Petroleum 19.13 21.56 23.64 28.97 28.16 30.20 31.29 32.31 32.12 31.60 30.06 29.26 30.14 27.91 33.01
LPG 0.64 0.89 1.07 1.15 1.24 1.49 1.97 2.40 2.76 3.26 3.82 3.99 4.61 4.77 5.70
Motor sprit
(Gasoline)
1.15 1.36 1.49 1.58 1.66 1.87 1.98 2.12 2.26 2.28 2.53 2.71 3.41 3.38 4.16
Air turbine
fuel
1.36 1.45 1.75 1.87 2.00 2.04 2.28 1.72 1.91 2.32 2.42 2.33 2.31 2.49 2.49
Kerosene 6.56 7.58 8.82 12.52 10.69 12.01 11.47 14.02 12.64 11.27 8.66 8.22 7.17 5.63 2.54
High speed
Disel
8.61 9.50 9.80 11.42 11.97 11.76 12.37 10.86 11.38 11.37 11.91 11.16 11.63 11.48 17.69
Light Disel oil 0.13 0.17 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.17 0.13 0.09 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Fuel oil 0.43 0.34 0.34 0.04 0.17 0.43 0.59 0.58 0.55 0.42 -0.03 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.00
Others 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52 0.59 0.66 0.75 0.84 0.95 0.12 0.41
Coal 2.85 3.07 2.56 2.60 2.90 10.48 7.45 6.48 5.72 7.29 6.46 10.36 6.16 8.24 7.75
Electricity 2.81 3.07 3.28 3.54 3.79 4.22 4.61 5.07 5.43 5.97 6.67 6.97 7.66 8.10 8.14
Renewable
(others)
0.32 0.45 0.58 0.71 0.84 1.01 1.22 1.39 1.58 1.71 1.91 2.10 2.32 2.50 2.73
Biogas 0.30 0.43 0.55 0.68 0.81 0.98 1.18 1.35 1.53 1.65 1.85 2.03 2.22 2.38 2.59
Micro-hydro 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14
Solar 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006
Total 283.23 291.62 297.07 308.58 314.29 330.52 335.42 347.33 353.45 361.84 367.21 376.79 381.05 388.38 400.51





Chapter 1
5


Source: WECS Energy synopsis Report

Electricity is clean energy as it does not produce any type of pollution on its use, convertible to any form
of energy easily. Transportation and handling management is easy.
Sectorial Energy Consumption in Nepal

Historical trend of Sectorial Energy Consumption in Nepal (MGJ)
Year 51/52 52/53 53/54 54/55 55/56 56/57 57/58 58/59 59/60 60/61 61/62 62/63 63/64 64/65 65/66
Sector 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09
Residential 260.86 267.34 274.24 283.74 287.67 295.00 301.13 314.61 320.18 326.22 331.55 339.77 345.384 351.192 356.752
Industrial 11.08 11.76 6.43 6.90 7.54 15.72 12.99 12.52 11.97 13.72 12.74 12.99 12.7914 13.9887 13.3698
Commercial 2.56 2.85 3.20 2.94 3.20 3.71 4.13 4.94 4.09 5.33 5.33 5.71 4.6738 4.8857 5.1222
Transport 7.84 8.73 11.93 13.55 14.82 12.78 13.59 12.01 13.85 13.12 13.89 14.40 14.5095 15.0366 20.876
Agricultural 0.64 0.68 0.98 1.11 0.72 2.98 3.15 2.77 2.90 2.90 3.07 3.28 3.0106 2.5208 3.6464
Other 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.43 0.47 0.47 0.55 0.64 0.64 0.6803 0.7584 0.7399
Grand Total 283.23 291.62 297.07 308.58 314.29 330.52 335.42 347.33 353.45 361.84 367.21 376.79 381.05 388.382 400.506


Chapter 1
6

Most of the Energy is used for residential use, The industrial use is comaparatively low and will
be very high in development of economic activities under the process of making new
industrialized Nepal
The amount of Per capita
electricity consumption reflects
the living standard of people and
their economic conditions.

The per capita electricity
consumption in Nepal is only 69
KWh and aimed to reach up to
100 KWh by 2012 (II nd Interim
Plan 2010-2012)

The per capita electricity
consumption of Nepalese people
is about 37 times less than the
world average and 27 times less
than the average Asian people.
48% of the total population in
Nepal has access to the
Electricity. Only 8% of people
of rural areas enjoy it (MOF
2007, Energy Synopsis of Nepal
WECS-2010)



1.1.4 Side Effect of fossils fuels is emission of GHG resulting Global Warming

Side Effect of fossils fuels is emission of GHG gas (CO
2
, CH
4
and N
2
O) causing the Global
warming and climate change. Climate change rise of temperature, disturbance in rainfall
(monsoon rain, high intensity, unpredictable rain, landslide, flood and draught affecting
Chapter 1
7
agriculture, ecosystem, biodiversity causing large numbers of endangered species of flora and
fauna)

GHG Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion in Nepal in 1994/95 (Gg)

Sectors Diesel Kerosene Coal Gasoline LPG Fuel Oil Total
Residential - 291 2 - 24 - 317
Industrial 73 6 233 - - 8 320
Transport 360 19 2 75 - - 456
Agricultural 135 - - - - - 135
Commercial 4 113 26 - 15 8 166
Energy
Conversion
- - - - - 71 71
Total 572 429 263 75 39 87 1,465
Sources: WECS 1996 in Nepal's Initial National Communication, 2004
Note: These exclude emissions from the burning of aviation fuel
GHG emission from Combustion of Fossils Fuel (1994/1995)
Residential
21.6%
Industrial
21.8%
Transport
31.1%
Agricultural
9.2%
Commercial
11.3%
Energy Conversion
4.8%

Sources: WECS 1996 in Nepal's Initial National Communication, 2004
Sectorial GHG Emission from Combustion of Fossils Fuel (1994/95)

Electricity Energy do not produce any emissions in its use so it is termed as clean energy and the
efficiency of the energy use also has been improved significantly due to invention of modern
electrical appliances.
1.1.5 Historical Background of Hydropower Development
The first hydropower development or installation in the world was in 1882 and it is in Wisconsin
of USA. The capacity of the first hydropower plant was only 200 kW. Similarly the first
hydropower development or installation in India was in 1987 in Darjeling. The capacity of the
Indian Hydropower project was of 130 kW. Pharping Hydel Powerhouse of 500 kW capacities is
the first powerhouse installed in Nepal in 1911.

Chapter 1
8
The Pharping hydropower station was developed with the technical and financial aid of British
Government at the cost of NRs 713373.07 within 17 months in 1911 (BS 1968 Jestha 9 completed
date) . The power house with the installed capacity of 500 kW was running successfully till 1981
but after then, the water used for the plant was diverted for drinking purpose and the plant was
shut down. Even now, this plant can be restarted if the supply of water is made possible (NEA,
2003a).

Nepals first hydropower plant was installed not so long time after the first hydropower plants
were installed in USA or in India

First Hydropower Plants


The Government of Nepal decided to open its doors to the private sector involving both local and
foreign investors to promote Public Private Partnership under the BOOT system in 1992 in order
to fulfill the growing electricity demand using Nepals abundant hydro potential.
Commissioning dates of hydropower Projects in Nepal

S.N. Name of Power project Installed
Capacity
(MW)
Average
annual
Energy
(GWh)
Commission
and
operation
Year
Investor Cost per
KW
A Hydro Electricity
1 Pharping 0.5 3.3 1911 Nepal/British RS 1426.75
2 Sundarijal 0.6 4.8 1936 Nepal
3 Panauti 2.4 7.0 1965 Russia
4 Pokhara Phewa 1.0 8.5 1967 India
5 Trishuli 21.0 114.5 1968 India US$1296.30
6 Sunkosi 10.0 70.0 1973 China US$1093.70
7 Tinau 1.0 10.2 1974 BPC
8 Gandak 15.0 48.0 1979 India US$1300.00
9 Kulekhani-1 60.0 201.0 1982
WB and
others US$1950.00
10 Devighat 14.1 114.0 1983 India US$2781.69
11 Seti 1.5 1.8 1985 China
12 Kulekhani-II 32.0 95.0 1986 Japan US$1937.50
13 Marshyangdi 69.0 462.0 1989 German/WB US$3333.33
14 Andhikhola 5.1 38.0 1991 BPC
15 Jhimruk 12.3 81.0 1994 BPC
16 Chatara 3.2 3.8 1996 Nepal/WB
17 Puwa khola 6.2 48.0 1999 Nepal US$2887.10
18 Khimti 60.0 353.0 2000
HPC/IPP-
norway US$2250.00
19 Modi 14.0 87.0 2000 Nepal/Korea US$1864.86
20 Bhotekoshi 36.0 250.0 2000 IPP (USA) US$2666.67
21 Kaligandaki 144.0 625.0 2001 Nepal/ADB US$2638.89
Chapter 1
9
22 Indrawati 7.5 49.7 2002 IPP-Nepal US$2666.67
23 Chilime 22.1 137.0 2003 IPP-Nepal
24 Tatopani (Myagdi) 2.0 10.2 2004 Nepal
25 Sunkosi 2.6 14.4 2005 Nepal
26 Piluwa khola 3.0 19.4 2006 IPP-Nepal
27 Khudi 4.0 24.3 2006 IPP-Nepal
28 Middle Mrshyangdi 70.0 398.0 2009
Nepal/Germ
an NRs 312000
29
Small hydropwer-32 nos
(Government) 8.1 37.0 different time Nepal
30
Small hydropwer-12 nos
(Ipp-Nepal) 7.64 40.0 different time Nepal-IPP
Total Hydro electricity 635.84 3355.9
B Thermal
1 Hetauda- Disel 14.4 43.0 1963 Nepal
2 Duhabi multifuel 39.0 165.0 1991
Nepal-
Finland

Total Thermal
Electricity 53.4 208.0
Grand Total 689.24 3563.9
Source: NEA annual report 2009, and 10 Yr 10000MW Task force Report 2009 (BS 2065)
Project under Construction
S.N. Name of Project Installed
Capacity
(MW)
Investor Status
1 Lower Indrawati Khola SHP 4.50 IPP-Nepal

2 Mardi Khola SHP 3.10 IPP-Nepal
completed
3 Ridhi Khola 2.40 IPP-Nepal
completed
4 Upper Hadikhola 0.991 IPP-Nepal
completed
5 Lower pilluwa 0.990 IPP-Nepal
testing
6 Kulekhani III 14 Japan

7 Chamelia 30 Nepal/Korea

8 Mai khola (Himal Dolakha Hydro) 4.455 IPP-Nepal
completed
9 Lower Modi (United hydro) 9.9 IPP-Nepal

10 Siprin khola (synergy HPP) 9.658 IPP Nepal

11
Ankhu-1 Hpp (ankhu khola Jal bidhut
company) 6.930 IPP Nepal

12
Phawa khola HPP (Shivani Hpp Pvt
ltd) 4.950 IPP Nepal

Source: NEA annual report 2010/11

S.N. Description Installed
Capacity
(MW)
Production
in Wet
season
(maximum
MW)
Production
in Dry
season
(minimum
MW)
Remarks
A Production of Electricity

1 Non Reservoir Project
NEA power projects 385.66 350 141.9

Independent Power
Producers (IPP) 158.315 150 58.1
Sub Total 543.975 500 200
2 Reservoir Project
NEA power projects 92 0 92

Independent Power
Producers (IPP) 0 0 0
Chapter 1
10
Sub Total 92 0 92
3 Thermal Power
NEA power projects 53.4 20 20
Total 689.375 520 312
B Import of electricity
1 River Agreement
Tanakpur 20 20 12.5
Max 20 MW and
7,00,00,000 KWh
annually
Kosi 10 10 5
2 Import/Export 50 50 50
3 Commercial agreement 50 50
Sub Total 130 80 117.5

Grand Total
Supply/production 819.375 600 429.5
C Demand/supply (2007/08) 640/542 720/308
D Demand (2009/10) 815 878.8
E Demand (2010/11) 890 967
F Surplus/Deficit (10/11) -290 -537
Source: 10 Yr 10000 MW Task force Report 2009 (BS 2065) and NEA annual report 2010
Load Shedding minimum 2 hours in wet season and maximum 16 hours of a day in the dry season in 2009/10 and it
has been forecasted to increase up to 18 hours of load shedding in a day during dry season of 2011/12.

The increase of annual power demand at present is about 80 MW per year and it will increase with increase of
economic activities (industrial and commercial activities) within the country.

Trend of Electricity Demand in the future





Chapter 1
11


Source: NEA Annual report 2009/10.


Chapter 1 12

Chapter 1 13
1.1.6 Potential Hydropower in world

The worlds total technical feasible hydro potential is estimated at 14 370 TWh/year, of
which about 8082 TWh/year is currently considered economically feasible for
development.

About 700 GW (or about 2600 TWh/year) is already in operation, with a further 108 GW
under construction [Hydropower & Dams, World Atlas and Industry Guide, 2000].

Most of the remaining potential is in Africa, Asia and Latin America:

Remaining hydropower potential is in Africa, Asia and Latin America
Technically feasible Economically feasible
potential: potential:
Africa 1750 TWh/year 1000 TWh/year
Asia 6800 TWh/year 3600 TWh/year
North + Central America 1660 TWh/year 1000 TWh/year
South America 2665 TWh/year 1600 TWh/year
Total 12835 TWh/year 7200 TWh/year

At present hydropower supplies about 20 per cent of the world's electricity. Hydro
supplies more than 50 per cent of national electricity in about 65 countries, more than 80
per cent in 32 countries and almost all of the electricity in 13 countries.
(Source: IAEA Report on Hydropower and the World's Energy Future)
1.1.7 Potential Hydropower of Nepal
Nepals theoretical hydropower potential of 83 GW is about 1.5% of worlds total
hydropower potential of 5610 GW in comparison with the Nepals land (147181 km
2
) of
only 0.11% of the world total (Shrestha, 1985, p.34).
This shows that hydropower potential per unit land area in Nepal is about 13 times higher
than that of the world average.
As the aforementioned value of hydro potential does not include that from the small river
basins (i.e. catchment areas < 300 sq. km, river length < 10 km.) and there are significant
numbers of such rivers in Nepal, the real hydropower potential of Nepal might be much
higher than this. To date, there are no comprehensive and detailed studies defining the
total micro hydro potential of Nepal from such small rivers.




Chapter 1 14
Theoretical hydropower potential of rivers of Nepal

1.1.8 Challenges and Opportunities of hydropower Development in Nepal

Although Nepal has developed its first hydropower project about a century ago, the
development pace of its hydropower development is not as it was expected and needed.
Due to this, severe load shedding is unavoidable and becomes a part of Nepalese people.
Only about 1.5% of the economically feasible potential or 1% of theoretical potential has
been installed. Only about 48% of the total population has access to the electricity.

Challenges

The following are the challenges that were faced in hydropower development in Nepal

Lack of political stability
Political situation in Nepal is not favorable and stable since from 1990. Any one
of elected government has completed its full phase tenure since from the great
peoples movement in 1990 (Jan Andolan of 2046). Political parties and leaders
do not have clear vision for development of hydropower and its water resources
for well being of the Nepalese people. Political leaders focused only on benefits
of their own people and parties rather than the overall development of Nepal.
During Panchyat period also, the development pace in hydropower is not
encouraging as the development activities were based on grant and aid of
developed countries and developing partners. There was no vision of technology
transfer and independency. During Ranas regimes, the hydropower development
was carried out only for limited use of their own benefits.

Present political instability has brought disorder in laws and regulations enhance
violence and insecurity at local and central level. This resulted retardation of
investment and development activities in hydropower.

Lack of Technology and Skilled man power
Although Nepal has large potential of hydropower development, it does not have
its own technology and sufficient skilled man power. The Nepalese engineer has
Chapter 1 15
lack of confidence in engineering due to little experience and knowledge in design
and construction of hydropower projects of large scale greater than 50 MW. The
technology and technical equipments for quality monitoring and standard
specifications and norms has not been developed in Nepal. The machines and
hydro-mechanical equipments production and maintenance facilities has not been
developed fully yet.

Lack of Investment
The development of hydropower project needs considerable investment i.e. Rs
12~14 corore for 1 MW hydropower development. The gestation period (i.e. the
time period between the start of investment to the start of return from the project)
of the hydropower projects are higher than 4~5 years, and the payback period
(complete recovery of investment) of the hydropower projects are 8~10 years.
Although the investment in hydropower is relatively high but not more beneficial
compared to the investments in other sectors like trade and commerce, industries
etc, the investment in hydropower is not growing up in the scale as it is required.

Without foreign investment, the hydropower development could not be
accelerated to its desired level. For this, stable political system, Good safety and
security, clear policies and priority of hydropower developments, assured markets
and return of their investment mechanism are essentials for creating conducive
environment of investment in hydropower.

Lack of infrastructures
The feasible and attractive hydropower projects are located in remote areas where
physical infrastructures like access road, transmission lines, basic health facilities
and other essential skilled manpower and construction materials with equipments
availability is very poor or not available at the site. Development of these
infrastructures needs heavy investments.

The lack of integrated infrastructure developments policies made haphazard
developments resulting the minimum benefits of the infrastructures that could be
achieved. The poor maintenance and rehabilitation of the infrastructures reduces
the service quality and reliability of the services.

Risk imposed by Global Warming and Climate Change

The water is the basic raw material for the power production through hydropower
plant. The global warming (0.06
0
C ~ 0.08
0
C in Nepal~Himalayas) has resulted
increase of atmospheric temperature resulting the fast rate of snowmelt. The snow
in the Himalayas acts as the overhead tank and gives flow in the rivers
continuously throughout the years. Fast melting of snow due to global warming
results the depletion of snow storage and can cause depletion of low flow in long
term posing threats to the hydropower production. The disturbances in monsoon
rainfall pattern and amount are also attributed to the climate change. The extreme
drought and flood events with high sediment and debris flow seems to be more
Chapter 1 16
frequent in recent years posing serious uncertainties and threads to the hydro-
power projects. The GLOF events has been increased and caused serious floods
with debris flow which may damage the structures of hydropower projects. The
natural risks and threads have been taken as the one of the most difficult
challenges in hydropower development.

Opportunities

Nepal is in between the two giant countries China and India. Both of the countries are
developing very rapidly in recent years. They need lot of power/energy for their
development activities. Nepal has more than six thousands of rivers and rivulets and has
favorable topographical and geological conditions for hydropower developments. The
following points can be taken as opportunities for hydropower development in Nepal.

Clean Energy

Hydropower is taken as clean energy as it does not produce any pollution during
its use and production. It is renewable and hence more attractive sources of
energy. The technology of its production and uses has been already developed and
affordable. The hydropower is easy to handle and transport from its production to
the load center.

The water of Nepalese rivers can be taken as white coal and policies has been
introduced to exploit the white coal in worldwide for supply of necessary energy
(IAEA energy for future world).

Market available
The market for Hydropower is easily available for Nepal since its neighbors are
being in developing phase and the economic activities are being taken at rapidly.
The electricity energy produced in Nepal can be exported to India and China thus
helps to reduce trade gap of the nations with these country.

Electricity produced can also be used for domestic use in promotion of industrial
activities and replacement of the petroleum fuels that has to be imported paying
hard currency. Thus market for hydropower development is abundant and can be
taken as opportunities.

Favorable geological and topographical conditions
The steep topography (High river gradient) with good geological conditions (hard
rock in river bed) are the favorable and essentials for development of hydropower
projects at low cost of investment. The perennial rivers with considerable low
flow are good for hydropower productions. Although sediment flow rate in the
middle mountains and chure range are high, the sediment flow and production
rate in high Himalayas are less and can be taken as the opportunity.

Cheap labor force availability
Chapter 1 17
Nepal has developed lot of engineering institutes and technical centers after the
restoration of Democracy in 1989 (BS 2046). The institutions have produced lot
of skilled and semi skilled man powers. Although the human resources do not
have experience of the mega projects, they have equipped with theoretical and
practical knowledge at the institutions. These human resources are available at
cheap rate compared to that of the man power from developed countries. The
availability of the man powers both skilled and unskilled labors can be taken as
good opportunities to develop hydropower schemes for harnessing nations water
resources.

1.2 Introduction to power (Electricity) system in Nepal

Power System comprised of three components; a) Production/generation b)
Transmission/ evacuation and c) Distribution.
1.2.1 Production/Generation
Power production in the form of electricity needs rotation of the electric coil inside strong
magnetic fields. Generator is the electromechanical parts which converts the mechanical
energy in to the electrical energy based on Faradys Principle. The coil is rotated in stron
magnetic field at high velocity to induce electricity in the coil. The range of voltage of
the generated current is 6.6KV to 11 KV. The shaft of the generator can be rotated
providing energy from various sources like from coal, Diesel and water. Based on the use
of energy to drive the shaft of generator, power system can be grouped in to two systems.

Thermal Power system
Electricity is produced from running of generator directly from shaft energy obtained
from diesel engines. Steam engines can also be used for to drive the shaft of generator.
Coals/Gasoline is used as main fuel for steam engines. The efficiency of the thermal
power system is relatively lower than the hydropower generation and it is expensive than
hydropower regarding the operation and maintenance cost. The total installed capacity of
thermal power is 53.4 MW but about 20 MW is in operational use.

Hydropower system
In this system, Electricity power is generated by the use potential or kinetic energy of
water. As, water is being renewable in nature, high importance has been provided for this
system. Besides it, hydropower system is pollution free and so, it is taken as the
environmental friendly system for power production. Although the investment cost is
high, the operation and maintenance cost is low and it is attractive being the clean energy
having no pollution during production and consumption. The total installed capacity is
about 634.3 MW out of which 92 MW is reservoir type and rest 542.3 MW is runoff river
types which produce about 500 MW only in wet season and 200 MW in dry season.
Advantages Disadvantages
i) Renewable (white coal) High gestation period
ii) Running cost is low high investment cost
iii) Quick response (1 to 2 min) to power system (peaking) dependent in nature
Chapter 1 18
Solar power system
Solar or photovoltaic cells are used to trap solar energy and to produce electricity. In
Nepal solar system is used only for lighting the in the rural areas as the power production
is in small scale and expensive.
In developed countries the other sources of power supply are Nuclear, Tidal, Wind and
Geothermal.
1.2.2 Transmission/Evacuation system
Generally the load centre is far from the generation or production system and the power
produced from the plants are evacuated or transmitted to the distribution centre through
transmission line. Transmission Lines do not supply the power to the customer it supplies
the power to the distribution centre (Sub stations) only. The electricity generated from the
generators are in 11 to 25 KV range and stepped up to the transmission voltage
33/66/132/230 KV. Transmission line may be single circuit or double circuit depending
upon the numbers of wires in the transmission line. In developed country high
transmission voltage 765 KV and 1200 KV as power capacity is directly
proportional to the square of transmission voltage. For transmission line greater than
600 km, DC transmission is economical at 400 KV and the line is connected to AC
system at the two ends through a transformer connecting through converter and inverter
(silicon control rectifier)
1.2.3 Distribution system
Based on supply system, power system can be divided into isolated and grid system. In
isolated system the power is supplied from a definite power plant while in grid system the
supply of power is made available from multi power plants. Failure of a particular power
plant will not disturb the power supply in grid system. The grid system might be regional,
national or international also.
Advantage
Use of remote energy source
Improve reliability
Utilization of the time difference between various time zones where peak demand
are not coincident, require low installed capacity
Maintenance of power plant possible without disturbing the supply
Disadvantage
High power loss in transmission lines in the grid connected system due to long
transmission lines
1.3 Types and Classification of Hydropower plants as Low head, Medium
Head and High Head
1.3.1 Based on Installed capacity
Less than 100 KW: Micro
100 KW to 500 KW: Mini
500 KW to 10 MW: Small hydro
10 MW to 300 MW: Medium Hydro
Bigger than 300 MW: Big Hydro
Chapter 1 19
1.3.2 Based on Head of the power Plant
Low, medium and high head are terms used to indicate the most suitable type of turbine
for the project. Various types of turbines are used depending upon the head of the power
plant.
Low Head up to 10 m Use: Cross-flow, axial-flow or propeller turbine (Kaplan)
Medium Head 10 m to 200 m Use: Cross-flow, Francis, Pelton or Turgo turbine
High Head 200 m to 1000 m Use: Pelton, Turgo-impulse or Francis turbine

Francis Turbine
Pelton Turbine



Kaplan Turbine (Propeller)
Pelton Turbine Runner Close view
Chapter 1 20


Bulb Turbine (horizontal and vertical alignment)



Schematic View of Hydropower Plant







Dandekar book
Low head Less than 15 m
Medium head 15 to 70 m
High Head 71 to 250 m
Very High Head above 250 m

P.N. Modi and Seth Book
Low head Less than 30 m
Medium head 30 to 250 m
High Head above 250 m

Turbine Type and Use
High head Impulse Turbine (Pelton,
turgo turbine)
Medium Head Mixed flow Turbine
(Farncis,)
Low Head axial flow Turbine (Kaplan,
Bulb, Propeller)
Medium and Low Head Turbines are
Reactive Turbine

Chapter 1 21
1.3.3 Based on the types of water use for the power plant

Runoff the river, Pondage Runoff River (PROR), storage, pump storage plants and Tidal
Run-of-River (RoR) type
A run-of-river project is built to use some or most of the flow in a stream depending upon
the flow throughout the year. No attempt is made to store water for the dry periods. A
run-of-river project would not normally have a dam, other than an intake weir, which is a
very low head structure at the intake. The intake weir keeps the water in the stream high
enough to fill the pipe at all times.
Suitable where the fluctuation of flow in dry season and wet season flow are small like in
rivers coming from Tibet at border such schemes do not alter the flow regime at the
downstream. Khimti, Khudi, Trishuli etc
Pondage Run-off River Type (PROR)
Run off river plants are provided with pondage to regulate flow to the plant which
enables them to take care of our to hour fluctuation in load on the plant throughout the
day or week. The water in river are stored at the head pond during non peak load or off
peak load hours of a day to with draw or use the stored water for power production
during the peak hours of load. The PROR power plants may operates at full capacity for
all hours during high flow or rainy season but it produces power at full capacity at peak
load hours. The power plant may shut down or operate at lower capacity during the peak
off hours in dry season. At the same location, the installed capacity of the PROR plants
are higher than the ROR type plants and operate at full capacity only at peak load hours.
Marshyangdi 69 MW, Middle Marshyangdi 70 MW and Kaligandaki A 144 MW are
PROR project in Nepal.
Reservoir Storage Plants
Hydropower plants which draw water from large storage reservoirs developed by
constructing dam across the river are called reservoir or storage project. Depending upon
the storage volume, these plants can hold surplus water from periods when the stream
flow exceeds demands for utilization during the period when demand exceeds the stream
flow. Better utilization of hydropower potential is thus achieved with such plants. The
water flow stores in wet season to supply in dry season. Kulekhani reservoir project is
only one storage project in Nepal Kulekhani-I 60 MW and Kulekhani-II 32 MW.
Pump storage
Chapter 1 22
Plants in which all or portion of the water used by these plants is pumped back to the
head water pond to be made available again for the power generation during peak hours
of demand. This type of the power plant essentially consists of a tail water pond and head
water pond. During peak load water is drawn from the head water ponds through the
penstock to operate hydro electric generating units. The water is collected in to tail water
pond and during the off peak hours, pumps are operated to pump the water back from the
tail water pond to the head water pond. Power for operating the pumps is provided by
some of peak thermal or hydropower plant.
For head up to 120 m special Francis turbine has been developed for the pump storage
plants. The runners of the turbines are so shaped that they can be used both as turbine as
well as pumps. Such turbines are known as reversible turbines.
For high head, multistage centrifugal pumps are used for pumping water and high head
Francis Turbines are installed in power production.
Tidal Plants
Sea water rises or falls twice a day, each full cycle occupying about 12 hours 25 minutes.
The tidal range or the difference between the high tide and low tide level is utilized to
generate power.








This is accomplished constructing a basin separated from the sea by a wall and installing
a turbine in opening through this wall.

During high tide water passes from the sea to the basin thus running the turbine and
generating power. During low tide, water from the basin flows back to the sea which can
also be utilized to generate power by providing another set of turbine operating in
opposite flow direction.

Example France: Rance power plant, tidal range 11 m, 9 units of 38 MW each with total
capacity of 342 MW.
12 hr 25 min
12 hr 25 min
Tidal Range
Chapter 1 23
1.3.4 Types of Hydropower plants based on Function
Base load plant and Peak plants

Base load plants
As the name indicates base load plants are those which are capable of substantially
continuous operation in the base of the load curve throughout the year. Both ROR and
Reservoir plants can be used as base load hydro plants. When ROR plants without
pondage are used as base load plants, their full plant discharge is seldom more than the
minimum flow of the river and can not support the power system during dry season.
Hence the reservoir hydro power plants are used as base load plants during the low flow
season.

Peak Load Plants
Peak load plants are those designed and constructed primarily for taking care of peak load
of a power system. Pumped storage plants are peak load plants. PROR plants can operate
both as peak load and base load plants depending upon the river flow and load on the
power system.

During High flow season
ROR plants runs at maximum capacity and acts as base load plants in Nepal
Thermal plants and reservoir plants are operated as peak load plants to generate extra
power needed beyond the capacity of the ROR plants.

During Dry Flow season or low flow season
ROR plant operates at very low capacity due to lean flow available at dry season. The
ROR plants only can not support the base load of the power system. Hence additional
power that may require supporting the base load, reservoir power plants and thermal
power plants are also operated as the base load plants. PROR projects are used as peak
load power plants and load shedding plan is introduced at peak our due to insufficient
power production during dry flow season.

Hydropower plants have better peaking characteristics (response fast maximum 3 to 4
minutes) and there is absolutely no wastage when they are idle.

Thermal power plants have slow response (at least 30 minutes) and continuous loss of
fuel at idle conditions.










Chapter 1 24




1
Chapter 2
2.0 Power Regulation
Power regulation is the study of the power or energy consumption/demand
variations and their relationships in a particular power supply system for a
community, society, cities, and region or in country or countries. The demand of
power is termed as load and supply of energy is termed as power in power
regulation study. As the individual consumer level, the electrical demand is quite
unpredictable, however as the demands of the various users are accumulated and
added at a feeder or substation, they begin to exhibit definite pattern.

2.1 Power variation: Daily, weekly and seasonal
Power consumption in a community or society is not constant forever. It
fluctuates hour to hours in a day and day to day in week and month to months in
different seasons. The power consumption in a society or community depends on
the following factors.

Population: the population number/size that has to be served by the power
system directly governs the power consumption/demand in the system. Higher
the number of people larger the power/energy demand. During tourist season the
power demand in Pokhara is higher than that in the non tourist season due to
increase of the people in the city that has to be served. The power demand in
small city is smaller than that of the demand in big cities. Balaju substation needs
high power/energy than that in Bhaktapur substation.

Climate: the climate is another important factor that influences rate of energy
consumption per unit time. In Nepal, the power demand is higher in winter
season for heating purpose compared to that in summer season while in India; the
power demand in winter is less than that compared in summer season mainly due
to high temperature and high power demand for cooling.

Living standard: the living standard and life style of the people also directly
affects the energy/power demand. The use of electrical appliances for cooking
(rice cooker, hot plate, oven etc), heating and cooling consumes considerable
amount of electric energy. The industrial area needs a lot of energy and power
compared to that in residential areas. The energy consumptions in city areas are
higher than that of remote areas mainly due to life style and living standard of the
people.

Daily Load Curve: Daily Variation of power supply or demand in a power
system is known as daily load curve. The power demand is not constant in
different hours of a day and it varies from hours to hours depending on the types
of areas that have to be served. For domestic area, the peak demand generally
occurs at 18:00 to 20:00 for cooking and lighting purpose at evening. The peak
demand times slightly shifted earlier during winter season and the peak demand
is also higher than that in summer season. The daily load curve for industrial area
is quite different than that of the residential as the peak load generally occurs in
day time as the industries runs at full phase during the office working hours. The
peak load may not alter too much even in night time if there are large numbers of
industries that runs continuously 24 hours.
2
Chapter 2













Typical Daily load curve for residential Area












Typical Daily load curve for industrial/commercial Area

Weekly load curve: the power demand or consumption in a community or
society is not same in all days of a week. The variations of the load in different
days of a week are known as weekly load curve.














Typical Weekly load curve for industrial/commercial and domestic Area
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)

24 22 20
18 16 12
10
8
6
Time of a Day
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)

24 22 20
18 16 12
10
8
6
Time of a Day
Commercial
Industrial
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)

Sat Fri Thu Wed Tue
10
Mon Sun
Days of a week
Domestic
3
Chapter 2

Source: NEA annual report 2009























Source: NEA Annual Report 2009
4
Chapter 2
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Average
MW load demand 930 950 920 900 885 870 840 850 880 900 880 900 892.083
MM-power available 430 425 430 440 450 500 560 600 600 585 550 500 505.833
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
P
o
w
e
r

D
e
m
a
n
d

(
M
W
)
Month
Monthly Variation of Load in Power System


Typical monthly Load variation pattern in Nepal in 2009/10

Seasonal load curve: The curve showing the variation of power consumption or
demand in a power system feeding to a community/society or cities in different
seasons is known as seasonal load curve. The seasonal load of a particular place is
mainly governed by the climate and culture besides the living standard & style of
the society. E.g. the power demand in the winter in Himalayan and high mountain
areas are higher than that in the Terai/ plain terrain region of Nepal mainly due to
cold and arid climate in the winter season. The power demand in the September
and October is high in Nepalese society mainly due to main festival (Dashain and
Tihar) and culture (Depawali). The industries and commercial sectors are also run
at full phase targeting the supply and service for the main festival.

The study of the power/load variation is important for planning of power
production/generation and transmission and distribution utilities. It also helps to
impose systematic tariff of electricity based on the consumption amount and the
sector of services. It also helps to prepare guide lines for operation and
maintenance of power projects to achieve the targeted service at optimum cost for
5
Chapter 2
generation, transmission and distribution system. Hence it ultimately helps to
formulate policies in energy sectors to support sustainable economic development
of country.

2.2 Different types of factors and their relationship

Load Factor: It is the ratio of the average load during a certain period to the
maximum or peak load during that period. The load factor is thus related to the
certain period of time consideration and therefore, there will be daily load factor,
weekly load factor, monthly load factor and yearly load factor depending upon
the time period.

Load toPeak ing correspond Energy Total
oduced Energy Total
Load Peak
Load Average
LF factor Load
Pr
) ( = =
Load factor of a power plant that has been used to supply the power in a system
would vary greatly with the character of the load. High load factor in Industrial
area is nearly 1 while it is low in residential area as low as 0.25 to 0.30.
The installed capacity of a power plant/s has to be equal to the peak load but the
total number of units KWh generated or used will be governed by the average
load.
If load factor of a power plant is low, large proportion of the generating capacity
remain idle for most of the time and the cost of generation per unit energy (KWh)
/power is high.
Load factor value of 0.80 is generally taken during the feasibility study of
hydropower project in Nepal.

Utilization factor or Plant use factor: It is the ratio of peak load developed
during a certain period to the installed capacity of the plant.

Capacity Installed
period certain during Developed Load Peak
UF factor n Utilizatio = ) (
It represents the maximum proportion of the installed capacity utilized during that
period of consideration.

With constant head commonly in hydropower plant, utilization factor would
represent the ratio of the water actually utilized for peak load power supply
corresponding to the maximum water that can be withdraw from the river to
produce installed capacity.

The values of utilization factor commonly vary from 0.4 to 0.9 depending upon
the plant capacity, load factor and available pondage or storage.

Capacity Factor or Plant factor: It is defined as the ratio of the energy that the
plant actually produced during any period to the energy that it might have
produced if operated at full capacity throughout the period.
6
Chapter 2
T Capacity Installed
T d AverageLoa
oduced Energy of Capacity Potential
gy oducedEner Actually
CF factor Capacity

= =
Pr
Pr
) (

The capacity factor will be equal to the load factor if the maximum peak load of
the duration is equal to the installed capacity of the power plant/s

For hydropower plants, the capacity factors varies from about 0.25 to 0.75
depending upon the plant capacity, available pondage and storage and the load
characteristics curve.

Diversity factor: It is the ratio of sum of all individual max demands by the
customer to the actual peak load of a system.

system the of load peak Actual
customer the by demand individual sum
DF factor Diversity
max
) ( =

This factor gives the time diversification of the load and used to decide the
sufficient generating plants and transmission utilities.

If all demands came at the same time, the diversity factor will be Unity or one.
The installed capacity that needed to be installed in the power system would be
much more. But the Diversity factor is generally much higher than unity (greater
than 10 for domestic and greater than 5 for domestic)

Reserve factor: it is the reciprocal of utilization factor. It is the ratio of Installed
capacity to the peak Load.

Load Peak
Capacity Installed
Factor serve = Re

Relationship between Capacity factor, Load factor and Utilization factor

Capacity factor = load factor* Utilization factor and
Reserve factor = load factor / Capacity Factor

Proof

CF = LFUF
From RHS
LFUF = Average load/Peak load Peak load/ Installed capacity
= Average load/Installed capacity = CF
So, CF = LFUF and RF
CF
LF
UF
= =
1



7
Chapter 2
Numerical Examples:
1 Two Turbo Generators each of capacity 25000 KW have been installed at a hydel power
plant. During certain period the load on the hydel plant varies from 15000 KW to 40000
KW. Calculate as follows:
a. The total installed capacity
b. The load factor
c. The plant factor or capacity factor
d. The utilization factor
Solution: a) the total installed capacity = 2*25000 = 50000 KW
b) The Load factor LF =average load/peak load= 27500/40000 = .6875 = 68.75%
c) The plant factor = Average load/installed capacity = 27500/50000 = 55.00%
d)Utilization factor = Peak load/installed capacity = 40000/50000 =0.80 = 80.00%
2 A power station supplies the following loads to the consumer as given below:
a. Time (hr) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24
b. Load (MW) 30 70 90 60 100 80 60
i) Draw the load curve load factor for the plant
ii) What is the load factor of a stand by equipment of 30 MW capacity if it is taken
up all loads above the 70 MW? What is the plant factor and plant use factor of the
standby equipment?
Solution: i) Draw the curve by yourself
For Load factor calculation
Average load = (30*6+70*4+90*2+60*4+100*4+80*2+60*2)/24 = 1560/24
Load Factor (LF) = Average Load/Peak Load = 1560/(100*24) = 0.65 = 65.0%
ii) Installed capacity of stand by station (equipment) = 30 MW
Load taken by stand by station
Time (hr) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24
Load (MW) 0 0 20 0 30 10 0
Average Load = (20*2+30*4+10*2)/8 = 180/8 = 22.50
Load factor for the stand by station = 22.50/30 = 0.75 = 75.0%
Plant factor or capacity factor of the stand by station
= actually produced energy/potential to produce energy
= (ave load*T)/(Installed capacity *T) = (20*2+30*4+10*2)/(30*8) = 180/240
= 22.5/30 = 0.75 = 75.0%
iii) Plant use factor or Utilization factor of the stand by station
= peak load /Installed capacity = 30 /30 = 1.0 = 100%

Check for relationship CF = LF* UF or 0.75 = 0.75*1 =0.75 holds true

Home work: Find the load factor, capacity factor and utilization factor of a stand by thermal
power plant having a capacity of 200 MW to supply power at the time greater than 700 MW in
Power system of Nepal at the following situation:

Time
(hr)
0-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16 16-18 18-20 20-22 22-24
Load
(MW)
500 700 800 875 900 850 825 875 800 600
8
Chapter 2
2.3 Definition and meaning of terms such as Firm power, Secondary power

Flow at intake site (m
3
/s)
Year: 2006
Day Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year
1
2.11 1.99 1.74 1.55 2.25 4.54 15.89 13.96 16.11 14.78 3.76 1.22
2
2.08 1.99 1.74 1.52 2.16 5.12 16.66 14.42 13.88 13.69 3.48 1.15
3
2.02 1.94 1.68 1.48 2.14 8.25 15.16 13.96 13.25 13.25 3.21 1.15
4
1.99 2.02 1.68 1.61 1.91 6.53 16.33 13.69 12.17 12.08 2.91 1.07
5
1.99 2.08 1.61 1.80 1.85 8.14 16.11 16.66 11.43 11.78 2.65 1.02
6
1.97 2.08 1.61 1.94 1.74 8.30 15.05 14.70 10.04 10.91 2.56 0.99
7
1.91 2.08 1.57 2.05 1.68 8.90 15.46 14.07 8.74 9.55 2.39 0.93
8
1.91 2.08 1.57 1.97 1.68 8.11 14.61 14.51 11.08 7.92 2.14 0.89
9
1.94 1.99 1.61 1.74 1.59 7.54 16.79 14.07 36.20 7.27 2.05 0.84
10
1.91 1.97 1.61 1.74 2.36 8.03 16.22 12.71 12.71 6.97 1.83 0.84
11
1.85 1.91 1.74 1.70 2.28 10.12 14.07 11.87 13.88 6.69 2.11 0.86
12
1.83 1.91 2.42 1.68 3.73 8.74 14.61 11.57 13.69 6.40 1.91 0.86
13
1.83 1.91 2.33 1.68 4.27 8.25 21.17 11.29 11.29 6.89 1.80 0.84
14
1.88 1.91 2.14 1.68 4.90 7.40 13.61 10.91 11.35 7.08 1.72 0.81
15
1.99 1.83 2.08 1.61 3.54 6.97 13.61 8.95 12.65 7.35 1.68 0.76
16
1.99 1.83 1.97 1.61 2.39 6.83 13.34 8.82 11.43 6.45 1.63 0.75
17
1.94 1.85 1.85 1.52 1.99 7.27 13.69 7.78 11.13 5.99 1.52 0.75
18
1.91 1.91 1.72 3.08 2.11 7.35 13.61 7.21 10.99 5.52 1.48 0.71
19
1.91 1.91 1.61 5.74 1.85 6.83 14.07 7.46 10.26 5.36 1.48 0.65
20
1.91 1.99 1.70 4.16 1.99 6.34 29.39 10.86 9.77 5.23 1.55 0.60
21
1.91 1.91 1.72 3.43 2.16 5.93 19.92 9.61 9.17 5.63 1.52 0.59
22
1.83 1.91 1.65 2.65 2.05 5.72 17.64 9.25 8.82 5.31 1.48 0.58
23
1.99 1.91 1.61 2.56 2.28 6.04 17.31 8.38 25.64 5.12 1.48 0.57
24
1.97 1.91 1.55 2.56 2.14 5.93 16.76 7.97 51.16 4.76 1.42 0.56
25
1.91 1.83 1.55 10.45 2.05 6.31 17.09 8.90 43.82 4.68 1.42 0.55
26
1.88 1.83 1.72 4.00 2.02 11.21 17.85 21.88 30.75 4.49 1.42 0.52
27
1.83 1.83 1.74 3.37 2.19 11.13 41.91 17.85 20.47 4.35 1.44 0.51
28
1.83 1.83 1.74 2.62 5.39 14.61 17.53 14.23 18.40 4.30 1.39 0.51
29
1.91 1.68 2.39 4.68 16.22 16.98 17.09 19.95 4.22 1.33 0.51
30
1.91 1.63 2.28 6.18 14.78 17.53 49.26 16.87 4.14 1.28 0.49
31
1.97 1.59 6.48 15.16 17.85 4.00 0.49

Min
1.83 1.83 1.55 1.48 1.59 4.54 13.34 7.21 8.74 4.00 1.28 0.49 0.49
Mean
1.93 1.93 1.75 2.60 2.78 8.25 17.25 13.61 16.90 7.16 1.93 0.76 6.40
Max
2.11 2.08 2.42 10.45 6.48 16.22 41.91 49.26 51.16 14.78 3.76 1.22 51.16


9
Chapter 2
Mean Monthly and Yearly Discharge (m
3
/s) at intake site
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year
1983 1.53 1.22 0.98 1.93 4.87 24.66 12.08 12.63 5.42 2.65 1.72 1.58 5.88
1984 1.46 1.14 0.93 1.24 1.96 7.53 21.97 11.76 20.36 5.38 3.32 2.23 6.61
1985 1.66 1.59 1.21 1.27 2.31 4.71 12.64 11.95 12.44 9.66 4.10 2.42 5.50
1986 1.58 1.15 1.01 1.68 2.31 4.51 12.71 9.78 18.04 6.39 2.92 1.82 5.39
1987 1.26 1.06 1.18 1.37 1.95 4.02 18.36 38.76 15.92 8.67 3.76 2.30 8.19
1988 1.60 1.34 1.54 1.39 1.94 3.34 8.12 9.34 16.88 4.53 1.84 1.77 4.47
1989 1.65 1.42 1.39 1.04 2.68 8.73 11.76 9.13 13.51 5.63 2.66 1.97 5.12
1990 1.49 1.51 2.18 3.82 7.52 20.04 18.44 16.76 12.32 6.85 2.11 1.80 7.89
1991 2.23 1.79 1.78 1.87 2.25 8.55 19.09 16.78 15.17 3.54 2.21 1.49 6.40
1992 1.21 1.15 0.89 1.27 2.74 2.92 8.46 6.93 5.58 3.58 2.07 1.48 3.18
1993 1.40 1.09 0.93 1.93 2.17 4.36 8.34 11.38 7.02 4.58 2.88 1.97 4.00
1994 1.45 1.20 1.05 1.60 2.12 4.00 6.87 7.38 5.59 3.57 2.15 1.68 3.24
1995 1.58 1.30 1.08 1.40 2.10 3.80 9.00 13.92 6.65 5.77 3.13 1.78 4.32
1996 2.54 0.93 0.82 0.75 1.56 3.18 13.93 14.31 7.59 3.43 1.55 1.10 4.30
1997 0.75 0.69 0.57 0.97 1.27 7.78 7.46 58.24 46.54 21.15 7.67 3.70 13.04
1998 1.80 1.86 3.67 5.25 4.46 7.65 38.64 25.64 29.66 12.46 3.16 2.05 11.38
1999 1.76 1.49 1.12 0.92 2.31 16.74 33.75 33.20 28.85 13.66 4.95 3.18 11.84
2000 3.24 2.94 2.01 2.63 6.40 10.64 13.72 16.60 16.55 9.72 5.09 2.52 7.67
2001 1.57 1.51 1.28 1.23 3.81 7.05 10.72 15.13 19.57 20.36 5.36 2.68 7.54
2002 1.73 1.40 1.14 2.26 2.09 5.36 30.75 16.00 15.50 5.44 2.27 1.04 7.14
2003 0.62 0.61 0.77 0.88 0.76 10.59 29.66 17.36 12.41 8.65 2.21 0.69 7.10
2004 1.17 0.75 0.76 0.90 2.59 8.68 23.98 9.88 14.83 9.28 3.48 1.71 6.50
2005 1.06 0.79 0.54 0.79 1.09 2.99 19.38 23.13 10.42 8.00 3.00 0.90 6.07
2006 1.93 1.93 1.75 2.60 2.78 8.25 17.25 13.61 16.90 7.16 1.93 0.76 6.40

Mean 1.60 1.33 1.28 1.71 2.82 8.29 17.31 17.55 15.98 7.92 3.15 2.09 7.05

10
Chapter 2




11
Chapter 2
Duration curve:
The study of variations of the load or supply of power by Load factor, capacity
factor and utilization factors are possible only for short period of particular
duration like daily weekly and monthly. For longer duration greater than five
years, it becomes cumbersome to plot the curves and to utilize them for various
calculations on yearly basis. Complexity will be added to account variations of
daily load curves for different season and varying demand.

Duration curve is the plot of loads or power supply/production and the percentage
of time (generally 1 year) during which those loads or power supply/production is
equal or higher occurred. Depending upon the parameter like load, flow or power
the duration curve is called as Load duration curve or Flow Duration Curve or
Power Duration Curve.

The Duration curve may be constructed for any duration of times. The load or
flow or power occurred during the time period is arranged in descending order
along with the time during which they occurred.

The area under the load duration curve represents the total energy
production/consumption for the duration. The load factor is given by the ratio of
area under the curve to the area of the rectangular corresponding to the maximum
demand occurring during the course of time.















Typical Load duration curve for a hydropower plant


Firm Power: It is also known as primary power and the energy generated from
the firm power is known as base energy.
Curve with Storage
O
D
B
A
C
Primary Energy
Pw = IP
Fp(w)
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)

Time % of a Year
Secondary Energy
40% 100%
Pw = Installed Power IP = Q
40
H
Fp (w) =Firm Power = Q
min
H
Q
40
= 40 % time exceedence flow
Q
min
= Minimum flow
Load Factor LF =Area under the
curve CBAO/Area of the rectangle
AOCD
12
Chapter 2
The minimum power which can be generated throughout the year from the hydro
electric plant is called its firm or primary power.

For a Run-off-River plant without any storage, the firm power would correspond
to the minimum flow of the river which would be available throughout the whole
year. By providing the storage (pondage), the firm power can be considerably
increased.
The primary energy is reliable and available throughout the whole year and hence
have high value for reliable supply of energy.

Secondary Power: It is also known as non firm power. The power in addition to
the firm power would be generated for only a part of the year is known as
secondary or non firm power. The power is also known as surplus power and the
energy is known as surplus Energy. The secondary power is available
intermittently at unpredictable time and hence has less value compared to that of
primary power.
The secondary power is useful in an interconnected system of power plants. At off
peak hours, the secondary power station (captive plant or thermal plants acting as
stand by station) may call upon to relieve inter connected station thus affecting
economy. The secondary power may also be used to take care of reducing load
shedding hours by sharing the load as per power supply from peaking power
plant.

Numerical Example: Assuming that the daily flow of a river is constant at 15 m
3
/ and
net head of the power plant is 10 m and overall efficiency of 80%. What would be the
firm capacity of a Run-off-River (ROR) plants? What would be the firm power if the
power plant is developed as Pondage Run-off-River (PROR) designed to operate as a
peaking power station for 8 hours in a day (8 hours peaking power station)? What should
be the magnitude of the pondage and pondage factor?

Solution: Firm capacity of the ROR project without any pondage = QH P =
P = 1000*9.8*15*10*0.80 = 1176000 W = 1176 KW = 1.176 MW
Firm power of 8 hour peaking PROR project
Volume of water flow in 24 hours or in 1 day = 24*60*60*15 =1296000 m
3

The flow rate if the flow is to be used in 8 hours
= Design flow Q = 1296000/(8*60*60) = 45 m
3
/s
Firm capacity of PROR project of 8 hours peaking station = QH P =
P = 1000*9.8*45*10*0.80 = 3528000 W = 3528 KW = 3.528 MW
Pondage factor = Q
PROR
/Q
ROR =
24
/
Peaking hour = 45/15 = 24/8 = 3.0
13
Chapter 2
Magnitude of the pondage = volume of water stored in 16 hours = 16*60*60*15
=864000 m
3
= 0.864 million m
3
.

2.4 Power Grids, its Components of Power System
Power grid is an essential component of the power system and it is dedicated to
evacuate power from the generation point to the nearby load centre and then
distribute to the end customer. The power grid can be separated in to two parts i)
transmission lines and ii) distribution system.

Based on the number of production units connected to the grid, it can be classified
in to isolated and integrated grid. In isolated grid, the power to the grid is
supplied from only one power station while in integrated grid the power is
supplied from two or more than two power stations. East to West and South to
North integrated power grid networks has been developed to supply energy and
power to the customers in all over the Nepal.

The INPS (integrated Nepal Power System) has to be capable of catering the peak
load although it may be present only for fraction of time while the base load
demand is available for most part of the year.

In grid system, the general planning is such that some station may be run as base
load station while some other may be run as peak load stations.
Power production is designed for optimizing the cost and comprising mixture of
thermal, hydro and nuclear sources.

Planning Strategies
1) What should be the percentage of each type of power production facility
Natural resources may dictate the choice of power production like Hydro in
abundant water resources area, Thermal if coal or petroleum mines are
available or Nuclear if sophisticated technology is available considering the
overall economy.

2) Formulate power operation policies to meet the demand satisfactory
Guiding principle
Maximum Load sharing by hydro as it is clean and renewable, ROR
and PROR in rainy season and Reservoir and PROR in dry season
Reservoir or PROR for peaking demand as quick response
Special attention for development of pumped storage hydro plants for
use of excess energy during peak off hours to

14
Chapter 2
Advantages of integrated grid (INPS) over the isolated Grid

Increase Reliability: in the event of a forced or planned outage of a
power station, the affected system can be fed from other stations.
River flow, storage facilities, floods and draughts are the factors that
may affect the hydropower generation.
Reduction in the Total Capacity: in an isolated system, reserve units
must be maintained separately in power station but the reduction in
total installed capacity depends on the the characteristics of inter
connected system and desired degree of service reliability.
Economic Operation: power station might be far from the load centre
depending upon the natural resources available e.g. thermal station can
be built close to the source fuels (Coal, mines, petroleum refineries)

Power Grid Component
Switch yard at power station Step up transformer
Transmission lines Wires/towers/insulators
Substation energy meter/switch yards step down transformer
Distribution network pole/tower transformer step up/down connecting wires,
insulators, energy meter fuses etc
Safety notice

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

1

3.0 Planning and Layout of Hydropower Projects 6 hours

As the investment cost and gestation period for hydropower projects are high, the pay back
return periods of the projects are relatively longer than that in other industrial sector. Planning
of the hydropower projects needs to be done based on systematic and scientific studies with
long term vision. The scientific studies include Topographical surveying, hydrological study,
geological study and investigation, the project economics, finance, power evacuation,
construction material survey & testing and environmental studies (IEE or EIA) depending on
the project size and its impacts to the environment and society.

The initial planning and layout of hydropower projects is generally carried out based on
secondary data, maps and information. The final planning and layout of the hydropower
project is achieved only after systematic and scientific analyses of observed/surveyed data by
experts of different fields like engineers, economist, environmentalist and planners.

3.1 Site selection for Hydropower Projects: Reconnaissance, preliminary,
hydrological and geological investigations

Site selection for hydropower projects: the ideal site for hydropower projects needs
to consider following factors
i) Accessibility: the intake and power house site should easily accessible. It makes
economic in transportation of construction materials, equipments, and man
power. It greatly affects the economy of the power plant. The delay in Arun-III
and Karnali Projects implementations are delayed mainly due to poor in access.
ii) Near to load centre: the ideal power plant should be near to the load centre. It
will reduce not only the cost of transmission lines but also reduce the power loss
in the transmission system. The cost of transmission lines construction and
losses of energy directly depends on the length of the transmission lines and
affects the power plant economy. Shorter the length of transmission/distributed,
better the site of the project.
iii) High topographic variation: the power production from a hydel project
directly proportional to the head of the power plant. The head of the power plant
is defined as the elevation difference between the water level at the head race
and tail race channel at static flow condition. High head difference in short
distance is available in high topographic variation site or terrain. It is
advantageous to the power project as the cost of water conveyance per unit head
of the power plant will be reduced for power projects in high topographic
variation sites.
iv) Sound Geological condition: the ideal location of the power plant need to have
sound geological condition i.e. stable free from land slide, made up of hard
rocky crack free area, free from fault and thrust lines MCT (main central thrust)
and MBT (main boundary thrust)
v) Less variation of flow in different season: The flows available in the river
directly influence the power production and hence benefits of the hydel plant
affecting the economy of the project. The hydel plants with considerable low
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

2

flow are good to produce considerable high amount of firm power/energy. The
design parameters for head work structures design like scour depth, spillway,
size and shape of the weir/dam directly related to the high flood or design flood
magnitude. Smaller the magnitude of the flood flow, smaller the size, depth, and
shape of the structures. Hence the less variation of flow in low flow and high
flow season are more favorable for hydropower. The river flow at high
mountain site coming from Tibet like Arun, Karnali, Tamakosi have
comparatively lower variation of flow.

Different level and types of study: Reconnaissance (preliminary), Prefeasibility
and Feasibility study

Based on the depth of study, extend of analyses and coverage, the studies for
hydropower development can be classified in to mainly three phases/levels/types of
study as follows:

a) Reconnaissance or preliminary b) Prefeasibility and c) Feasibility
DoED has been prepared study guidelines of hydropower projects. The guidelines have
described the depth of analyses, coverage and requirements of testing and observations
for following different categories and types of Hydropower projects:
Hydropower Project size: 1 MW to 10 MW, 10 MW to less than 100 MW and greater
than 100 MW.
Types of Project: Run-off- river (ROR), Storage (Pondage, Reservoir)
The additional study requirements for underground structures have been given in the
study guide lines.

a) Reconnaissance (preliminary) study
It is mainly based on secondary data from maps, aerial photographs and
reconnaissance (just walk thorough field visit, eye observation)
It is conceptual design of the project based on preliminary assessment of
topographical, geological and hydrological parameters
This study is mainly for license acquisition purpose looking for access road,
transmission line, location of power house and intake site.
The alternative schemes are studied to select the most suitable projects alternatives
based on the tentative cost estimate.
The tentative cost estimate is based on major items and lump sum basis taken
considering experience of similar projects.
Investigations in Preliminary or reconnaissance level of study
Hydrological Analyses Geological/geo-technical Topographical
Assess mean monthly
flow and find 90%
probability exceedence
flow
Collect and review of
geological map, section
and Aerial photographs
Collect available largest
scale map of the project
area
Carry out measurement at
head work site during the
Regional geology and
structure
Carry out X-section
survey at the head works,
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

3

driest period of the flow spillway, powerhouse and
tail race site covering
HFL
Prepare catchment map
Assess the peak flood
discharge
General geology, general
morphology of the project
area
Conduct longitudinal
profile survey of the
project interest site
Check the presence of
Glacier lakes and likely
hood of the GLOF
Collect available
data/information about
seismological study


b) Prefeasibility Study
In this level of study, the review of the study made in reconnaissance studies
with further detail field surveyed data and observations obtained from precise
instruments, data series of long time and detail investigation.
General layout (showing location of the structures in Maps or drawings) of the
selected alternative sites of the project components with design of civil
structures carried out using the topographical maps prepared at larger scale 5 m
contour interval for whole project area and 1 m contour interval in major
components like weir and intake, desanding basin, headrace canal, fore
bay/surge tank, penstock and power house with tail race and switch yards.
Preliminary selection of electromechanical equipment should be carried out
determining the basic parameters of turbine, generators, transformer and switch
yards
Installed capacity with number of units should be determined

Investigations in Prefeasibility level of study
Hydrological Analyses Geological/geo-technical Topographical
Collect long term
climatologically data
rainfall evaporation, temp
etc
Collect stream flow &
sediment flow data of the
study basin or of
hydrologically similar
basin in the vicinity
Conduct detail Geological
and Geo-morphological
survey for particular sites
for intakes, desander,
canal/tunnel surge tanks,
penstock powerhouse and
tail race
Establish Control points
and new bench marks
Conduct leveling and
traverse survey for tying
control point/benchmarks
with triangulation points
of Survey department
Estimate mean monthly
flow at the intake site and
develop flow duration
curve, design flood of 50,
100 and 200 years return
period
Detail information about
the faults, characteristics
of rock, hardness
(strength), type, cracks,
permeability etc
Prepare topographical
map of whole area with 5
m contour interval, I m
contour interval for major
structural components for
at least two most
promising alternatives,
borrow area, surplus pit
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

4

area.
Establish a gauge station
at intake site to collect
primary data water level
and discharge
Carry out 3 cross section
survey each at intake and
power house site
covering HFL
Collect and analyze the
earthquake catalogue
(earthquake data recorded
by seismographs) of the
project area or vicinity to
it
Conduct strip survey for
water conveyance route,
canal/tunnel,
aqueduct/siphon with
detail X-section survey of
cross drainages lying
across the canal/penstock
pipe to produce 2 m
contour interval map
Develop rating curve at
intake and power house
site with slope area
method
Conduct survey for bore
holes, test pits and seismic
refraction lines
Estimate sediment load in
the river at the intake site
Carry out X-section of the
rivers at interval of 50 m
to 100m covering at least
500 m u/s and d/s, HFL,
reservoir impoundage
area

c) Feasibility Study
In this level of study, Detail analyses of all levels were carried out based on detail field
investigation/observations of long time series to finalize and optimize the components
of the power projects. After completion of this study, the power project is ready to
implement for construction process. Before construction, Detail engineering design is
to be carried out to confirm the safety of the structures and bill of quantity (BOQ).
Environment study (EIA- Environment Impact Assessment or IEE-Initial Environment
Examination) also need to be completed. Environment study needs to include the
impact assessment and mitigation options and measures to minimize the adverse effects
on environment.
Economical and financial analyses were carried out in details to find EIRR (Economic
Internal Rate of Return). Loan Payback return period considering the cost of project
development and benefit gained from the project.
The construction schedule and working drawings with cost estimates are prepared in
this level of study.
Topography, Hydrology and Geology will play the main decisive role for the selection
of final location and capacity of hydropower projects.

Investigations in Feasibility level of study
Hydrological Analyses Geological/geo-technical Topographical
Carry out discharge
measurement at the
intake site at least 4 or 5
Conduct more detail
Geological and Geo-
morphological survey for
Review and update
topographic map prepared
in prefeasibility level of
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

5

times in each season
(rainy, dry and medium
flow season )
particular sites for intakes,
desander, canal/tunnel
surge tanks, penstock
powerhouse and tail race
study and conduct detail
survey if required
Check the estimated flow
data at the intake based
on secondary data with
observed flow at the
gauge site established
near the intake. Check
with rainfall data also if
necessary and modify
properly if required
Detail information based
on field observations for
discontinuity (cracks)
major and minor joints,
bedding slope, foliation of
planes, the faults, thrust
and folds with their
orientation, classification
of rock, hardness
(strength), type,
permeability etc
Conduct strip survey of
access road and
transmission lines
alignment to prepare
topographic map of 1:
5000 scale with 5 m
contour interval fixing the
bench marks in an interval
of 500 m including details
of cross drainages
Update and upgrade
design flow parameters
for power generation,
structures, design flood
and flood levels,
diversion flood and FDC
Excavate test pit to collect
samples for laboratory
analyses to know nature of
soil and its profile at
intake, desander and
powerhouse site
Conduct socio-economic
survey with the
information of land use
and land cover for socio
environmental hazard and
mitigation analyses
Carry out water quality
sampling and sediment
analyses Hardness,
corrosiveness (quality)
and quantity of sediments
(PSD and Mineralogical
analyses)
Perform SPT (Standard
Penetration test) and
permeability test in each
test pit to know strength
and permeability of the
soil/rocks at the major
parts of hydropower
project.

Assess magnitude of
GLOF and its risk if there
are any glacier lakes in
upstream catchment
Identify and investigate
Borrow area (quarry
site)for the construction
materials such as
impervious soils, stones,
gravel and sand

Collect the information
about location, intensity,
magnitude and frequency
of past earth quake records
of greater than 4 rector
scale for determination of
earth quake factor to
design dam and
powerhouse

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

6



3.2 Requirements for Hydropower Planning: Use of Flow Duration and Mass curves
Energy flow diagram, estimation of power potential, Demand and Prediction

3.2.1 Preparation and Use of Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
The flow duration curve is the curve plotted between the percentages of time exceeded
in abscissa and the flow in ordinates. The flow values may be daily, weekly or monthly.
The FDC is prepared by arranging the flows in decreasing order of magnitudes as
ordinates and the percentage of time under consideration in which the flow is equaled
or exceeded as abscissa. The % of time exceedencing is obtained by cumulative sum of
% of time.
Mean Monthly and Yearly Discharge (m
3
/s) at intake site
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year
1983 1.53 1.22 0.98 1.93 4.87 24.66 12.08 12.63 5.42 2.65 1.72 1.58 5.88
1984 1.46 1.14 0.93 1.24 1.96 7.53 21.97 11.76 20.36 5.38 3.32 2.23 6.61
1985 1.66 1.59 1.21 1.27 2.31 4.71 12.64 11.95 12.44 9.66 4.10 2.42 5.50
1986 1.58 1.15 1.01 1.68 2.31 4.51 12.71 9.78 18.04 6.39 2.92 1.82 5.39
1987 1.26 1.06 1.18 1.37 1.95 4.02 18.36 38.76 15.92 8.67 3.76 2.30 8.19
1988 1.60 1.34 1.54 1.39 1.94 3.34 8.12 9.34 16.88 4.53 1.84 1.77 4.47
1989 1.65 1.42 1.39 1.04 2.68 8.73 11.76 9.13 13.51 5.63 2.66 1.97 5.12
1990 1.49 1.51 2.18 3.82 7.52 20.04 18.44 16.76 12.32 6.85 2.11 1.80 7.89
1991 2.23 1.79 1.78 1.87 2.25 8.55 19.09 16.78 15.17 3.54 2.21 1.49 6.40
1992 1.21 1.15 0.89 1.27 2.74 2.92 8.46 6.93 5.58 3.58 2.07 1.48 3.18
1993 1.40 1.09 0.93 1.93 2.17 4.36 8.34 11.38 7.02 4.58 2.88 1.97 4.00
1994 1.45 1.20 1.05 1.60 2.12 4.00 6.87 7.38 5.59 3.57 2.15 1.68 3.24
1995 1.58 1.30 1.08 1.40 2.10 3.80 9.00 13.92 6.65 5.77 3.13 1.78 4.32
1996 2.54 0.93 0.82 0.75 1.56 3.18 13.93 14.31 7.59 3.43 1.55 1.10 4.30
1997 0.75 0.69 0.57 0.97 1.27 7.78 7.46 58.24 46.54 21.15 7.67 3.70 13.04
1998 1.80 1.86 3.67 5.25 4.46 7.65 38.64 25.64 29.66 12.46 3.16 2.05 11.38
1999 1.76 1.49 1.12 0.92 2.31 16.74 33.75 33.20 28.85 13.66 4.95 3.18 11.84
2000 3.24 2.94 2.01 2.63 6.40 10.64 13.72 16.60 16.55 9.72 5.09 2.52 7.67
2001 1.57 1.51 1.28 1.23 3.81 7.05 10.72 15.13 19.57 20.36 5.36 2.68 7.54
2002 1.73 1.40 1.14 2.26 2.09 5.36 30.75 16.00 15.50 5.44 2.27 1.04 7.14
2003 0.62 0.61 0.77 0.88 0.76 10.59 29.66 17.36 12.41 8.65 2.21 0.69 7.10
2004 1.17 0.75 0.76 0.90 2.59 8.68 23.98 9.88 14.83 9.28 3.48 1.71 6.50
2005 1.06 0.79 0.54 0.79 1.09 2.99 19.38 23.13 10.42 8.00 3.00 0.90 6.07
2006 1.93 1.93 1.75 2.60 2.78 8.25 17.25 13.61 16.90 7.16 1.93 0.76 6.40

Mean 1.60 1.33 1.28 1.71 2.82 8.29 17.31 17.55 15.98 7.92 3.15 2.09 7.05
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

7


Example of Preparation of flow duration curve from Mean monthly flow
Mont
h
Flow
(m3/
s)
Considering days of variations in months
Neglecting days of
variations in months
from all monthly
data 1983-2006
(288 number of
data)
Flow in
descen
ding
order
Mont
h
num
ber
of
days
% of
time
% of time
exccedin
g

% of
time
% of time
exccedin
g
Flow
(m3/s
)
% of
time
exccedin
g
Flow
(m3/s
)
Jan 1.60 17.55 Aug 31 8.49 8.49

8.33 8.33 17.55 8.33 18.36
Feb 1.33 17.31 Jul 31 8.49 16.99

8.33 16.67 17.31 16.67 12.71
Mar 1.28 15.98 Sep 30 8.22 25.21

8.33 25.00 15.98 25.00 8.73
Apr 1.71 8.29 Jun 30 8.22 33.42

8.33 33.33 8.29 33.33 6.65
May 2.82 7.92 Oct 31 8.49 41.92

8.33 41.67 7.92 41.67 4.02
Jun 8.29 3.15 Nov 30 8.22 50.14

8.33 50.00 3.15 50.00 2.92
Jul
17.3
1
2.82 May 31 8.49 58.63

8.33 58.33 2.82 58.33 2.21
Aug
17.5
5
2.09 Dec 31 8.49 67.12

8.33 66.67 2.09 66.67 1.82
Sep
15.9
8
1.71 Apr 30 8.22 75.34

8.33 75.00 1.71 75.00 1.54
Oct 7.92 1.60 Jan 31 8.49 83.84

8.33 83.33 1.60 83.33 1.24
Nov 3.15 1.33 Feb 28 7.67 91.51

8.33 91.67 1.33 91.67 0.97
Dec 2.09 1.28 Mar 31 8.49 100.00

8.33 100.00 1.28 100.00 0.54

Total 365 100.0

100.













Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

8


The FDC curve prepared from mean monthly flow are not precise or accurate than that
was prepared from mean daily flow data since there was considerable variation in mean
daily flow within each month and range is higher in wet season flow. The range of
difference of flow in FDC derived from monthly data may be in the range of 5 to 15%
with the flow in FDC derived from mean daily data depending upon the characteristics
of stream. The difference between the daily and monthly flow duration curve will be
negligible for a stream with steady flow but much greater for very flashy streams.
Calendar Year Basis FDC: Average flow is computed for each day, week or months
from large numbers of years to compute long term average mean flow in a year. The
Long term mean flow is used to plot FDC against the time exccedence based on the
calendar.
Total Period Basis FDC: Flow rates for the entire period under consideration
(irrespective of the calendar year in which they occurred) are arranged in increasing
and decreasing order of magnitude. The FDC is then prepared using the flow rates for
the entire period. The total period basis FDC gives true or realistic FDC as the actual
flow rates appear at appropriate place in the curve.
Uses of FDC
The FDC is generally used to determine the installed capacity, firm energy and
secondary energy that can be produced from Hydropower project.
The FDC is also used to plot the power duration curve. The power duration curve is
prepared by multiplying the ordinate of the FDC with the constant value equivalent to
H of the power project.
FDC can also be used for checking the sufficiency of the available water to with draw
Q continuously.
FDC relates the flow rate with duration but it does not give sequential information
regarding the flow. FDC are no use where time sequence of flow is important.
Numerical Example:
#1) Calculate the installed capacity. Firm power, firm energy and secondary energy that
can be produced from a hydropower project at following conditions:
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Flow Q
(m
3
/s)
1.80 1.50 1.20 1.10 2.30 6.00 8.50 15.00 13.00 9.00 3.50 3.00
A) Design discharge is Q
40

B) Gross head of the power project is 75 m with conveyance efficiency of 85%
C) Electromechanical efficiency of 0.80
D) Minimum release at downstream to maintain ecosystem is 0.1 m
3
/s

#2) calculates the minimum volume of the water that needed to be stored in pondage if the firm power
is needed to increase corresponding to the 3 m
3
/s flow.
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

9



Solution:

Considering days of variations in months
Neglecting days of variations in
months
Month
Flow
(m3/s)
Flow in
descending
order
Month
number
of days
% of
time
% of time
exceeding
(cumulative)

% of
time
% of time
exceeding
(cumulative)
Flow
(m3/s)
Jan 1.80 15.00 Aug 31 8.49 8.49

8.33 8.33 15.00
Feb 1.50 13.00 Sep 30 8.22 16.71

8.33 16.67 13.00
Mar 1.20 9.00 Oct 31 8.49 25.21

8.33 25.00 9.00
Apr 1.10 8.50 Jul 31 8.49 33.70

8.33 33.33 8.50
May 2.30 6.00 Jun 30 8.22 41.92

8.33 41.67 6.00
Jun 6.00 3.50 Nov 30 8.22 50.14

8.33 50.00 3.50
Jul 8.50 3.00 Dec 31 8.49 58.63

8.33 58.33 3.00
Aug 15.00 2.30 May 31 8.49 67.12

8.33 66.67 2.30
Sep 13.00 1.80 Jan 31 8.49 75.62

8.33 75.00 1.80
Oct 9.00 1.50 Feb 28 7.67 83.29

8.33 83.33 1.50
Nov 3.50 1.20 Mar 31 8.49 91.78

8.33 91.67 1.20
Dec 3.00 1.10 Apr 30 8.22 100.00

8.33 100.00 1.10

Total 365 100.00

100.00

Design flow 6.58

Q
40


Q
40
6.50
Neglecting days variation in months, The design discharge Q
40
= 6.50 m
3
/s while considering the days
variation in months of a year, The design discharge Q
40
= 6.58 m
3
/s.
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

10

Net head = Gross head* Conveyance efficiency = 75*0.85 = 63.75 m
Installed Capacity corresponding to Q
40
= P = 9.8*1000*6.5*63.75*0.80 = 3248.7 KW = 3.2487 MW
Firm Power = Pf = 9.8*1000*(1.1-0.1)*63.75*0.80 = 499.8 KW = 0.4998 MW
Firm Energy assuming 100 % of time in operation = 499.80*365*24 = 4.38 GWh
Secondary energy = Total energy- firm energy = (17.73 -4.38) GWh = 13.35 GWh
Alternative way: The secondary energy can be calculated based on the FDC flow value as shown in
Table below
Table showing the Energy and power production from the hydropower plant with design
discharge of Q40 = 6.5 m
3
/s
Monthly Power and energy production calculations
Using FDC flow data without considering the days
variations in months
Month
Day
s
River
Flow
(m3/s
)
D/S
releas
e m3/s
Q
diversi
on to
HP
(m3/s)
Power
P ( KW)
Energy
(GWh)
% of
time
exceed
ing
River
flow
(m3/s
)
Flo
w to
HP
% of
time
running
of 1
year
Power
Product
ion
(KW)
Energy
Production
(GWh)
Jan 31 1.80 0.10 1.70 849.7 0.63 8.33 15.00 6.5
40
3248.7
11.38
Feb 28 1.50 0.10 1.40 699.7 0.47 16.67 13.00 6.5 3248.7
Mar 31 1.20 0.10 1.10 549.8 0.41 25.00 9.00 6.5 3248.7
Apr 30 1.10 0.10 1.00 499.8 0.36 33.33 8.50 6.5 3248.7
May 31 2.30 0.10 2.20 1099.6 0.82 40.00 6.50 6.5 3248.7
Jun 15 6.00 0.10 5.90 2948.8 1.06 41.67 6.00 5.9 1.7 2948.8 0.45

15 6.50 0.10 6.40 3198.7 1.15 50.00 3.50 3.4 8.3 1699.3 1.70
Jul 31 8.50 2.00 6.50 3248.7 2.42 58.33 3.00 2.9 8.3 1449.4 1.15
Aug 31 15.00 8.50 6.50 3248.7 2.42 66.67 2.30 2.2 8.3 1099.6 0.93
Sep 30 13.00 6.50 6.50 3248.7 2.34 75.00 1.80 1.7 8.3 849.7 0.71
Oct 31 9.00 2.50 6.50 3248.7 2.42 83.33 1.50 1.4 8.3 699.7 0.57

15 6.50 0.10 6.40 3198.7 1.15 91.67 1.20 1.1 8.3 549.8 0.46
Nov 15 3.50 0.10 3.40 1699.3 0.61 100.00 1.10 1.0 8.3 499.8 0.38
Dec 31 3.00 0.10 2.90 1449.4 1.08
Total 365

17.33 100 17.73
Solution of #2:
The firm power corresponding to the 3 m
3
/s flow = Pf =1000*9.8*3*0.8 = 1499.4KW
From the FDC curve, the time of exceedence corresponding to 3.0 m3/s flow is 58.33%
neglecting the variation of days in months and 58.63% considering the variations of days in
months.
For volume of water to be stored at the head works site i.e. pondage volume = V = 16.162
million m
3

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

11

% of time
exceedence
Flow
Deficit flow rate
(m3/s)
Duration of Time % of
a year
Volume m3 Remarks
58.33 3.00 0.00

66.67 2.30 0.70 8.33 919800

75.00 1.80 1.20 8.33 2496600

83.33 1.50 1.50 8.33 3547800

91.67 1.20 1.80 8.33 4336200

100.00 1.10 1.90 8.33 4861800


Total volume to be stored

16162200 m3

16.1622 million m3
For precise calculation of energy and power production, FDC is used but for general
convenient, the monthly power and energy calculations are carried out. The PPA agreement is
carried out based on monthly power and energy calculations.
The use of mean daily discharge in formulation of FDC provides more accurate and precise
information of energy and power calculations. Such analyses are carried out in detail feasibility
study of hydropower project.
3.2.2 Mass Curve (Ripple Curve)
A mass curve is plot of accumulated flow against time. It is also known as Ripple Curve and
made from mean monthly flow records of a stream.
Use of Mass curve: to facilitate the storage computations and reservoir regulations
The mean monthly flows are summed up consequently and each sum is plotted above the
corresponding time up to which the summation has been done.
Example: Mass curve of flow data of Bagmati river at Sundarijal from 1991-1995
Date Q
Vol of water
(mcm)
cum Vol
(mcm)
Date Q
Vol of water
(mcm)
cum Vol
(mcm)
Jan-91 0.29 0.78 0.78 Jul-93 3.03 8.12 85.06
Feb-91 0.24 0.58 1.36 Aug-93 4.15 11.12 96.17
Mar-91 0.23 0.62 1.97 Sep-93 2.89 7.49 103.66
Apr-91 0.21 0.54 2.52 Oct-93 1.48 3.96 107.63
May-91 0.23 0.62 3.13 Nov-93 0.62 1.61 109.24
Jun-91 0.68 1.76 4.90 Dec-93 0.36 0.96 110.20
Jul-91 1.62 4.34 9.24 Jan-94 0.51 1.37 111.57
Aug-91 3.5 9.37 18.61 Feb-94 0.52 1.26 112.82
Sep-91 3 7.78 26.39 Mar-94 0.63 1.69 114.51
Oct-91 1.5 4.02 30.40 Apr-94 0.59 1.53 116.04
Nov-91 0.8 2.07 32.48 May-94 0.64 1.71 117.75
Dec-91 0.55 1.47 33.95 Jun-94 0.99 2.57 120.32
Jan-92 0.23 0.62 34.57 Jul-94 2.91 7.79 128.11
Feb-92 0.18 0.44 35.00 Aug-94 4.03 10.79 138.91
Mar-92 0.15 0.40 35.40 Sep-94 2.82 7.31 146.22
Apr-92 0.13 0.34 35.74 Oct-94 0.71 1.90 148.12
May-92 0.16 0.43 36.17 Nov-94 0.35 0.91 149.03
Jun-92 0.28 0.73 36.89 Dec-94 0.2 0.54 149.56
Jul-92 1.48 3.96 40.86 Jan-95 0.16 0.43 149.99
Aug-92 3.83 10.26 51.12 Feb-95 0.16 0.39 150.38
Sep-92 3.9 10.11 61.23 Mar-95 0.16 0.43 150.81
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

12

Oct-92 1.64 4.39 65.62 Apr-95 0.13 0.34 151.14
Nov-92 0.99 2.57 68.18 May-95 0.17 0.46 151.60
Dec-92 0.65 1.74 69.93 Jun-95 0.92 2.38 153.98
Jan-93 0.45 1.21 71.13 Jul-95 2.7 7.23 161.22
Feb-93 0.29 0.70 71.83 Aug-95 3.13 8.38 169.60
Mar-93 0.2 0.54 72.37 Sep-95 1.56 4.04 173.64
Apr-93 0.26 0.67 73.04 Oct-95 0.62 1.66 175.30
May-93 0.45 1.21 74.25 Nov-95 0.49 1.27 176.57
Jun-93 1.04 2.70 76.94 Dec-95 0.41 1.10 177.67



Characteristics of the Mass curve and its use for reservoir sizing:
The mass curve must continuously rise as it shows the accumulated flow
The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at the particular time
If the curve is horizontal, the flow is zero while steep rise of curve indicates high flow
rates
The relatively dry periods are indicated by concave depressions on the curve
Slope of line (AB) connecting the end point gives the average flow rate over the period
Line AB (upper line) and Line AB (lower line) are two straight lines drawn with same
slope as that of line AB and tangential to the highest and lowest point of the mass curve
The vertical intercept between the line AB and AB gives the storage volume required
to permit continuous release of water at average discharge for the entire period.
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

13

If the rate of flow demand is constant for a hydropower project, draw the demand line
having a slope equivalent to the demand rate of flow. Where the mass curve is steeper
than the demand line, the natural stream flow is higher than the demand and vice versa.
For varying demand of flow (as in general case) draw a mass curve of the demand super
imposing the mass curve of stream flow chronologically i.e. demand in June should
coincide with supply in June. The maximum vertical intercept between the two curves
gives the requirement of the storage volume to fulfill the demand.
Mass curve may also be used to determine the maximum possible uniform rate of flow
which can be obtained from a given storage capacity. For this, sloping tangential lines are
drawn at high points in such a manner that the maximum vertical intercepts between these
lines equals to the storage reservoir. The slope of the line is the demand rate that can be
met by the reservoir.

3.2.3 Energy Flow Diagram:

In hydropower project, the water needs to flow from headwork to the powerhouse and then to
the tailrace through water conveyance system designed for the project. The energy of the
flowing water in the water conveyance system can be represented in hydraulic terms of: a)
Pressure head, b) velocity head and c) potential head. The diagram showing the energy of
flowing fluid in different parts of the water conveyance system or channels and pipes are
called Energy flow diagram. The sum of pressure head and potential head is known as
Hydraulic head and the sum of hydraulic head and velocity head is known as Energy Head.
The energy flow diagram is represented by hydraulic and energy head and the gradient i.e.
slope of the hydraulic and energy head are called Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Energy
Gradient line (EGL)

As the water flows from head work to the tailrace site, there will be some losses of energy due
to turbulent motion, friction, contraction and expansion of channels, pipelines and use of
machines on the water ways. These losses are expressed in terms of height or head of water
column in hydropower.

The head loss in the water conveyance system depends on the hydraulic design and hydraulic
structures in the water conveyance system. Hydraulic engineering is applied to optimize the
performance of water ways to reduce the energy loss.

Head loss calculations: Major Loss and Minor losses (local Losses)

Major losses: The head loss mainly due to friction in water channels and pipes and calculated
using the following formulae
g
V
D
L
f hf
2
2
=
Where f is the friction factor and calculated from f =
Re
64
for laminar flow Re<2000 and
Colebrook and White equation for turbulent flow
(
(

+ =
f
D e
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
10 log 2
1

VD
= Re =

VD
where D is pipe diameter (m), density of water (kg/m3), V mean velocity
of flow (m/s), viscosity of fluid, = / Kinematic viscosity of fluid (m
2
/s) and e = the
average roughness height of irregularities on the pipe wall.
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

14

The Colebrook and White equation needs trial and error method, so Moody Charts of friction
factor for pipe flow can be used to avoid the iterations in calculations

Table Roughness height "e", for various commercial pipes from ESHA Guidelines
Pipe material e (mm)
Polyethylene 0.003
Fiberglass with epoxy 0.003
Seamless commercial steel (new) 0.025
Seamless commercial steel (light rust) 0.250
Seamless commercial steel (galvanised) 0.150
Welded steel 0.600
Cast iron (enamel coated) 0.120
Asbestos cement 0.025
Wood stave 0.600
Concrete (steel forms, with smooth joints) 0.180
Using Mannings Formula
2 / 1
3 / 2
3 / 5
2 / 1 3 / 2
1 1
|

\
|
= =
L
hf
P
A
S AR Q


Table of Manning coefficient n for several commercial pipes from ESHA Guidelines
Kind of pipe n
Welded steel 0.012
Polyethylene (PE) 0.009
PVC 0.009
Asbestos cement 0.011
Ductile iron 0.015
Cast iron 0.014
Wood-stave (new) 0.012
Concrete (steel forms smooth finish) 0.014
Hazen Williums formula (North America) applicable for pipe flow through pipes of greater than 5 cm
and flow velocity under 3 m/s
85 . 1
165 . 1
87 . 6
|

\
|

=
C
V
D
L
hf
where V = velocity in m/s, D diameter in m , L the pipe length (m) and C the Hazen-Williams coefficient
Table of Hazen-Williams coefficients
Pipe type C
Asbestos cement 140
Cast iron
New 130
10 years 107 - 113
20 years 89 - 100
30 years 75 - 90
Concrete
Cast on site - steel forms 140
Cast on site - wood forms 120
Centrifugal cast 135
Steel
Brush tar and asphalt 150
New uncoated 150
Riveted 110
Wood-stave (new) 120
Plastic pipes 135 - 140
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

15

Minor Losses or Local losses
In addition to the friction losses, water flowing through a pipe system experience head losses due to
geometric changes at entrance, bends (elbows), joint (contraction and expansion), trash racks and gates
and Valves. The local or minor losses are calculated by general formula
g
V
K hl
2
2
=
Values of K depends on the shape and size in addition to the structures as follows
Entrance Loss Coefficient




For Sudden Expansion and Contraction coefficient
g
V
Kex hex and
g
V
Kc hc
2 2
2
1
2
2
= =
|
|

\
|
=
2
2
1 42 . 0
D
d
Kc for d/D up to 0.76 and
|
|

\
|
=
2
2
1
D
d
Kex


Trash rack screen losses
Trash rack or screen is always required at the entrance of both pressure pipes and intakes to avoid
entrance of floating debris, large boulders and gravels. The head loss is calculated using Krischmer
Formula
Sin
g
V
b
t
Kt Ht
2
2
3 / 4
|

\
|
=
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

16


is generally kept in between of 50 to 80 degrees. Some additional head loss will be there if the gril
(trash rack) is not perpendicular to the water flow. The correction factor (multiplying factor) depends
upon the angle of flow and t/b ratio as follows (according to Mosonyi).

Table for correction factor of trash rack losses for non-perpendicular approach flows
t/b

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
10 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.14 1.50
20 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.26 1.31 1.43 2.25
30 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.35 1.44 1.50 1.64 1.90 3.60
40 1.43 1.48 1.55 1.64 1.75 1.88 2.10 2.56 5.70
50 1.75 1.85 1.96 2.10 2.30 2.60 3.00 3.80
60 2.25 2.41 2.62 2.90 3.26 3.74 4.40 6.05
Head loss at Bend:
g
V
K h
b b
2
2
=
In a bend, pipe flow experiences an increase of pressure along the outer wall and a decrease of pressure
along the inner wall. This pressure unbalance causes a secondary current such as shown in the figure. Both
movements together - the longitudinal flow and the secondary current - produces a spiral flow that, at a
length of around 100 diameters, is dissipated by viscous friction. The head loss produced in these
circumstances depends on the radius of the bend and on the diameter of the pipe. Furthermore, in view of
the secondary circulation, there is a secondary friction loss, dependent of the relative roughness e/D.

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

17


Head losses at Gates and Valves
g
V
Kv hv
2
2
=


3.2.4 Estimation of power potential
Power potential of any hydel plant is directly proportional to the discharge that can be
withdrawn from the river and the head available (net head) to the project site.
The power in a hydropower plant is generated by converting fluid energy in to mechanical
energy. The fluid energy is stored either in potential or in kinetic energy or in both state.
During the power production, the kinetic and potential energy of the fluid is used to rotate
turbine coupled with the shaft of the generators.
g
V
h and Q T Vol Since QH gQh or gQh P
T gh vol or V vol T mgh or mV T PE or KE time Energy P
2
/
/ ) * * * * * 2 / 1 ( / ) 2 / 1 ( / ) ( /
2
2 2
= = = =
= = = =




The discharge in the river depends upon the catchment characteristics like climate (rainfall
amount and its temporal and spatial distribution, temperature, evaporation), Land use and Land
cover characteristics (forest, urban, cultivated, pasture etc), physiographic characteristics
(slope of river and catchment, drainage density, shape and size of catchment, elevations
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

18

variations) and geological and soil characteristics (Soil type, rock type, textures, permeability,
and their distribution)

Hydrological investigations are done to estimate the flow discharge that will be available to the
intake site considering all the above characteristics. The FDC and Mass curve prepared from
estimated/observed flow of river is used to show the variations of flow with time duration.

The head available at the site for a hydropower plant is site specific and can be determined
with topographic survey with precise surveying instrument like level machine, total stations
etc. The net head available to the project is calculated from gross head after subtracting head
losses in water conveyance system using hydraulic theorem/principles.

Power potential estimation is generally done based on the FDC prepared for the river at the
intake site. At preliminary level of study the detail investigation is expensive and generally
avoided considering following assumptions:
o Conveyance efficiency of 70% i.e. the head loss in the water conveyance will be 30%
of the gross head.
o Overall electromechanical efficiency i.e. turbine efficiency* generator efficiency =
80%
o The flow discharge corresponding to the 50% time exceeding = also called the
probability of exceeding P50 is used to estimate available power potential.
o Technically available power = P
a
= 0.7*0.8*P
p50
= 0.56 P
p50
= 0.56**g*Q
50
*h
o For preliminary assessment of firm power P
p95
for ROR, P
p50
= 2.5P
p95

P
p100
= minimum potential power computed from minimum flow available for 100% of time
(365 days or 8760 hrs)
P
p95
= Potential power computed from flow available for 95 percent of time ( flow available for
8322 hours)
P
p50
= Average potential power computed from the flow available for 50 percent of time (flow
available for 6 months or 4380 hrs)
P
pm
= Mean potential power computed from the average mean yearly flow for a period of 10 to
30 years. It is also termed as Gross river power potential
P
p50
is almost equal to the P
pm
for a particular site of hydropower project.
The ratio of
95
50
p
p
P
P
Reflects the extent of relative annual variations in available potential power,
lesser the values of the ratio indicate the small variations of discharge and favorable
hydrological condition for hydropower development. The higher the values of the ratio
indicates the high variations of flow and unfavorable for hydropower development.

The maximum potential energy of a river is estimated by E max = Ppm*8760 KWh
Where P
pm
= mean potential power in KW and computed from
1000
8 . 0 7 . 0
=
H Q
Ppm
m

taking 70% of conveyance efficiency and 80% of electromechanical efficiency
Qm = the average mean yearly flow of long period i.e. 10 to 30 years in m
3
/s
H = gross head of the power plant on the river in m

3.2.5 Demand or Load prediction

Demand is the need of energy that is requested by the customer in market, community, and
region and in country. The power demand classified in to: a) Residential b) commercial, c)
Industrial and d) others
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

19

The power demand is generally depends upon population, living standard of population or
society, climate, purpose of using power, general costume and culture.

Types of load prediction
Short term prediction: covering a period of 4 to 5 years. It is done mainly for designing
operation plans identifying the areas of deficit and surplus power.
Medium term Prediction: covering a period of 8 to 10 years. It is done for formulation of
expansion program of power generation and transmission facilities.
Long term Prediction: covering a period of more than 20 years or more. It is done mainly for
formulation of countrys perspective plan for power generation, countrys power resources and
mode of transmission and its voltages

Short term prediction is more significantly influenced by the present environment. The
economic factors and perspective plans has significant role for long term forecasting.

Method of load or Demand Prediction
Depending upon the data availability, degree of accuracy requirement, prevailing
circumstances, the following methods of load forecasting are generally used:
a) Class wise consumption
The historical class wise power consumption data in sector like residential, commercial,
industrial and others are used for analyses to find the need of power in future years based on
the individual class wise growth rate and coming implementation plan. Data lacking is a
major problem in Nepal and hence rarely used for forecasting
b) Historical trends
In the case of lacking class wise data power demand, the total power demand and
consumption are used to have trend analyses in the past. The past trend is used to forecast
demand for future. The historical trend may not be valid for future as the trend line of
demand rapidly changes with the development of technologies and socio economic
activities.
c) Correlation between power consumption and economic development
The correlation analyses between the power development and economic development
(GDP) have shown that there is a good correlation between them. The data of GDP and per
capita energy consumption of the same nation or international country to find the
relationship between the economic development and the per capita energy demand. The
relation is used to compute the energy demand for the targeted economic development.

GNP- measures the size of nations economy
GDP-measures the economic condition within a country population. GDP depends on
number of house hold, index of industrial production, summer days, cold days, oil price and
electricity price. So these data are important for selecting the economic development data of
other countries
d) Mathematical formulae
The mathematical formulae can be developed based on analyses of observed data resulting
empirical formula.
i) Incremental rate formula P = P
0
(1+R/100)
n

Where P = Power demand after n years
P
0
= Power demand at present
R = incremental rate of Power demand in % = for Nepal the incremental rate of power
demand is about 9%~ 10%
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

20


Source: NEA annual report 2009/10
ii) Country specific formula
Belgium formula
T
M k E
* 465 . 0 6 . 0
2 =
E = electricity consumption t
th
years
M = Index of Manufacture Production varies for nation to nation
T = Time T to which consumption is to be projected
K = Adjustment factor also varies from nation to nation depending upon the electricity
consumption and economic activities
The values of K and M are not fixed for Nepal
iii) Scheer Formula
Log
10
G = C- 0.15 Log
10
U or
15 . 0
10
U
G
C
=
Where
G = annual growth in generation/demand in %
U = per capita generation or demand
C = Constant = 0.02 *Population Growth rate (%)+1.33

Example: Calculate the load demand (forecast the load) for 2010 of Nepal using scheer
formula with the following information
Year Total
Population
Annual
population
growth (%)
Load Demand
(MW)
Calculate
C
Calculate
U
Annual
growth rate
of power
Load demand
for next year
(MW)
2008 3,00,00,000 3.0 750 1.39 25 15.146 863.6
2009 30.9*10
6
4.0 863.6 1.41 27.95 15.597 998.32

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

21

3.3 Reservoir regulation: Peak and normal flow discharges, Distribution of Sediments
and their control, Life of reservoir
Reservoir: When a barrier is constructed across some rivers in the form of a dam, water gets
stored up on the upstream side of the barrier forming a pool of water, generally called a
reservoir. The water stored in a reservoir may be used for various purposes:
Storage or conservation reservoir
Flood control reservoir
Distribution reservoir
Multipurpose reservoir

The operation process of gates in a reservoir to ensure the flow to satisfy the demand for power
production, irrigation, navigation and flood controls are termed as reservoir regulation. The
reservoir regulation is generally carried out to ensure that the reservoir are neither left partially
empty by the end of rainy season and nor they are found full at the time of arrival of series of
peak floods leading to heavy releases causing floods in the downstream.

Guiding tables and curves called rule curve or guide curve are prepared by the experts based on
the reservoir characteristics (Area Elevation and Storage Elevation curve) and the climatic and
stream flow characteristics of the inflow river for efficient regulation of the reservoir
Example of rule curve or guide curve for a reservoir of normal pool level 925 m
Date of the year Permissible reservoir water Level (Dead storage level =600m)
July 15 685 m
August 15 750 m
September 15 800 m
October 10 900 m
October 15-Dec15 release
0:00 to 6:00 2 m3/s
6:00 to 10:00 10 m3/s
10:00 to 16:00 5 m3/s
16:00 to 20:00 15 m3/s
20:00 to 24:00 0 m3/s
October 31 850 m
November 30 750 m
Dec 16-May15 release
0:00 to 6:00 0 m3/s
6:00 to 10:00 15 m3/s
10:00 to 16:00 0 m3/s
16:00 to 20:00 25 m3/s
20:00 to 24:00 0 m3/s
January 31 685 m
Feburay 28 650 m
April 30 625 m
June 15 605 m

Peak flow is the maximum flow (instantaneous maximum extreme) that may occur in the river
due to heavy rainfall and may be due to dam breaching and other accidental events while
normal flow is the average annual flow that occurs in the river at normal weather conditions.
The long term annual average flow of 25-30 years time is taken as the normal flow in the river.
The flow in the river is higher than the normal flow during wet season and it is lower than the
normal flow during dry season.

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

22

Normal flow from reservoir is the average flow or released from reservoir for certain time
period or interval and the peak flow is the maximum flow that has been released in certain
duration or interval of time.

Storage characteristics curves of reservoir: A conservation or storage reservoir can retain excess
supplies during periods of peak flows and can release then gradually during low flows when the need
arises. A city water supply, irrigation, or a hydro electric project drawing water directly from a river or
a stream may fail to satisfy the consumers demand during extremely low flows while it may become
difficult to carry out due to devastating flood. The main function of a reservoir is to store water in
rainy season and then to supply or stabilize the flow of water in dry season. The most important
physical characteristic of a reservoir is its storage capacity and its surface area. The variation of the
surface area and the storage capacity of the reservoir with the elevation is known as the Area Elevation
Curve and Storage Elevation Curve. Both of these curves are important to regulate the flow in and out
from the reservoir.
The capacity of a reservoir is determined from the contour maps of the area. In general-contour map of
5m interval is prepared from survey/mapping and then the areas between the two contour intervals are
measured by plannimeter.
The areas of intervening contours at smaller interval of say 0.5 m are obtained by interpolating with
the surveyed contours using formula )] ( [
1
1 2
1 2
1
C C
C C
A A
A A

+ =
Where A
1
and A
2
= Areas of the reservoir at C
1
and C
2
m contour i.e. elevation while A is the area of
the reservoir at desired contour level C between the C
1
and C
2
.

The Storage volume of water stored between the elevation differences h can be computed as follows:
Simple Mean method S = (A
1
+A
2
)/2h
Geometric mean method S = h/3[A
1
+A
2
+S(A
1
A
2
)]
Prismoidal formula S = h/6[A
1
+4A
2
+A
3
] more preferable where three consecutive sections at equal
height are taken h is the vertical height between the A
1
and A
3
contours.

The Area Elevation curve can be represented by general polynomial equations:
1 2
.......... ..........

+ + + + =
n
h
nh h h A

Integration Method: when the area elevation curve is integrated, the yield will be capacity elevation
curve. It can be used for determination of volume at different height intervals from the general area
elevation curve prepared from surveyed contours at large interval.
dh nh h h dh nh h h dh A S
h
h
h h
h
n n
h

=
=

+ + + + = + + + = =
2
1
2
0
1 2 1
) . .......... ( ) ......... (
K
n
nh h h
h S
h
h
n
h
+
(

+ + + + =
2
1
3 2
....... .......... ..........
3 2



Where K is a integration constant and equals to the reservoir capacity at datum
Example: A contour survey of a reservoir sites gives the following data
Contour value Area (ha) Capacity of reservoir (ha-m)
At 200 m 6.0 14.10
At 210 m 18.1
At 220 m 34.0
At 225 m ? ?
Determine the general equation for Area Elevation Curve and Storage Elevation Curve
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

23

Area Elevation Curve equation
1 2
.......... ..........

+ + + + =
n
h
nh h h A Taking datum of 200m h =0
and considering three term only A200 = +h+h
2
or = 6----------I, similarly for contour 210 m h
=10 then
A210 = 18.1 = +h+h
2
= 6+10+10
2
= 6+10+100 or 12.1 = 10+100------------------II
Similarly for 220 m contour h = 20 m, 1.4 = +20--------------------III
Solving equation II and III = 1.02 and = 0.019
So Area Elevation curve is represented by A = 6+1.02h+0.019h
2
taking h =0 for 200 m elevation or
datum
To get storage Elevation curve: Integrate Area Elevation Curve
20
0
3 2
3
019 . 0
2
02 . 1
6
=
=
(

+ + + =
h
h
h
K
h h
h S

At h = 0 i.e. at 200m elevation, S
0
= 14.1 so K = 14.1 hence the equation of the storage elevation curve
is given by
(

+ + + = 1 . 14
3
019 . 0
2
02 . 1
6
3 2
h h
h S
h
so the storage volume at h 25 m i.e. at 225 m contour
is
S
25
= 581.81 ha-m
The best capacity curve of a reservoir is the one in which the rise to the straight line is the quickest.
Such type of curve is obtained for cup shaped catchment with gentle longitudinal slope.

Storage zones of Reservoir
Normal pool level or maximum conservation level: is the maximum level to which the reservoir water
surface will rise during normal operating condition. It is equal to the elevation of spillway crest or top
of the spillway gates for most of the cases.

Minimum pool level: the lowest water surface elevation which has to be kept under normal operating
condition in a reservoir. The level is fixed by elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam or may be
guided by the minimum head required for efficient functioning of the turbine.

Useful and dead Storage: the volume of water stored in the reservoir between the minimum pool and
the normal pool level is called useful (live) storage. The water stored in the reservoir below the
minimum pool level is known as dead storage. It is not of much use in the operation of the reservoir.
The useful storage may be subdivided into conservation storage and flood mitigation storage in a
multipurpose reservoir.

Maximum pool level or full reservoir level: During high floods, water is discharged through spillway
but will cause the water level to rise in the reservoir above the normal pool level. The maximum level
to which water raises during worst design flood is known as the maximum pool level.

Surcharge Storage: The volume of the water stored between the normal pool level and maximum pool
level. Surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage because it exists only till the flood is in progress
and can not be retained for later use.

Bank Storage: When the reservoir fills up, certain amount of water seeps into the permeable reservoir
banks which comes out as soon as the reservoir get depleted. The amount is dependent on the
geological formation. It is about few % of the reservoir volume and not included in the storage
capacity curve.
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

24

Valley storage: Even before the dam is constructed certain variable amount of water is stored in the
stream channel called valley storage. Actual net increase in storage of the dam construction is equal to
the storage capacity of the reservoir minus the natural valley storage.

Reservoir Sedimentation
Every river carries certain amount of sediment load especially in monsoon season. The sediment
particles try to settle down to the river bottom due to gravitational force but may be kept in suspension
due to the upward currents in turbulent flow which may overcome the gravity force.
Fine sediment remains in suspension and called suspended sediment load while the larger or course
sediment flow along the river bed known as bed load.
When silt laden water reaches a reservoir in a vicinity of a dam, the velocity and turbulence are
considerably reduced due to high depth and low gradient or slope. Bigger suspended particles and
most of the bed loads therefore gets deposited in the head reaches of the reservoir. Fine particles may
travel some more distance and may finally deposited further down in the reservoir.
Some very fine particles may remain suspension for much longer period and may finally escape from
the dam along with the water discharged through the sluice ways, turbines, spillways etc.

The deposition of the sediment in reservoir is known as Reservoir silting or Reservoir Sedimentation
Effect of reservoir sedimentation reduce storage capacity after a long run, whole of the reservoir may
get silted up and become useless.
Dead storage are generally allocated to allow sediment deposit/silting in design period. The dead
storage is about of the total reservoir capacity and the sedimentation depends on the sediment load
and distribution in the Inlet Rivers.

Examples: Let the total reservoir capacity be 30 million cubic meter with dead storage of 6 million
cubic meters. Find out the number of years to fill up the dead storage and the reservoir completely if
the average sediment deposit in the reservoir is assumed to be constant of 0.15 million cubic meters
per year.

Number of years to fill up the dead storage = 6/0.15= 40 years and the reservoir will be filled up
completely after 30/0.15 = 200 Years. The usefulness of the reservoir will start to reduce after 40 years
due to sediment encroachment in the live storage. Designed life of the reservoir is 40 years while total
life of the reservoir is 200 Years. Generally the reservoir will terminate when 80% of initial capacity is
filled with sediment.

Density Current: the water stored in the reservoir is generally free from silt, but the inflow during
flood is generally muddy having high density forming density current. Density current may be defined
as the gravitational flow of one fluid under another fluid of approximately equal density. The density
current thus separates the turbid water from the clearer water and makes the turbid water flow along
the river bottom in the vicinity of the dam. The rate of reservoir silting can be reduced by venting the
density current by properly locating and operating outlets and sluice ways.

Trap Efficiency: it is defined as the percentage of sediment deposited in the reservoir to the total
sediment flowing in the river water.
servoir the to low ent Se Total
servoir in Deposited ent Se Total
Efficiency Trap
Re inf dim
Re dim
= = generally varies from 95% to 100% for
most of the reservoir and it cannot be reduced below 90% even if various silt control measures are
adopted.
The trap efficiency is a function of the reservoirs capacity inflow ratio =
volume low Total
capacity servoir
inf
Re

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

25

The silting rate in the reservoir will be more in the beginning and it goes on decreasing in the next
years
Small reservoirs in large rivers have less trap efficiency compared to the large reservoir in small rivers
mainly due to the variation of capacity inflow ratio.

Silting Controls in Reservoirs
Pre-construction measures Post construction measures
Selection of dam site in less erodible catchment Removal of post flood water contents high
sediment, not collect post flood water entering the
reservoir through bypass if possible
Construction of dam in stages making low
reservoir capacity inflow ratio below 0.5
Mechanical stirring and excavation to keep it in
moving state and help in pushing towards the
sluices
Construction of check dams or barrier across the
streams contributing major sediment load
Erosion control and silt conservation in
watersheds like a forestation, integrated land use
and land cover
Vegetation screen to trap large amount of
sediment in the catchment and entrance of the
reservoir

Construction of under sluices in the dam to flush
sediment during high flow season. Not effective
for high rockfill dam, stiff requiring mechanical
loosening and scouring to increase efficiency


Example: the following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency
and capacity inflow ratio
Capacity in
flow ratio
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Trap
efficiency (%)
87 93 95 95.5 96 96.5 97 97 97.5 97.8
Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 30 million m
3
and the annual
average sediment inflow is 2,00,000 metric tons with the average annual flood inflow of 60 million
m
3
. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 g/cc. the usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment. Find the life period of each 20%
filling up of the reservoir with the sediment.
Solution: Average annual sediment inflow = 2*10
5
*10
3
kg = 2*10
11
g = 2*10
11
/1.2 cm
3
= 1/6 million
m
3

Initial reservoir capacity = 30 million m
3
, annual flood inflow volume = 60 million m
3
.
First 20% reservoir filling Second 20% reservoir
filling
Third 20% reservoir
filling
Fourth 20% reservoir
filling
Initial CIR = 30/60 = 0.5
Final CIR = 24/60 = 0.4
1=0.96, 2=0.955,
average = 0.9575
Vol of sediment trapped =
0.95751/6
No of years to fill up first
20% reservoir =
6/(1/60.9575) = 37.6
years

Initial CIR = 24/60 = 0.4
Final CIR = 18/60 = 0.3
1=0.955, 2=0.95,
average = 0.9525
Vol of sediment trapped =
0.95251/6
No of years to fill up
second 20% reservoir =
6/(1/60.9525) = 37.8
years

Initial CIR = 18/60 = 0.3
Final CIR = 12/60 = 0.2
1=0.95, 2=0.93,
average = 0.94
Vol of sediment trapped
= 0.941/6
No of years to fill up
third 20% reservoir =
6/(1/60.94) = 38.3 years

Initial CIR = 12/60 = 0.2
Final CIR = 6/60 = 0.1
1=0.93, 2=0.87,
average = 0.90
Vol of sediment trapped
= 0.901/6
No of years to fill up
fourth 20% reservoir =
6/(1/60.90) = 40.0 years


Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

26

The total number of years to fill the 80% of the reservoir = 37.6+37.8+38.3+40.0 = 153.7 years

3.4 Layout of Hydropower Projects: Intake, reservoir, Penstock, Supply conduits,
casing, draft tube, tail race
Layout of hydropower project component like headwork, water conveyance powerhouse and tail race
are important because it shows relative location and the relationship of the project components and
their functions. Layout of the components is done considering geological conditions, system
requirement (minimum head loss) and functionality of the component.

Intake: arrangement of structures situated at the entrance of the canals or tunnel or pipes through
which with draws water from the river, pond or reservoir and conveyed to the powerhouse to produce
electricity.
Functions or requirements of considerations:
Control the flow of water into the conveyance system (gate valve)
Smooth easy and turbulence free entry of water into the conveyance passages (flaring the inlet
or bell mouth)
Stopping coarse river brone trash matter such as boulder, ice, wood log entering into the
passages (trash at bell mouth)
Not allowing heavy sediment load of the river into the conveyances (special arrangements such
silt traps, silt excluders, gravel trap)
Safely withdraw water from the reservoir or river in the pre determined range of pool levels,
discharge, protecting the conduit being damaged or clogged etc.
Reservoir: to store the water to regulate flow during dry season. The site selection of the reservoir is
guided by following factors:
Suitable dam site:
Short length with stable geological conditions for low cost of construction
Impervious banks and walls for minimum leakage through absorption and percolation
Deep narrow reservoir than the shallow one for less evaporation loss, less possibility of weeds
growth, less reallocation/resettlement cost
Adequate capacity, less sediment inflow (Too much sediment laden tributaries should be
avoided)
Reservoir losses: Absorption losses soil pores are filled up in saturated and seepage losses depending
upon the types of soils in the river bank and walls. Percolation losses or reservoir leakages if the
riverbanks are comprised of cracked or fractured rocks may have continuous seams of porous strata
leading to serious leakage. Pressure grouting is applied to control leakage through the fractured rocks.
Evaporation losses mainly depend on reservoir area, temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity and
solar radiation. Evaporation loss is significant (Annual average 172 cm monthly varying from 7 cm in
Jan to 27 cm in May) compared to the absorption and percolation losses. The Hexadeconals (acetyl
alcohol) are sprinkled over the surface of the water to reduce evaporation loss.

Penstock: Penstock pipes are the pipes that supply water from the head pond, reservoir, forebay or
surge tank to the turbine of powerhouse at high pressure. It is a part of water conveyance system
where pressurized flow occurs. Wall thickness should be enough to withstand surge pressure. For short
distance between the forebay and turbine, separate penstock for each turbine are preferable while for
long distances a single penstock is used to feed two or more turbines through special arrangement of
bifurcation termed as manifold. Layout of the penstock pipes should be in such a way that there should
be minimum number of bends (vertical and horizontal), minimum length, safe from landslide and
debris flow. Penstock pipe may be of steel, cast iron, RCC pipe, wood starves and HDP.

Supply conduits: to supply water from intake structures to forebay or surge tank. The supply conduits
might be canal, pipe, tunnel or combination of these. Non pressure flow is generally occurring in
Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

27

supply conduits. There may be low pressure flow at the river/stream crossing in super
passage/siphon/aqueduct.
The alignment should be designed for most efficient channel section with minimum head loss. The
alignment should be passed through geologically stable area. The design of channel should be non
silting, non scouring condition. The percolation losses need to be checked for leakage control.

Casing: structural arrangement provided in around the turbine runner to control, guide the flow with
minimum head loss and to control the splashing of flow after striking the runner. Casing design
depends on the types of turbines used in powerhouse.

Impulse turbine (Pelton turbine): flowing fluid energy is converted in to kinetic energy through nozzle
jet flow before striking the runner. The free jet impinges on the series of bucket of the runner causing
rotation of the runner in air. Casing is provided only for control of splashing water and there will be no
fluid pressure for the casing.

Reactive turbine (Francis/Kaplan turbine): only a part of available energy of flowing water is
converted into the kinetic energy and substantial part remains in pressure energy. Water flows through
the specially designed spiral casing and enter the turbine tangentially to rotate the runner due to high
pressure flow. The spiral casing is the winding duct of varying size with opening on the runner side.
The casing should be smooth to minimize the head loss. The thickness of the casing should be
sufficient to bear the high pressure. The pressure is directly proportional to the head over the turbine
and surge head due to sudden closure of the gate valve in front of the reactive turbine.



Impulse Turbine Reactive Turbine

Draft Tube: the draft tubes are either straight conical draft tubes with a circular section or they are
elbow shaped tubes with gradually increasing area. The shape is changing from circular at the runner
section to rectangular at the outlet section. The draft tubes are needed only for reactive turbine to
fulfill the following functions:
Achieve the recovery of the velocity head at the runner outlet which otherwise would have
gone to waste as exit loss
Permits the turbine to be installed at higher level than the tail water level which facilitate the
maintenance of the turbine
A conduit which connects the outlet of a reaction turbine runner to the tailrace

Chapter 3 of Hydropower Engineering

28


Advantages of draft tube: Show that the draft tube will increase the effective pressure head by an
amount of
g
V V
Z
2
2
3
2
2
1

+ . Also proof that there will be negative pressure head at the outlet of the
runner or the pressure of flow at the outlet of the runner is below atmosphere
Applying Bernoulis theorem between the two section at the outlet of the runner and tailrace outlet
io
h
g
V
hd
Pa
g
V
Z hd
P
+ + + = + + +
2 2
1
2
3
2
2 2

or
io
a
h
g
V V
Z
p P
+
(

+ =
2
2
3
2
2
1
2



Since
(

+
g
V V
Z
2
2
3
2
2
1
is always positive and h
io
the head loss on the draft tube is very small,

2
P
less
than

a
P
and there will be negative pressure created at the outlet of the runner. If V
3
=0 then the
pressure head that were increased by the draft tube or effective pressure head recovered by the draft
tube is
(

+
g
V V
Z
2
2
3
2
2
1
=
(

+
g
V
Z
2
2
2
1
which should not be exceed 10.3 m of water head or 76 mm of
Hg to avoid from cavitations problem (raised mainly due to absolute negative pressure).

Draft Tube Efficiency:
(
(
(
(

=
g
V
h
g
V V
io
d
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
so
g
V
Z
P
h
g
V V
Z
p P
d
a
io
a
2 2
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
1
2
= +
(

+ =


The value of
d
generally varies from 80% to 95% and for effective recovery of the velocity head , the
flare angle should be 4
0
to 8
0
requiring long Elbow tube for smooth eddy free flow.
Hydra cone: it is the central solid cone provided in the draft tube to achieve eddy free flow so that the
head loss between the draft tube inlet and outlet is minimized.

Tailrace: the channel through which water is discharged back to the river after running the turbines.
The outlet level of the tail race channel should be at higher than the flood level of the stream. There
should avoid excessive silting and scouring of the tailrace channel bed. If the powerhouse is close to
the stream, the outflow may be discharged directly into the stream.
2D to 5D
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

1

4.0 Water Retaining structures
Dam is an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river to raise the water level or to
store water at the upstream side in the form of reservoir or pond or a lake.
First dam- built 3000 to 5000 years ago for irrigation purpose
Modern dams: Aswan dam (111.5 m dam, 156 billion m
3
water, rock filled dam) of Egypt in
Nile river completed in 1902 to control flood flow, irrigation and navigation facilities.

4.1 Dams: Different types of dams based upon function, Head, Hydraulic consideration,
Materials and Storage
Based on function:
Storage dam: to store surplus water during rainy season to be used later during the period of deficit
supply (dry season). The stored water is generally used for water supply in irrigation, fish farming,
navigation, recreation and electricity production etc.
Diversion dam: used to raise water level in order to feed an off taking canal or some other
conveyance systems. Mainly used in irrigation and in simple ROR type hydropower development.
These types of retaining structures are called weir or barrage.
Detention dam/check dam: designed to detain flood water temporarily so as to retard flood runoff to
minimize the flood effects in downstream. Detention dams are also constructed to trap sediment and
big boulders or cobbles carried by flood water known as debris.
Based on head (height and storage capacity): the hazard potential to the downstream depends on
the head and the storage capacity of the reservoir ICOLD classification of Dam

Types/class Storage capacity
(Acre ft)
Dam Height (ft)
Large /A Equal or greater than
50000
Greater than 100
Medium /B 1000 to 50000 40 to 100
Small /C Less than or equal to
1000
Less than or equal to
40

1 Acre-ft = 1233.6 m
3
= 43560 ft
3


Based on Hydraulic consideration
Overflow dam: design to flow surplus water over their crest. The portion of the crest through which
excess water flows down is called spillways. The spillways should be eroded free and capable to pass
extreme design flood discharge. Gated over flow dam have controlled mechanism to regulate the
spillway flood while the non gated overflow dam do not have any control mechanism for spillway
flood discharge.
Non overflow dam: design not to overtopped (earth fill embankment dam and rock fill dams)

Based on Materials
Earth dam: earth dam is suitable where the foundation is not strong enough to bear the weight of the
concrete dam. Earth is used as construction materials and filled up in layers by layers after proper
rolling and compaction at optimum moisture content. The permeability or seepage of water through
the earthen dam or its foundations is major critical problems in earthen dam. Example of earthen
dams are Nurek dam in Russia USSR ( over 300 m high) Green mountain dam in Colorado river in
USA, Swift dam in Washington USA, Trinity dam in California USA
Rock fill dam: are formed of lose rocks and boulders piled in the river bed by inter locking each
other. A slab of the reinforced concrete is often laid across the upstream face of the rockfilled dam to
make it water tight. Example salt spring dam (345 ft high) in California USA, cougar dam(445 ft
high) on Mc-Kneize river in USA

Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

2

Concrete dam: are generally built where river bed foundations are strong enough to bear the great
weight of the dam. Concrete dams are expensive to build but more durable and maintenance free
than the rock and earth fill dams. Solid Masonry Concrete gravity dam do not have any cavity or
void within the dam body while the Hollow masonry Concrete gravity dam contains large cavity or
voids up to 35%-40% to reduce the volume of concrete or masonry. The RCC slab deck, arches etc
are built within the dam body to share the weight of water and overburden weight of the dam itself. It
needs skilled labour and complex structures and their design.
Steel dam: steel dams are generally used as temporary or coffer dam. The steel are used to reinforce
the earthen or rock fill dam for strength and impermeability.
Timber dam: Timbers wooden flank, post and bamboos are used to construct low head dam or weir
creating low level pool especially for irrigation of agriculture land. They have short life (30-40 years)

Based on Design Principle
Rigid dam: whole body of the dam acts as a single body and dam materials are bounded together
with strong bond
Gravity Dam: water thrust is resisted by gravity action
Arch Dam: water thrust is resisted by arch action
Buttress dam: water thrust is resisted by the buttresses i.e. inclined structural members to
support the load/water thrust.
Non rigid or embankment dams
The earth fill and rock fill dams consist of discrete unbounded particles and the action of seepage
through the body of the dam is to be checked besides the slope failure of the dams. Non rigid dams
have capacities to adjust the post construction settlements in foundation strata so more applicable in
weak foundation zone.

4.2 Choice of Dam depending upon the site condition and economy
Site selection for dam construction depends upon the function of dam. The site selection should be in
such a way that the length should be small as far as possible for economy for any type of functions.
Factors to be considered for site selection of dam and its economy construction
Site for Storage dam: suitable at neck of river valley where river is narrow and valley which has
large storage capacity on the upstream side of the proposed dam. Dam is to be located below the
confluence of the rivers to take advantages of both the river valleys and water of the rivers. High
head dam of concrete gravity, arch dam, earth fill and rock fill dams are used for storage dam.
Diversion dam: the location should be in such a way to have minimum water conveyance length.
Low head dam, weir or barrages are diversion dams
Geological factors: based on the geological condition in foundation and river banks, the type of dam
and dam materials are selected. For rocky foundation in riverbed, concrete gravity dams are
preferable, arch dam is more preferable having strong rocks in river banks. For weak geological
conditions in river bed and bank where load of concrete gravity dam can not bear by the foundation
and likely to have settlement, the non rigid dams earth fill or rock fill dams are suitable.
Accessibility: the dam site should be accessible for economy of construction materials transportation
Sociological factors: the land inundated by the reservoir after the dam construction also affects the
economy of the dam. The dam should be located in such a place where it minimizes the adverse
impacts to the society. Resettlement and rehabilitation cost is more for reservoir and dam
constructions. Catastrophic hazards that might produce due to dam failure and heavy earthquake also
need to consider for dam construction.
Availability of construction material and skilled labors: the dam construction needs lot of
construction materials and skilled and unskilled labor force. Construction of concrete gravity dam
needs cement, sand, skilled man powers and sophisticated construction equipments (batch plant,
testing equipment etc). Arc dam design and construction needs qualified experienced experts
compared to that in gravity dam construction. The earthfill and rockfill dam construction needs
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

3

relatively less skilled manpower and equipments. The local materials clay and rocks are used making
economy dam construction.
Safety: the dam site should be selected in safety site having sound geological conditions, less
vulnerable areas. The dam should satisfy the rest of stability for i) unusually high flood with return
periods order of 10,000 years ii) shock loads due to sudden earthquake and sudden change in
reservoir levels.

4.3 General consideration for Design of Dams

Geology of foundation and river (dam) bank of reservoir area: depth of gravel and aggregates
deposit, strength of foundation (bearing, shearing), permeability of the rocks, Soils in the river bank
and valley.
Hydrologic considerations: River flow and its temporal variations, Sediment load, Flood discharge
of different return period, Low flow statistics, storage volume (live and dead), river valley storage,
etc need to be considered for reservoir sizing (capacity determination), construction of river
diversion for the construction (coffer dam, diversion tunnel etc), and reservoir operations i.e.
regulations (to develop guide curve or table)
Construction material availability: the availability of the construction material at the site and their
suitability for dam construction. Availability of Cement, sand, rocks, boulders, aggregates, clay etc
in the construction site with their sufficiency needs to be considered in design of dam.
Availability of construction plant, workmanship and general know how: the Quality control in dam
construction as per design is important for assurance of safety. The availability of construction plant
(batching of cement concrete, testing of sand, aggregate, cement, concrete etc), the workmanship and
their knowledge and practice of performing activities are also important factors to be considered in
dam design. Based on the availability, the specifications of the quality, works and corresponding
design strength and factor of safety is to be chosen in design of dam.
Foundation Treatment: the requirement of the foundation treatment for improvement of
permeability and strength of the foundation materials are to be considered depending upon the
condition of the dam foundation. Grouting (cement slurry for concrete dams/ clay grouting for earth
filled or rock filled dam) requirement and their depth (1/3 of the dam height as thumb rule) has to be
considered in design of dam. Actual depth of foundation treatment is to be assessed by geological
and geo-technical investigations like core drilling, permeability and strength tests of the river bed
and banks.

4.4 Design principle of Straight Gravity dam: strength, stability and factor of safety

Design principle of Gravity dam: the water pressure thrust created by reservoir at the upstream of the
dam will resist by the weight of the dam. In old days, stone masonry gravity dams are common but
in modern age they are replaced by concrete due to development of modern technologies for quality
control, effective mechanized plants for faster completion.
Gravity dam is not feasible or applicable at following situations:
When good rock foundation strata is not available
When the dam height is greater than 250 m (but as in exception Dixene dam in Switzerland
284 m high and Bhakra Dam in India 226 m high)
The ratio of the base width to the height is less than 1
Structural Stability: The concrete gravity dam should be stable in all aspect.

= = , 0 , 0 V H and

= 0 M . It should be safe in sliding, lifting, overturning, bearing and shearing.

Forces acting on Gravity dam
a) External forces
I. Water pressure
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

4

It is most major external force acting in horizontal direction. The magnitude is calculated
based on Hydrostatic equation P =H. The hydrostatic pressure force in upstream and
downstream face should be considered. The water weight of certain portion giving to the
foundation is to be considered if the upstream/downstream face of the dam is not vertical.













II. Uplift pressure
Water seeping through the pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation materials and seeping
through bottom of dam body through joints between the body of the dam and its foundation at
the base, exerts an uplift pressure at the base of the dam. It is second major external force and
must be accounted for in all calculations. Uplift forces virtually reduce the weight of the body
dam and acts against dam body stability.

When the drainage galleries are provided to relieve the uplift pressure, then the uplift
pressure at the face of the drainage gallery = hydrostatic pressure at the toe+1/3 of the
difference of hydrostatic pressure at the toe and heel.
USBR (United States Bureau of Reclamation) to take uplift pressure intensity at the heel and
toe should be taken equal to their respective hydrostatic pressure. The uplift pressure is not
affected by earthquake forces.
The uplift pressure can be controlled by constructing cut off walls at upstream face, by
constructing drainage channels between the dam and its foundation (drainage gallery) and by
pressure grouting on the foundation.

III. Pressure due to earthquake forces
Dams are susceptible to earthquake i.e. earth quake produce waves which are capable of
shaking the earth upon which the dam is resting in every possible direction. Earth quake
impact is an equivalent to imparting acceleration to the foundation of dam in the direction in
which the wave is travelling at the moment.
For design purposes, it is resolved in to vertical and horizontal components taking horizontal
(
h
) and vertical acceleration (
v
) where = 0.1 to 0.2 of g
Effect of vertical acceleration (
V
): the inertial force (Massacceleration) will
reduce/increase the weight of the dam. Then the net weight of the dam =
) 1 (
v V
k W
g
W
W m m =
Effect of horizontal acceleration (
h
): the hydrodynamic pressure i.e horizontal acceleration
towards the reservoir cause momentary increase of water pressure as the foundation and dam
accelerate towards the reservoir. The extra pressure force pe exerted by this process is
calculated from Von-Karman equation for vertical faced dam
2
555 . 0 H k pe
h
= where
Drainage Gallery
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

5

g
k
h
h

= and the force acts at 4H/3 from bottom of the foundation (SK Gorg Book pg 991).
[from Dandekar book
3
15
4
h Ce Pe = acting at 2/5 h and Ce depends on physical condition
foundation relating to safety of dam depending upon the depth of water h(ft)and earthquake
vibration period t
e
(s),



For inclined face gravity dam with inclined face up to H/2 from Bottom, Zangers formula for
hydrodynamic pressure = horizontal earthquake force =
2
726 . 0 H K C pe
h m
= acting at 0.412H
from the base of the dam where
90
735 . 0
0

=
m
C and = angle in degree in which the
upstream face of the dam makes with the horizontal.

The horizontal inertia force induced due to horizontal acceleration component of earthquake
on the dam materials is given by
h h h
Wk g k
g
W
g
W
I = =
|
|

\
|
= acting at the centre of the
gravity of the dam body in horizontal direction either in upstream and downstream depending
on the earth quake propagation.

IV. Silt pressure
If h is the height of the silt deposited, the force exerted by the silt in addition to the water
pressure is given by the Rankines formula
2
2
1
h K Psilt
a s
= acts at h/3 from the dam base,
ka is the coefficient of active earth pressure due to silt =

sin 1
sin 1
+

and is the angle of

internal friction of soil in equation ) ( Tan C + = or the angle of repose,
s
is the
submerged unit weight of silt materials
s
USBR recommend to take value of
s
= 360 for
horizontal force (suspension) calculation and
s
= 920 for vertical force calculation.

In most of the gravity dam design silt force is neglected because silt is not present initially,
silt consolidated acts less like a fluid, impervious silt deposited in front of the dam face will
improve to minimize seepage and uplift pressure under dam.
V. Wave pressure
On the surface of a reservoir, waves are produced by the blowing winds. The wave height h
w

is given by
4 / 3
271 . 0 763 . 0 . 032 . 0 F F V hw + = for F<32 km and F V hw . 032 . 0 = for
F>32 km
where
hw = height of water from top crest to the bottom trough in m
V = Wind velocity in km/hr
F = Fetch or straight length of water expanse in km

Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

6

The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action =
pw = 2.4h
w
at the hw/2 m above the still water level
The distribution may be assumed to be triangular and
extended to the height of 5/3 h
w
. Hence the total force
due to wave action
w w w
h h P
3
5
) 4 . 2 (
2
1
= acting at the height of 3/8 h
w

from the reservoir still water level or H+3/8 h
w
from the dam base.

VI. Ice pressure
In cold countries, the ice is frozen due to cold temperature at the surface. The dam face has to resist
the thrust exerted by the expanding ice. Ice pressure force acts linearly along the length of the dam
and at the reservoir level. Ice pressure force varies from 25 to 150 t/m
2
depending on the temperature
variations. The average value of 50 t/m
2
is generally taken for dam design in ordinary temperature.
VII. External weight of the dam
The weight of the dam body and its foundation is major resisting force. In two dimension analyses a
unit length of the dam is considered. The cross section is divided into rectangular and triangular
portions to find the weight of each along with the c.g. the resultant of all these downward force will
represent the weight of the dam acting at the c.g. of the dam body.
b) Reaction of the foundation R: The internal resisting force developed in the structure at the
support which is equal and opposite to the resultant external force acting on the dam body.

Combination of forces for Design
Gravity dam design should be checked for two cases i) when reservoir is full ii) when Reservoir is
empty.
Reservoir full case: Major forces are weight of dam, external water pressure, uplift and earth quake
is serious in earthquake zones. The minor forces: Silt pressure, ice pressure and wave pressure.
USBR has classified Normal load combination and Extreme load condition.
Normal load combination
a) Water pressure up to normal pool level, uplift pressure, silt pressure and ice pressure for the
cold countries where ice force is serious and occur more frequently
b) Water pressure up to normal pool level, normal uplift, earthquake force and silt pressure
c) Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level (maximum pool level), uplift and silt pressure
Extreme load combination
Water pressure due to maximum pool level, extreme uplift pressure without any reduction due to
drainage and silt pressure.
Reservoir Empty case: empty reservoir without earthquake forces to be computed for determining
bending diagram for reinforcement design, for grouting and other studies. Empty reservoir with
horizontal earth quake force produced towards the upstream has to be checked for non development
of tension at toe.
Load combination for gravity dam
Combination-I: dam completed but no water in reservoir and no tail water (known as construction
condition)
Combination II: Full reservoir level, normal dry weather tail water level, normal uplift, ice and silt if
applicable known as normal operating condition.
Combination III: Reservoir at max flood water level, all gates open, tail water at flood elevation,
normal uplift and silt (if applicable). This is known as flood discharge condition
Combination IV: Combination with earth quake consideration
Combination V: Combination II with earth quake but no ice
Combination VI: Combination III with extreme uplift

h
w

5/3 h
w

Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

7

Design principle of Straight Gravity dam also called elementary profile of gravity dam: The
cross section of the gravity dam with the right angled triangle having zero width at the water level
and base width B at the Bottom and subjected to the external water pressure on the upstream face.
Condition of Stability:

= = = 0 0 , 0 M and V H

= 0 H The net active horizontal force on any horizontal section

must be balanced by the reactive horizontal (frictional force) from
the foundation. The dam will slide if this condition failed. The
sliding of the dam may occur due to shear failure of foundation
materials.
The safety factor against the shear failure of the foundation is
calculated by 4
5 . 0
. .
+
=

H
V
F
s B F
F S

where 0.5Bs is called
shear resistive and s is the allowable shear stress or average shear strength of the concrete in
foundation joint varies from 14 kg/cm
2
for poor rocks to 40 kg/cm
2
for good rocks. The is the
coefficient friction between the dam materials and foundation materials. Attempts are always made
to increase the shear strength and frictional coefficient by stepping for better bond between the dam
base and foundation.

F
v
is the sum of active vertical forces and

F
H
is the sum of active
horizontal forces. If shear resistive capacity of dam is neglected, then safety factor against shear
failure = 1 =

H
v
F
F
SF

= 0 V The factor of safety against Lifting =

V
V
it should be greater than 1. If the vertical
upward force is greater than the vertical downward force, the dam body may lift up and slide over
the river bed. Such cases may be critical in design of dam in alluvial soil deposit where the seepage
flow and exit gradient is high due to high water table/level at upstream face of the dam.

If the active vertical forces are excessive beyond the capacity of the dam or foundation materials to
mobilize reaction crosses the safe limit, there is a failure by compression or crushing called failure in
bearing capacity.
The vertical direct stress distribution at the dam base is given by the equation:
P = direct stress + bending stress due to eccentric loading
When the reservoir is empty, the resultant vertical force is u/s of the centre of base width i.e. towards
heel side and when the reservoir is full, the resultant vertical force is d/s of the centre of base width
i.e. towards toe side. If eccentricity of the resultant vertical force is e then
(

= =

B
e
B
V
B
B
e V
B
V
y
I
M
B
V
p
6
1
2
12
1
3 min max/


For no tension development at the foundation
6
0
6
1 0
min
B
or
B
e
or p = = = e i.e. the maximum
eccentricity e should be less than B/6 or the resultant force should act in between the middle third of
the base width of foundation to avoid the development of tension i.e. negative stress at the foundation
and foundation materials.

The masonry and concrete gravity dam are usually designed to have no tension development
anywhere in the section because those materials cannot withstand sustained tensile stress which
H
H
B
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

8

B
C A
produces cracks. The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dam under worst
loading may be taken as 5 kg/cm
2
.
Effect of crack development losses contact with the foundation and thus becomes ineffective causing
reduction of the effective width resulting high stress at the foundation and changing the uplift force
diagram and location of its resultant causing to increase of eccentricity further more. This increases
the crack in foundation further more resulting the induction of the cycle repeatedly leading finally
failure of the dam at the toe in crushing due to increase of stress beyond the safe limit.

The principal stress and shear stress
The vertical stress intensity given by the
(

=

B
e
B
V
p
6
1
min max/
is not the maximum direct stress
produced anywhere in the dam. The maximum normal stress will in fact, be the major principal stress
that will be generated on the major principal plane. When the reservoir is full, the maximum vertical
stress p
v
developed is max at the toe as the resultant force is nearer to the toe.
To find the principal stress developed near the toe, let us consider small element ABC near the toe of
the dam. The element is so small that the stress intensities may be taken as uniform on its faces.

The face BC of the Dam will act as principal plane because pressure p (due to tail water depth at
downstream) acts at right angles to the face and also there is no shear
stress acting on the plane.
Let the be the principal stress acting on the face BC of distance dr
the downstream face length AB is ds acting the stress of p and the
length of the base width AC is db acting with p
v
respectively.
The forces acting on the face AB, BC and CA are pds, dr and p
v
db
respectively.
Resolving all the forces in vertical direction we get
db p Cos dr Sin ds p or db p Cos dr dsSin p
v v
= + = + ' '
Since in the Triangle ABC Cos db dr so
db
dr
Cos and Sin db ds so
db
ds
Sin = = = =
Hence

2 2
2
2
2
2 2
' ' ' Tan p Sec p or
Cos
Sin
p
Cos
p
or db p Cos db Sin db p
v
v
v
= = = +
If there is no tail water depth then p =0 and since Sec
2
is always more than 1 hence >pv and the
value of should not be allowed to exceed the maximum allowable compressive stress of dam
materials.
If

exceeds the allowable compressive strength of the dam material (generally taken as 30 kg/cm
2

for concrete or allowable stress of the rock or bearing capacity of foundation materials), the dam may
fail by crushing.
For heel side, similar calculations can be made to find the principal stress

2 2
pTan Sec p
v atheel
= where is the angle which u/s face of the dam makes with vertical and
p is the water pressure at the dam face site. At the heel side, the pressure of water p is always more
than and hence p will be major principal stress and will be minor principal stress at the heel.

Shear stress on the horizontal plane near the toe: The shear stress
o
acting on the face CA on
which vertical stress p
v
is acting. Resolving all the forces in horizontal direction,
( ) ' '
0 0
p Cos Sin db db or Sin dr Cos ds p db = = + Substituting the value of

2 2
' Tan p Sec p
v
= then
Tan p p p p Sec Cos Sin Tan p Sec p Cos Sin
v v v
) ' ( ) ' ( )] 1 ( ' [
2 2 2
0
= = + = if no tail
water depth then Tan p
v
=
0

Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

9

Similarly the shear stress at the heel
Tan p pv heel at t ] [
0
= The negative sign shows that the direction of force is reversed.

= 0 M If the resultant of all the forces acting on dam at any sections passes outside the toe, the
dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe. Practically such a condition shall not arise, as the dam
may fail much earlier by compression. The ratio of the righting moments (anti clock wise) about the
toe to the overturning moments (clock wise) about a toe is called factor of safety against overturning.
Its values generally vary to be 2 to 3.
3 2 . . to
moment turning over
moment righting
Turning Over F S =

=

Design of Straight Gravity Dam
The elementary profile of dam (straight gravity dam) subjected only to the external water pressure of
height H on the upstream side having zero width at the water level and a base width B at the bottom
i.e. the point where max hydrostatic water pressure acts.

G Specific gravity of dam materials
Unit weight of water
K Coefficient of uplift pressure varies from 0 to 1for
no uplift and full uplift condition respectively
depending upon the effectiveness of drainage
seepage water flow in the foundation
When the reservoir is empty: only single force W weight
of the dam is acting. The resultant force of the dam body
W is passing through the base at distance B/3 from the
heel or dam face. For unit length of the body,
Then
(

=

B
e
B
V
p
6
1
min max/
where e = B/2-B/3 = B/6
and

= = G H B W V
2
1
then the maximum vertical stress developed at the bottom of the
dam body [ ] 0 min
2
max 1 1 min max/ = = =
v v v
p and
B
W
p or
B
W
p the max vertical stress will act at
the heel side (since the resultant is nearer to the heel side) and the vertical stress at the toe will be
zero.
When the reservoir is full:
The resultant reaction force of all P, W and U passes through the outer most middle third point i.e.
lower third point to avoid the development of the tension at bottom face of dam toe.
For stability

= 0 M at the toe of the dam

0
3 3
2
) (
3
= +
B
R
B
U W
H
P
v
From

= = U W R then V
v
, 0
) ( ]
2
1
2
1
[
2
1
) ( 0
3
) (
3
2 2
K G B H or B HB K BHG H HH or B U W PH or
B
U W
H
P = = = =
) ( K G
H
B

= ..1
if k =1 for full uplift condition
) 1 (
=
G
H
B and k=0 for no uplift pressure
G
H
B =

For dam to be safe in sliding:
W
P
U
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

10

The frictional resistance force =

= ) ( U W V should be equal to or more than

= P H so,
) ( 2
1
)
2
1
2
1
( ) (
K G
H
or HH HB K BHG or P U W

B
Under the limiting condition
) ( K G
H
B

2
if k =1 for full uplift condition
) 1 (
=
G
H
B

and k=0 for no uplift pressure

The value of B chosen should be greater of B computed from equation 1 and 2 generally the values
computed from equation 1 is higher than the values obtained from equation for the same H and G
since value of is less than 1.
For Dam to be safe in crushing strength
(

=

B
e
B
V
p
6
1
min max/
where

= = ) (
2
1
K G BH U W V and eccentricity e = B/2-B/3 =B/6
so, 0 ) ( ] 1 1 )[ (
2
1
min max min max/
= = = heel at p and K G H toe at p or K G H p
Calculation of principal stress and shear stress
Principal stress at the toe toe =
2 2
' Tan p Sec p
v
here p=0 and Tan = B/H so
Sec
2
=1+B
2
/H
2
So, ) / 1 )( (
2 2
H B K G H toe + = and substituting the value of B from equation 1
i.e.
K G H
B

=
1
2
2
Hence ) 1 ( )
1
1 )( ( + =

+ = K G H or
K G
K G H
toe toe
.3
If k=1 for full uplift pressure H G
toe
= and if k =0 for no uplift then ) 1 ( + = G H
toe

The shear stress at horizontal plane near the toe Tan p p
v
) ' (
0
= and p=0 So
K G H H B K G H Tan K G H Tan p
v
= = = = / ) ( ) (
0
..4
Limiting height of dam
The value of principal stress ) 1 ( + = K G H
toe
to avoid the dam failure by crushing, the value of
should be less than or at the most equal to the max allowable compressive stress of dam materials
f.
) 1 (
) 1 (
+
= + = =
K G
f
H or K G H f
toe

For determining the limited height and to be safer

side, uplift is neglected so
) 1 (
max
+
=
G
f
H

5
If the height of a dam having an elementary profile of a triangle is more than the height given by
equation 5, the maximum stress generated will exceed the allowable value. In order to keep it within
safe limit, extra slopes on the upstream as well as downstream below the limiting height will have to
be given to increase the coverage area and then to decrease p
v
and or f value.
Numerical Example: Find the limiting height of the concrete dam H
max
for the straight gravity
concrete dam with Specific gravity G = 2.4, allowable compressive stress of dam materials f = 300
t/m
2
or 30 kg/cm
2
for i) full uplift pressure load condition k =1 and for ii) no uplift pressure load
condition k= 0. iii) What will be the limiting heights if allowable compressive stress of the concrete
is f = 500 t/m
2
or 50 kg/cm
2
. (Ans 88 m and 125 m, 151.52 m to 217.3 m)

4.5 Design of Concrete Gravity dams: General considerations, cross sectional profiles,
strength, stability and safety factors against overturning, sliding, floating, free board

Profiles of dam from practical considerations:
i) Top width- straight top width for road construction over the top for inspection and
also acts as bridge over the river. Top width values vary from 6 to 10 m and
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

11

generally taken approximately H where H is the max water level over the river
bed.
ii) Freeboard- free board over the water surface is required to control the spilling of
water over the top of dam due to wave action. The free board of about 1.5 h
w
i.e.
height if the wave or 4 to 5% of dam height is
provided as free board over the water level.
The addition of these two provisions will cause the resultant force
towards the heel crossing the inner three middle third part and
consequently tension will be developed at the toe. In order to
avoid the development of this tension, some masonry/concrete
will have to be added to the upstream side as shown in fig.
The dam should be safe against sliding, lifting, overturning,
compressive (bearing) stress and shearing stress.
Safety factor against sliding should be greater than 1
Safety of factors against lifting should be greater than 1
Safety of factor against overturning should be greater than 2 (preferable less than 3)
Principal stress at toe and heel side should be less than the allowable stress f
Shear stress at the foundation should be less than the allowable shearing stress of the foundation
materials.

Construction in stages
Divide in to various blocks
Concreting at a time is done for particular blocks to raise it by 1.5 m to 2 m at a time
Raw materials cement sand, aggregates, fed by conveyor belts into mixing plant and
transported by mechanized equipments
The concrete is super cooled to 10
0
C by passing through a cooling plant to check the heat of
hydration for prevention of overheating and consequent shrinkage cracks later
Proper use of vibrator and curing. The joints between the blocks are treated as expansion
joints and filled with water sealed substances (water log)

Construction and expansion joint
Concreting of gravity dam is usually placed in blocks of size 15 m length 1.5 m high and overall
breadth of the dam. Height of single pour concrete is called lift. Dam sections are poured
alternatively so that each block is permitted to stand several days before another layer is poured on
the top of the first for curing.
The lateral surface of each section are painted with asphaltic emulsion paint so as to prevent
adherence to adjoining section and thus to serve as construction joints (transverse section)to reduce
cracking in concrete. The vertical joints will divide the dam length in to a number of vertical
cantilevers each of which is independent of other.
Horizontal joints (longitudinal joints) are developed at each lift height will extend through a entire
width of the dam section. They shall run through the entire length of the dam but shall be staggered
between transverse joints. The horizontal joints are cleaned and scratched to make rough surface and
filled up or sprayed with rich cement mortar before placing the new concrete over it.
Leakage through the vertical construction joint is controlled by placing rubber seal or metal water
stops across the joints near the upper face of the dam.
Cracking of concrete in gravity dam: when concrete sets in heavy bulk quantity, tremendous
amount of heat is liberated (due to heat of hydration in Cement water reaction in concrete), which
will raise the temperature inside the body of dam. Due to this temperature difference, temperature
stress will develop in the dam body. Shrinkage stress developed as it cools or it shrinks, these
temperature stresses will cause the concrete crack. Various measures generally applied in concrete
gravity dam to avoid cracking due to temperature shrinkage and expansion
a/16
3.1aG
0.5

2aSG
a
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

12

Using minimum amount of cement in given mixture of specified strength, It can be decreased
by better grading of aggregates.
Low lifts should be used. If lift is reduced, more horizontal joints will be developed and more
sufficient cooling time between the two successive pour shall be obtained thus reducing
cracking
By providing suitably spaced contraction joints in addition to the normal construction joint
Special low heat cement may be used
Materials which go into concrete mix may be cooled before mixing
Further cooling is accomplished by circulating cold water through pipes embedded in
concrete i.e. quite expensive and applicable for large gravity dam.


4.6 Design of Earthen dams: General consideration, strength, stability and safety factors
against slope stability, phreatic line, seepage flow discharge
General Consideration
Earthen dams are cheaper than other dam because of local material and intensive unskilled
labour use in construction
Can be constructed on relatively poor foundation (development of soil mechanics and
techniques of compaction, grouting, foundation improvement)
Continues field observation and monitoring for deformation and pore water pressure have to
be made during the construction for necessary modification in design and construction
Requirements: i) reasonable degree of imperviousness ii) stable under all working conditions
Advantages: i) need not have rocky foundation to construct dam (can be build even in ordinary
soil) ii) relatively simple construction plan only earth handling equipment needed iii) cheaper
because locally available material with ordinary processing can be used in construction iv)
earthen dam becomes stronger with age due to compaction and consolidation takes place
releasing pore water pressure v) suitable in seismic zones due to their adoptability easy to
maintain compared to gravity dam
Types of earthen dam: Homogeneous and non homogeneous embankment dam
Homogeneous embankment: simplest
type of earthen embankment consist of
single materials and homogeneous
throughout. Sometimes a blanket of
relatively impervious materials may be
placed on the upstream face.
Applicable to only for low to moderately
high dams and for levees
Poses the problem of seepage and huge
sections are required to make against
piping and stability
Need to provide an internal drainage
system such as horizontal drainage filter
or rock toe to keep the phreatic line well
within the dam body helping to reduce
the dam section and steeper slope

Non homogenous embankment: consist of two or more different types of materials in dam body
Zoned embankment type
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

13



Zoned embankments are usually provided with a central impervious core covered with comparatively
pervious transition zone which is finally surrounded by a much more pervious outer zone.
Central core checks the seepage, the transition zones prevents piping through cracks which may
develop in core. The outer zone gives stability to the inner zones and also distributes the load over
the large area of foundation.
Widely used and constructed. Materials of the zones depend on their availability. Clay is highly
impervious but shrinks and swell too much so may not make the best core. Clay mixed with fine
sand or fine gravel to use as the most suitable materials for the central impervious core. Silt and silty
clays are satisfactory central core materials.
Freely draining materials such as coarse sand and gravels are used in outer shell. Transition materials
are provided whenever there is an abrupt change of permeability from one zone to the other.
Diaphragm type embankment:
This type of dam is constructed with pervious materials, with a thin impervious diaphragm in the
central part to prevent seepage of water. The thin impervious diaphragm may be made of impervious
clayey soil, cement concrete or masonry or any impervious material. The diaphragm can be
constructed in the central portion or on the upstream face of the dam as a blanket. The main
difference in zoned and diaphragm type of dams depend on the thickness of the impervious core or
diaphragm. The thickness of the diaphragm is not more than 10 m or less than the height of the
embankment above the corresponding elevation. But if the thickness of diaphragm exceeds these
limits it is considered to be zoned embankment type.

Causes of failure of earthfill dams
Earth dams may fail due to faulty design, improper construction and poor maintenance practices, etc
The various causes of failure may be classified as: a) Hydraulic failure (40% of dam failure), b)
Seepage failure (33% of dam failure), c) Structural failure (25% of dam failure)

a) Hydraulic failure:
Hydraulic accounts for over 40% of earth dam failure and may be due to one or more of the
following:
i) By overtopping: When free board of dam or capacity of spillway is insufficient, the flood water
will pass over the dam and wash it downstream.
ii). Erosion of downstream toe: The toe of the dam at the downstream side may be eroded due to i)
heavy cross-current from spillway buckets, or ii) tail water. When the toe of downstream is eroded, it
will lead to failure of dam. This can be prevented by providing a downstream slope pitching or a
riprap up to a height above the tail water depth Also, the side wall of the spillway should have
sufficient height and length to prevent possibility of cross flow towards the earth embankment.
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

14

iii) Erosion of upstream surface: During winds, the waves developed near the top water surface
may cut into the soil of upstream dam face which may cause slip of the upstream surface leading to
failure. For preventing against such failure, the upstream face should be protected with stone pitching
or riprap
iv). Erosion of downstream face by gully formation: During heavy rains, the flowing rain water
over the downstream face can erode the surface, creating gullies, which could lead to failure. To
prevent such failures, the dam surface should be properly maintained; all cuts filled on time and
surface well grassed. Berms could be provided at suitable heights and surface well drained.
v) Crack due to frost action: frost on the upper portion of the dam may cause heaving and cracking
of the soil with dangerous seepage and consequent failure. An additional free board of 1.5 m should
be provided for dams in areas of low temperature.

b). Seepage failure:
Concentrated and uncontrolled seepage flow through the dam body or foundation may lead to failure
of the dam. Following are some of the various types of seepage failure.
i) Piping through dam body. When seepage starts
through poor soils in the body of the dam, small
channels are formed which transport material
downstream. As more materials are transported
downstream, the channels glow bigger and bigger
which could lead to wash out of dam.

ii) Piping through foundation: When highly
permeable cavities or fissures or strata of gravel or
coarse sand are present in the dam foundation, it may
lead to heavy seepage. The concentrated seepage at
high rate will erode soil which will cause increase flow
of water and soil. As a result, the dam will settle or
sink leading to failure.

iii) Sloughing of downstream side of dam:
The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the downstream toe of the dam becomes
saturated and starts getting eroded, causing small slump or slide of the dam. The small slide leaves a
relative steep face, which also becomes saturated due to seepage and also slumps again and forms
more unstable surface. The process of saturation and slumping continues, leading to failure of dam.

Seepage control measures
The following are some common measures for controlling seepage through the dam and
embankments.
1. Prevention of Seepage through Foundation
i) By providing drainage trenches or relief well
ii). By providing downstream seepage berms
iii). By providing impervious blanket layer on upstream slope providing impervious cutoff
(50% cutoff depth of pervious foundation reduces 25% of seepage flow while 90% cut off
depth reduces 65% of seepage flow)
2. Prevention of Seepage through Embankment (Dam)
The filter consists of several layers. The first layer of the filter which comes in contact with the
seeping water consists of fine sand material. Subsequent layers of filter are made of sand of
increased fineness. The last layer of the filter is made of gravels. The filters are also called as drain.
The drains in dam body reduces the pore water pressure in the downstream portion of the dam and
thus increases the stability of the dam permitting steep slopes and thus economic in construction.
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

15

i). By providing horizontal drainage
filter L = 3*H or 25 to 100% of
horizontal distance between the centre
line of the Top width to the toe
ii). By providing toe filter: drainage
filter in inclined to the toe height of the
rock toe 25 to 30% of H
iii). By providing chimney drains
extending upwards into the
embankment: more effective

Design of drainage filter
Neither the embankment nor the foundation materials can penetrate and clog the filters
Permeability should be high
Drain should be of sufficient to carry anticipated flow
Terzaghi approach of filter design
The following two requirements which should be fulfilled by the filter:
a). The D15 size of the filter material must not be more than 4 to 5 times the D85 of the base material.
This prevents the foundation material from carrying through the pores of the filter material.
b). The D15 size of the filter material should be at least 4 to 5 times the D15 of the base material. This
keeps seepage forces within the filter to permissible levels.
The above criteria can be expressed as follows:
materials Base of D
material filter of D
to
material Base of D
material filter of D
15
15
85
15
5 4 f p
Multilayered filter or special filter: generally three layers having increasing permeability from the
bottom to top are provided and known as inverted filter. Filters are costly and need to avoid if
possible. The minimum thickness of filter is 1 m, the thicker the layer, the greater the permissible
deviations from the filter requirements.

c). Structural Failure:
i) Slide in embankment: When the slopes of the embankments are too steep, the embankment may
slide causing failure. This might happen when there is a sudden drawdown, which is critical for the
upstream side because of the development of extremely high pore pressures, which decreases the
shearing strength of the soil. The downstream side can also slide especially when dam is full.
Upstream embankment failure is not as serious as downstream failure.

Upstream Slope protections of the earth dam are protected against the erosive action of waves by
stone pitching, dumped stone rip rap, head placed rip rap, grouted riprap, concrete slab or concrete
blocks, bituminous paving, planting on slopes.
Thumb rule for thickness of rip rap = 1.5 times the average rock size (20 to 35 cm). if hw of the wind
wave is 1.75 m or more, RCC slabs of size 10 m*10m*0.2m to 0.5m are recommended. The riprap
should be placed over a gravel filter of about 0.3 m thickness. The filter prevents the washing of
fines from the dam in to riprap.

Downstream slope protection should be protected against erosive action of rain by providing
horizontal berms at 15 m intervals, grass plantation after construction, rip rap prevention up to the
maximum tail water level.

ii) Foundation slide: When the foundation of an earthfill dam is composed of fine silt, clay, or similar
soft soil, the whole dam may slide due to water thrust. If seams of fissured rocks, such as soft clay, or
shale exist below the foundation, the side thrust of the water pressure may shear the whole dam and
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

16

cause its failure. In such failure the top of the dam gets cracked and subsides, the lower slopes moves
outward and forms large mud waves near the dam heel.

iii) Faulty construction and poor maintenance: When during construction, the compaction of the
embankment is not properly done, it may lead to failure.

iv) Earthquake may cause the following types of failure to earthfill dams;
Cracks may develop in the core wall, causing leakages and piping failure.
slow waves may set up due to shaking of reservoir bottom, and dam may fail due to
overtopping
settlement of dam which may reduce freeboard causing failure by overtopping
sliding of natural hills causing damage to dam and its appurtenant structures
Fault movement in the dam site reducing reservoir capacity and causing overtopping.
The sand below foundation may liquefy
Failure of slope pitching.
Design criteria for Earthen Dams
Top width should be minimum 3 m and is generally govern by the minimum roadway width
requirements. Thumb rule a) W = H/5 +3 for very low dams, b) For dams lower than 30m
W = 0.55(H)
0.5
+ H/5 c) For dams higher than 30m,W = 1.65(H + 1.5)
1/3

Side Slope According to the recommendations of Terzaghi

Side slopes must remain in safe for all critical conditions of loading due to development of
excessive pore water pressure, reduction of cohesion, boiling of sand condition etc.
The u/s and d/s slopes should be flat enough to provide sufficient base width at the
foundation level such that the maximum shear stress develop remain well below the
corresponding shear strength of the soil so as to provide suitable factor of safety.
Berms are constructed at both the upstream and downstream side of the dam for the purposes
of observing the conditions of protections at the slopes and their repairs and also for
increasing the width of dam at the base with aim of increasing seepage length. At the
downstream side, berms are done at an interval of 10 15m high. Width of berm is taken
between 1 2 m
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

17


Free board should be sufficient for wind set up wave action, frost action and earth wave
motion, generally free board = 1.5 hw.
USBR recommended values of freeboard

An additional free board up to 1.5 m I provided for dam situated in areas of low temperature
for frost action
Imperviousness: the dam should be as water tight as possible. There should be no possibility
of free flow of water from upstream to downstream face.
The seepage line (phreatic line) should remain within the downstream face of the dam, so that
no sloughing of the face occurs. The portion of the dam, downstream of the impervious core,
should be properly drained by providing suitable horizontal filter. Toe drain or chimney
drain.
Upstream and downstream slope face of the dam should be protected against wave, rain and
erosive actions by riprap, berms and grass plantation.
Sufficient spillways and outlet capacity should be provided to avoid possibilities of
overtopping the dam during design flood.
Consolidation consideration and maintenance: A suitable allowance in the height of the
embankment (2 to 3% of dam height) must be made in fined grain soil so as to account for
the consolidation (due to release pore water pressure) that may take place up to long years
after construction protection. Increase the dam height as per consolidation takes place in
maintenance.

Stability of Earthfill dams
Earthfill dams usually fail due to the sliding of large soil mass along a curved surface. The most
common method used for examining the stability of earthfill dam embankment slopes is the Swedish
slip circle or (the slice) method. This method has been developed by actual investigation in Sweden,
(railway embankment slides), the surface of slips is usually close to be cylindrical i.e. an arc of a
circle in a circular cross section.
Swedish slip circle or (the slice) method:
The location of the centre of the centre of the possible failure arc is assumed.
Earth mass is divided in to number of vertical segments (equal spaced vertically, 6 to 12 slices)
called slices.
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

18

As per Fellenious, The centre line of the circle lie on the locus on which the probable centre line may
lie on PQ
Slope (H:V) of embankment 1 degree 2 degree
1:1 27.5 37
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35
4:1 25 35
5:1 25 35
Where 1 is the angles made at toe or heel between the embankment slope and the line of ray line
and 2 is the angles at the crest of the dam with the horizontal and line of ray. The intersection point
of the line of ray is P and Q is the point at distance 4.5 H from the toe or heel.

The forces between the slices are neglected and each slices assumed to act independently as a
vertical column of soil of unit thickness perpendicular to the paper and width b. the weight w of each
slices is assumed to act its centre and can be resolved in to two perpendicular components tangential
T = wSin and radial direction N= Cos considering the sloping angle at toe or heels with the
horizontal. N does not produce any moment as it passes through the centre for each slice.
T causes disturbing moment from each slice. Total disturbing Moment is given by:
) ...... 3 2 1 ( Tn T T T r Tr M
d
+ + + = =


The resisting Moment is supplied by the shearing resistance of the soil along the circular surface and
its magnitude is given by from Coulombs equation, the resisting force
FR = c x L + N tan .1) where c = unit cohesion ; L = curved length of slice ; = angle of
internal friction of soil. The Resisting moment Mr = r*FR = r(c x L + N tan ) and total Resisting
Mment ] [ ) (

+ = + = NTan L c r NTan L c r Mr
Factor of Safety against Sliding =Mr/Md =

+
T
N Tan L c ] [
---------2
The several slip surfaces are drawn and the calculations are repeated to find the slip surface for
minimum factor of safety which will be the critical surface of sliding.

Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
The seepage water below the phreatic line exerts a pore water pressure on the soil mass. The net
shear strength developed on these slices shall correspondingly reduced and given by
FR = c x L + (N-U) tan .3 where U is pore water pressure or uplift pressure given by
pizeometric head at the point of consideration and is obtained by plotting the flow net. The drawing
of the flow net (two sets of curves mutually perpendicular to each other equipotential lines are lines
of equal energy i.e. pizeometric head and flow lines are stream lines) is complex and need trial and
error and need to install the pizeometers.
Factor of Safety against Sliding =Mr/Md =

+
T
U N Tan L c )] ( [
4
For approximate calculation the value of N-U is calculated using the values of
sub
=
sat
-
w
while T is
calculated taking the
sat
. The values of N-U = b
sub
Cos and T = b
sat
Sin.
Stability of upstream slope during steady seepage
The critical condition occurs when the reservoir is suddenly emptied. The water level within the soil
will remain as it was when the soil pores were full of water. So, the pore water pressure is considered
as in the case of stability of downstream slope during steady seepage.

Seepage Discharge Calculations
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

19

Graphical solutions using flow nets. The Laplacian Equations 0
2
2
2
2
=

y x

is commonly used to
compute flownet diagram for two dimensional seepage flow analyses through a pervious soil
materials.
where = kh and k is permeability coefficient and h head causing the flow
draw dam section in the same scale for X and y direction
draw flow lines and equipotential lines intersecting at right angle and the rate of flow
between each pair of flow lines called flow channels are equal and the energy drop between
any two successive potential lines is the same.
The distance between the flow lines is made equal to the distance between the potential lines
forming a series of squares or distorted squares in curves.
the flow through each channel kiA q = from Darcys equations
x
y
H k y
x
H
k q

= 1 and H = total H/number of drop = H/Nd and 1 =

Nd
H
k q
since x = y.
The total flow through all channels Nf
Nd
H
k q =
For non isotropic soil for which
v h
k k then k is calculated by
v h
k k k =
Line of seepage for Phreatic Line: is defined as the line within the earth fill dam section below
which there is positive hydrostatic pressure in the dam. The hydrostatic pressure of the phreatic line
is equal to the atmospheric pressure and hence pizeometric head equals to zero. Above the phreatic
line, the capillary finge exists and the hydrostatic pressure is negative.
Use of Phreatic line: this give the divide line between the dry or moist and submerged soil for
computation of shear strength in Swedish circle land stability analyses.
sub
for below and
dry
for
above portion. The phreatic lines represents the top stream line and helpus for drawing the flow net
diagram. The seepage line determination help us to ensure that it does not cut downstream face of the
dam for preventing softening or sloughing of the dam.

See the S.K. Garg book Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures page 1075-1120 for
methodology and exercise of phreatic line plotting and its numerical example.

4.7 Foundation treatments: Grouting, remedies against piping and Exit gradient
Foundation treatment is mainly carried out to increase the strength of foundation and to
prevent the seepage flow foundation. Preparing foundations involves following activities:
Remove entire loose soil to expose sound bed rock
Stepped (deeper in heel side) to increase the frictional resistance of the dam and
foundation for improvement in the sliding problem
Top surface is thoroughly cleaned with wet sand blasting and washing before the
concreting
The weathered and shattered rock mass need to be removed and the cement grouting
is applied in high pressure to fill up cracked in rock
Grouting: a) Consolidation grouting is applied to improve strengthening of foundation.
Shallow holes (called B holes) of 10 to 15 m deep situated at 5 to 20 m apart in the heel area.
Cement slurry is forced into the holes at low pressure of 3 to 4 kg/cm2 done before
concreting.
b) Curtain grouting is applied to form principal barrier or curtain against seepage through
foundations and reduce uplift pressure. Relatively deeper holes (called A holes) of depth 30
to 40% for strong rock and up to 70% for poor rock of the upstream water head are made
spacing at 1.2 to 1.5 m apart. The holes are drilled and grouted 10 to 12 m apart and then
Chapter 4 of Hydropower Engineering

20

intermediate holes are drilled and grouted. The grouting pressure is high = 0.25D kg/cm
2

where D is the depth of grouting holes in m.
c) Clay slurry grouting are also used for general foundation treatment in earthfill
embankment or dam which will control seepage through the foundation reducing pipe failure
and exit gradient or velocity.

Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-1
5.0 Regulatory Structures
The structure used to control or regulate the flow in the water conveyance system for
hydropower production is called regulatory structures
5.1 Intake: Importance, location and types
Typical components of Headworks consist of i) river diversion structures ii)spillway to
permit excess flow or flood safely iii) under sluice gate for to prevent entry of bed load
and its flushing iv) energy dissipating structures downstream of the spillway to control
serious scour and damage in d/s v) Intake to let the water into the water conveyance
system vi) settling basin with flushing system to exclude suspended sediment from the
water entered in the water conveyance system through intake. The additional or optional
facilities in the headworks are i) approach canal with silt or gravel trap excluder and
optional bypass spillway connecting the intake and settling basin, ii) upstream divide wall
to facilitate smooth flow in front of the intake iii) fish ladder to promote migration of fish
from d/s to u/s and vice versa iv) hydro-mechanical equipments like motor, crane, lift
cranes for hoisting trash rack, gates, stop log etc v) river training works to guide the river
flow for minimization of damage, vi) communication facilities like wireless, telephone,
access road etc
Intake is an important regulating structure from which water is withdrawn from the river,
head pond and reservoir to the water conveyance system. The malfunction of intake makes
paralysis of all the system in hydro-electric power production system.
Desired functions of intake are i) control water flow into the conveyance system by gate
operations ii) smooth easy and turbulent free entry of water achieved by flaring inlet
mouth like in bell mouth iii)stopping entry of coarse river borne trash materials like
boulders, ice, wooden log, plastic etc by providing trash rack at the bell mouth iv) not
allow to enter heavy sediment load in to the conveyance system by providing gravel trap
and settling basin with flushing system v) capable of passing floods through the spillway
without affecting the intake structures vi) capable to withdraw of desired discharge from
source in all possible range of water level variation in source.
Location of intake structures should be in such a place where i) smooth flow of water
having adequate amount as desired (below confluence of rivers) ii) good geological site,
iii) adequate space for spillway and settling basin iii) stable river channel with minimum
sediment entry during flood time iv) easily accessible with availability of construction
materials v) safe place against hitting from boulders, debris and floating materials with the
surface water. For sand and gravel bed rivers, the intake shall be preferably located at the
downstream end of the convex bend of the river so that the secondary current generated at
the bends can be used advantageously in reducing the influx of sediments to the intake.
Types of intakes structure
Basis of classification Types of intakes
Supplies to the conduit Power intake: directly supplying water to the turbine via
through pressure conduit. Flow is generally controlled from
turbine flow gate.
Conveyance intake: supply water to non pressure conduit such
as canal, flumes, tunnel or pipe and it is followed by power
intake at the point of connection with the pressure conduit.
Flow is controlled gate or valve located at the intake.
Depending upon the RoR project intake: i) side ii) frontal iii) drop
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-2
feeding power project
and location of intake
relative to the diversion
structure
Reservoir/pondage intake: i) dam intake intake within the dam
body - deep intake (d1>>d2) and shallow intake (d1~d2)
depending upon the depth of submergence relative to available
head water depth
ii) siphon intake- siphon pipe used in earthfill/rockfill dam for
small discharge
iii) Remote reservoir intake- shaft intake, tower intake is
located in reservoir at considerable distance far from the dam
face. The shaft pipe fitted with trash rack is connected in shaft
intake while tower with hollow pipe fitted with trash rack at
different level is erected in tower intake.
Factors affecting selection of intake for hydropower projects
Nature of river: bed load is dependent on the slope of the river and its catchment
characteristics. Steep slope brigs large boulder and debris flow in high flow season while the
mild rivers have gravel and cobbles in bed load. The plain river has course to fine sand in the
river bed as bed load. Side intake is suitable for steep to mild rivers as it is safe from the
boulder and debris hitting to the intake. The frontal intakes are applicable in plain rivers. Drop
intake not suitable for high sediment loaded rivers.
Nature and scale of hydropower project: frontal intake for low head plants for the
minimization of head loss, drop intake have high head loss limited to small hydropower plants
where substantial lower construction cost of these intakes can justify the higher head loss.
Side intakes has head loss in between the frontal and drop intake and preferable for most of
the hydropower project
Sediment, trash and Debris flow: Side intakes are preferable over the other intakes for
Nepalese river having large sediment, trash and debris during monsoon. In boulder stage of
the river, boulders rolling down may damage the intake foundation and trash rack of frontal
and drop intake. Frontal intakes may be applicable in wide channel while side intakes are
applicable for narrow river channel.
Construction consideration: side intake is easy to construct as it is constructed in dry land i.e.
bank of the river
Operation and maintenance: side intakes are preferable for i) easy of trash handling, gate and
stop log operation and maintenance ii) lower maintenance cost due to lower likelihood of
damage of trash rack and gates, iii) safety of operation and maintenance as drop intake cannot
be cleaned out unless the water level lowers if it is clogged during flash flood.
5.2 Design of intake structure
Fixing intake invert level: based on sediment content (bed load) in the river and
experience on design and construction, invert level shall be 1.5 m to 2 m above the under
sluice level according to the site condition
Intake opening: is designed as broad crested weir with submergence or free flow
condition depending upon the water level at u/s, d/s and on the weir. The intake opening
under the gate control can also be designed based on orifice flow equation.

Weir Formula
The general Equation of flow over the weir is given by the Equation
2 / 3
2 1
H L C C Q =
Where, C
1
= Coefficient related to condition of submergence and crest shape (Figure 43)
and
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-3
C
2
= Coefficient related to crest shape (Figure 44)





Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-4


As per DoED Headworks design Guidelines

Broad crested weir under Submergence flow condition:
0
2 * gz Bh Q = -------1
Broad crested weir under free flow condition:
2 / 3
0
2 * H g B C Q
d
= ---------2

where, Q is discharge in m3/s, cd = coefficient of discharge depending on flow condition
and direction of diversion, B = length of intake opening (m), h = depth of water above the
crest weir (m), and z
0
is the head over the crest causing to flow (i.e) head loss in the
intake = water level difference in front of the weir and on the weir and d/s channel Z
0
= h
u
-
h
d
and H0 = Head over the weir crest including velocity head
g
V
h H
2
2
0
0
+ =
= depends on angle between the longitudinal axis of the intake and axis of the river
flow
(Degree) 0 30 45 60 75 90

1 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.86
= coefficient of lateral flow contraction and given by
B H
H
a
+
= 1 where H = head
over the weir in front of the weir, and a coefficient depending upon the condition of the
pier = 0.20 for rectangular pier, 0.10 for semicircular pier, 0.50 for elliptical pier
and C
d
= coefficient depending on the shape of top face of the broad crested weir and
the frictional
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-5
Condition of flow/crest of weir value C
d
value
Absence of hydraulic friction 1 0.385
Elliptical form of crest weir 0.95 0.385
Circular form of crest weir 0.92 0.350
Rectangular rough form of crest 0.88 0.320
Sharp crest 0.85 0.32
Poor hydraulic condition 0.80 0.300
Equation 1 and 2 is used to find the value of B and for good performance of intake, it is
preferable to have B/h = 1.2 to 1.5

Flow Under the Gate condition
Free flow condition: ) ' ( 2 '
0
a H g aB Q =
where, = 0.85 to 0.95 for opening with elevated crest and 0.95 to 0.97 for without crest
= 0.615 for a/H = 0.10 and = 0.69 for a/H = 0.70 for vertical plane gates
Submerged flow condition: ) ( 2
0 z
h H g aB Q = and 2 / )
4
(
0
2
0
N
N
H N h hz + =
and
cont
cont
h h
h h
a N

=
0
0 2 2
4
where, = coefficient of discharge 0.60 to 0.85
a = depth of gate opening, h
0
= downstream depth of normal flow, h
cont
= flow
depth at the contracted section just downstream of the gate ~0.85 of a and
g
V
h H
2
2
0
0
+ = and h is the head over the centre of the gate.
Inlet Aeration: air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate through a air
vent pipe to avoid cavitations due to vacuum effect.
For smooth flow, P a Q
a
= 7 . 0 400 where Q
a
= Discharge of air in m
3
/s, a area of
vent pipe in m
2
(it is about 10% of control gate), P = differential pressure between the
atmosphere and penstock in kg/cm
2
.
USBR formula:
w
Q Qa 25 . 0 = where Qw is the water discharge in conduit
See Dandekar book for details of Aeration (page 278-279)

5.3 Settling basin: types of settling basins and their locations, settling velocity, Horizontal
velocity and lifting velocity, characteristics of suspended sediments, settling basins with
periodic and continuous flushing, components of basin and their design
Settling basins are designed to settle down the suspended sediment present in water to
avoid abrasion of sediment particles with penstock pipe and turbine runner plate. Settling
of sediments is achieved by reducing the turbulence level in the water flow to allow
suspended sediment particles to settle out from the water body and deposit on the bottom
of the basin.
Settling basins are located just downstream of the gravel trap immediate after the intake
structures. The flow from gravel trap is passed to the settling basin through the approach
canal. The approach canal might be short or long depending upon the availability of the
space for settling basin which need wide and long place.
The settling basin can be underground and surface type based on the location of the
settling basin below the ground level or above. Depending upon the flushing system of
sediment settled down in the basin, it can be continuous flushing type and Intermittent
flushing type.
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-6
In intermittent flushing type, suspended sediment abstracted from the water in the settling
basin is allowed to deposit for few days/weeks in the basin and flushed out hydraulically
through a flushing system using gravity flow of water at high velocity. During sediment
flushing water supply to the water conveyance system may either be stopped or channeled
through another settling basin/chamber or bye pass system. Settling basin in Khimti,
Trishuli and Khudi are of intermittent type.
In continuous flushing type, simultaneous settling of suspended sediment and flushing of
deposited sediments simultaneously. Flushing is carried out continuously abstracting water
from the bottom of the settling basin during operation. Settling basin in Adhikhola,
sunkoshi, Chilime, Modikhola and Jhimruk are of continuous type.
Factor affecting the selection of settling basin type:
a) Topography narrow site continuous type, single chamber, long channel to avoid
outage during flushing. For wide site two or more chambers are possible and
intermittent type are preferable as periodic flushing do not affect the flow in the
conveyance system
b) Water availability surplus water need for continuous flushing while intermittent
flushing need little water for flushing
c) Cost of construction: Continuous flushing requires large approach channel and wide
settling basin compared to that of periodic flushing system while the intermittent
flushing needs deeper settling basin to accommodate sediment for certain time
between the flushing time
d) Ease of operation and maintenance: small and remotely located areas, continuous
type is preferable as it needs minimum human and minimum mechanical intervention
but the power plant need to shut down for operation. Intermittent are preferable for
ease of maintenance but need more mechanical and human interference for flushing
system.
e) Power outage continuous type has minimal outage compared to that of the single
chambered intermittent type basins. Periodic flushing with multiple chambers of
intermittent type also reduces outage to the minimal value.
Characteristics of sediment
Sediment data needed to design settling basin for a project are as follows:
i) Sediment concentration of the river flow, max, min and average sediment
concentration in the river flow. Sediment concentration is expressed in ppm (mg/l)
ii) Particle size distribution of sediment by sieve analyses and hygrometric analyses
iii) Mineralogical components of the sediment (quartz, schist, gneiss, phyllite, silt etc)
Project related data a) sediment size to be settled down, and percentage to be settled, b)
design discharge and flushing discharge c) type of plant and hydro-mechanical equipment
Settling Velocity or fall velocity or terminal velocity
As per Stokes Law, when the viscous force is equal to the effective weight of the sphere,
the velocity of sediment particles start to fall down with constant velocity is called
terminal velocity or fall velocity or settling velocity. The terminal velocity of particles
depends upon the size of sediment particles.
g d g r sphere of weight Effective dV rV F Force Viscous
w s w s
) (
6
1
) (
3
4
3 6
3 3
= = = = = =
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-7
For constant Terminal velocity, equating the viscous force with the effective weight of the
sphere, then V = V
0
g
d
w s

) (
18
1
2

=
Where, = viscosity of water temperature dependent,
w
= density of water temperature
and pressure dependent,
s
= density of sediment particle = 2.65
w
and d = diameter of the
particle size.
Settling velocity of particle size up to 1.5 mm for different water temperatures
Particle size
(mm)
Settling velocity V
0
(mm/s) for different water temperatures
10 C 15 C 20 C 25 C 30 C
0.001 0.0007 0.0008 0.0009 0.001 0.0011
0.010 0.0680 0.0790 0.0900 0.100 0.1100
0.020 0.2740 0.3160 0.3600 0.400 0.4500
0.030 0.6180 0.7100 0.8100 0.900 1.0120
0.050 1.7170 1.9730 2.2700 2.500 2.8120
0.070 2.5100 2.8800 3.2500 3.650 4.1000
0.100 5.1200 5.8800 6.6300 7.440 8.3700
0.200 17.1100 18.7600 20.4200 22.060 23.720
0.300 28.3100 29.9600 31.6200 33.260 34.920
0.500 50.7100 52.3600 54.0200 55.660 57.320
1.000 106.7100 108.3600 110.0200 111.660 113.320
1.500 162.7100 164.3600 166.0200 167.660 169.320
Horizontal velocity
Mean flow velocity in horizontal direction is computed from Discharge Q and Area of cross
section flow. V = Q/A
Lifting (Buoyant) Velocity of Flow
This lifting velocity of flow shall be determined through suitable empirical formulae. The
following formula may be used for this purpose (Zhurablov, 1975):
( )
3
05 . 0 065 . 0
R
v n
v u U
l
= =
Where u
l
is the lifting velocity of flow, n is the roughness coefficient of the bed material, v is
the longitudinal flow velocity and R is the hydraulic mean radius.
The lifting velocity is also termed as shear velocity and calculated by simplified equations
6 1 *
042 . 0
R
v
u U = = approximately.
Design Assumptions
a. Water level in the basin is horizontal
b. The settling velocity is not affected by the temperature of water.
c. Average velocity of flow in the settling basin is constant and does not change in time or
space.
d. The length of the settling basin shall be determined mainly by the settling velocity of
sediment to be eliminated and by the longitudinal flow velocity
e. The sediment concentration of flow entering the settling basin is equal to the design
sediment concentration of the river flow.
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-8
f. Supply of the design flow to the power canal takes place with simultaneous settling and
flushing of sediments or with sediment settling followed by intermittent flushing.
g. In continuous flushing, the depth of flow in the basin is constant, but the flow regime is
non-uniform due to change in flow discharge along the basin length during sediment
flushing.
h. Flushing of settled sediments takes place in uniform regime of flow.
Components of settling basin

Canals
Upstream
transition
part
Flushing
channel
Canals
Upstream
regulator
Chamber of
desilting basin
Downstream
regulator
Downstream
transition
part

Plan of Typical Settling Basin
DESIGN OF INLET / UPSTREAM TRANSITION
The inlet transition for settling basins shall be designed to prevent turbulent flow at the
entrance to the settling basin chamber. This shall be achieved through the design
considerations discussed in the following sections.
Straight approach to inlet: the approach canal to the settling basin shall have a straight
alignment for a stretch equal to about ten times the width of the canal upstream of its
junction with the transition. Flow velocities in the approach channel shall be in the range
of 1.1 to 1.3 m/s
Inlet Transition: to ensure that the flow is evenly distributed over the width and the depth
of the settling basin, especially in the desanding chamber, for all ranges of flow through
the settling basin by providing an opening angle of the inlet transition () in the range of 7
to 10 along with smooth curvature. Where space constraints do not permit the long
transition resulting from the recommended opening angles, the inlet transition may be
shortened through guide walls in the transition.

Inlet
Straight
approach
canal
Guide walls in
inlet transition
Uniform
section
Outlet
S
l
o
t
t
e
d

o
u
t
l
e
t

w
a
l
l

/4
/4
/4
/4

Typical Plan of Inlet Transition
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-9
WL
WL
Longitudinal
divide wall
Deformation
joints
Chamber
WL
WL
WL
Longitudinal
divide wall
Chamber
Sediment
divide wall H
Deformation
joints
i. Trapezoidal chamber ii. Rectangular chamber

WL
Chamber Longitudinal
divide wall
Longitudinal
gallery
Sediments deposited
between longitudinal
galleries
B
ch
Bsec H
e
WL

B
ch
Bsec
Chamber
Longitudinal
divide wall
Longitudinal
gallery
Triangular prism
between longitudinal
galleries
Deformation
joints
H
i. Chamber with deposited sediments between galleries ii. Chamber with triangular prism
Typical cross section of the settling basin
Inlet
regulator
Operation
platform
Balancing
screen
Chamber
Water level in chamber
during sediment settling
Deformation
joints
Sediment
divide wall
Gallery screen
Water stop
Flushing gate
Outlet
regulator
Gate of
inlet regulator
Gate of
outlet regulator
Typical L-section of the settling basin
Design of Settling Basin: a) Particle approach and b) Concentration or trap Efficiency approach
Particle approach
L
V
Time Travelling Time Falling
H
V
= = =
0
so, The length of settling basin is calculated by the
equation
0
V
V H
L

= . Again
s
A
Q
LBH
HQ
L
HV
V = = =
0

If the buoyant velocity or lifting velocity or shear velocity U is considered the length of the
settling basin is calculated by:
U V
V
K L

=
0
where, K safety factor =1.2 to 1.4, V0 = settling
velocity of the particle to be settled down in the chamber, V = average mean velocity of flow in
horizontal direction
Slope V:H=1:10
Slope 2-3%
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-10
To find average horizontal velocity
H B
Q
A
Q
V

= = and limited to 0.2m/s to 0.3 m/s for

preventing turbulence flow in the basin. H the height of the settling basin varies from 1.0m to 15.0
m
Bed slope of the chamber =
3 / 4
2 2
R
V
Sch

= and the flow depth at H1 and H2 at the beginning and
end of the chamber
2
2
2
1
L
Sch Hm H and
L
Sch Hm H + = = where, is the mannings
roughness coefficient of the basin.

Concentration Approach

Simplified method for having less sediment data
Trap Efficiency of the basin
( )
Q
s
A V
e
0
1

=
=
inlet ent se of Vol
ba in trapped ent se of Vol
dim
sin dim

Where A
s
= Surface area of the basin,
This approach is applicable for the river with sediment concentration less than 2000 ppm for most
of the time. For the river with sediment concentration greater than 2000 ppm for most of the time,
particle approach is recommended.
In this approach, the value of A
s
is to be find for desired Trap efficiency, terminal velocity and
design discharge. Then find the suitable value of B, H and L applying the conditions as in the
sediment particle approach. It gives the conservative values (higher value of As) compared to that
from sediment particle approach


Sediment Flushing
For continuous type of settling basin, Flushing discharge through bottom (flushing) gallery, Q
f
=
10 to 25 percent of design discharge Q. The additional depth required for the flushing discharge is
provided depending upon cross sectional area of the flushing channel in the settling basin keeping
the velocity of flow V same as above. The depth of flow for the channel
V B
Q
h
ch
f
f

=
For intermittent flushing of the channel, the depth of the chamber is to be increased with the
volume of sediment to which it is allowed to deposit in the chamber between the time intervals of
flushing.
The volume of sediment deposited in the chamber for T (second) time interval of flushing carried
by the design discharge Q m
3
/s is calculated based on the average sediment concentration (ppm
= mg/l = ppm Conversion factor for 1 kg/kg = 1*10
6
mg/l or ppm) data t Q V
s
= 001 . 0 .
Generally the V
s
= 0.6~ 0.4Vol of settling basin chamber.
Flushing capacity of water
tr
= sediment transported in kg/kg water
2
3
) 35 . 0 (
hf
V
f

=
Flushing time requirement in minutes
f tr
s s
f
Q
V
T
) (
7 . 16
0

= where
0
is the sediment concentration
(kg/kg) of flow entering the chamber during flushing,
s
= Specific unit weight of sediment to be
flushed, V
s
volume of sediment to be flushed Q
f
= Flushing discharge in m
3
/s

Flushing outlets: designed to transport deposited sediment from the de-sander basin to the river
(d/s of weir). Dimension and flushing outlet is designed to create sufficient velocity V
c
required to
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-11
flush the velocity depending on the particle size d a V
c
= . Where, V
c
= flushing velocity (m/s) d
is particle size in mm and a is constant = 0.55 for d> 1 mm, a = 0.66 for 1 mm>d>0.1 mm and a =
0.77 for 0.1 mm>d

Velocity of flushing gallery during the pressurized flow due to water depth in the chamber
gH V 2 6 . 0 1 = and V
1
>V
c
., the velocity in the flushing channel either pressurized or open
channel flow should be greater than the V
c
.

Example of Design of settling basin

Design a intermittent type settling basin (length, breadth and height) for a hydropower plant
whose rated discharge is 5 m
3
/s to settle down the particle size of greater than 0.5 mm with
terminal or settling velocity of 54.0 mm/s at 20
0
C for the sediment greater than 0.5 mm. Find the
detention time period; also find the flushing velocity required to flush the sediment. Calculate the
flushing capacity and time to flush the sediment deposited in an intermittent settling basin taking
flushing discharge of 10% of the design discharge, Specific gravity of the sediment 2.65 and
average sediment concentration of flushing water is 0.002 kg/kg i.e. equivalent to 2000 ppm (parts
per million). Find the flushing interval of the settling basin if the average sediment concentration
of greater than 0.5 mm particle in the river flow is 2000 ppm.

Solution: The settling velocity V
0
= 54 mm/s = 0.054 m/s, Design discharge Q = 5 m
3
/s and
Flushing discharge Qf = 0.5 m
3
/s
Horizontal velocity V = 0.2 =Q/(B*H) or B*H = 5/0.2 = 25I
For Optimum Design V
0
/H = V/L or 0.054/0.2 = H/L or H/L = 0.27..II
From I and II, we have 25/ (B*L) = 0.27 or L*B = As = 92.593..III

General guidelines V = 0.2 to 0.3 m/s H = 1 to 15 m, B2H and L8 B
Suppose L = 10 B then from III B = 3.04 m y3.1 m hence L = 31 m and H = 8.37 m since it is
being intermittent type of settling basin, additional the depth for sediment storage = 0.5 of H.
Hence total depth of the settling basin H total = 1.5 H = 12.56 m

Engineering judgment: seems to be possible or not depending upon the site condition
(topography, Geology etc)
If that is not possible H>>, then provide two numbers of chambers, So, Q design in each
chamber = Q/2
Then repeat the calculation again
Horizontal velocity V = 0.2 =Q/2(B*H) or B*H = 5/2*0.2 = 12.5IV
For Optimum Design V
0
/H = V/L or 0.054/0.2 = H/L or H/L = 0.27..V
From I and II, we have 12.5/ (B*L) = 0.27 or L*B = As = 46.296..VI
Suppose L = 10 B then from IV B = 2.15 m y2.20 m hence L = 22 m and H = 5.94 y6.0 m since
it is being intermittent type of settling basin, additional the depth for sediment storage = 0.5 of H.
Hence total depth of the settling basin H total = 1.5 H = 8.91 m y9.0 m
Detention Time = H/V
0
= L/V = 111 sec. Flushing velocity required to flush the sediment
Vc = 0.66*(0.5)
0.5
= 0.47 m/s. Height of water required to have flushing velocity = V1 =Vc =
0.6*e2gh or h = (Vc/0.6)
2
/2g = 0.031 m. It is safe as H>>0.031
To have design of flushing channel, Flushing discharge for each chamber Qf/2 = 0.25 m3/s
The depth of flushing chamber = hf = Q/(Bch*Vf) = 0.25/( (2.2+0.4)/2*0.47) = 0.41 m

Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-12
The flushing capacity of water i.e the amount of water that can carry by the flushing water kg/kg
of water 01028 . 0
41 . 0
) 35 . 0 47 . 0 (
) 35 . 0 (
2
3
2
3
=

=
hf
V
tr
f
kg/kg of water = 10280 ppm
Now the flushing time requirement
=
1000 25 . 0 ) 2000 10280 (
1000 8 . 9 65 . 2 7 . 16
) 0 (
7 . 16


=


=
Vs
Qf tr
Vs Ys
Tf


Here Vs = volume of sediment allowed to deposit in the settling basin = (9-
6)*2.2*22+(2.2+0.4)/2*0.7*22 = 165.22 m3.

So, T f = 34.6163 minutes

Frequency of flushing
Average Sediment concentration = 2000 ppm,
Volume of sediment deposited in the single settling in 1 days = 2.5*60*60*24*1*1000*
2000/10^6 kg = 432000 kg = 163.0189 m3.

Hence the frequency of flushing =165.22/163.0189 = 1.013 days

Sediment trap efficiency Calculations:
Shear velocity or lifting velocity
6 1 *
042 . 0
R
v
u U = = = 0.042*0.2 / (2.2*6/2*6)
1/6
= 0.008268
Outlet design: the contraction part of the transition shall be symmetrical and smooth to prevent the
flow separation from its side walls and bottom. This shall be achieved by providing a closing angle of
the outlet transition in the range of 10 to 15.

5.4 Penstock: Importance, location, condition of their application, hydraulic hammer,
Hydrodynamic pressure calculation, turbine head and determination of penstock diameter.

Penstocks are designed to carry water to the turbines with the least possible loss of head consistent with the
overall economy of the project. These are pressurized water conduits which convey water to the turbines from
free water surfaces from fore bay/surge tank/reservoir. Separate penstock pipe may be provided for each
turbine for length up to 500 m depending upon the overall economy study of the single penstock pipe
construction.

The penstock is usually made of steel, although reinforced, concrete, HDP penstocks have also been built
recently in increasing numbers. For heads up to 100 meters even wood stave penstocks have been applied.
The steel pipe (mild or ToR steel strength 5500 kg/cm
2
and 6500kg/cm
2
) are mostly used in penstock with
thickness of 0.6 cm to 5 cm.
Based on the location of pipe with reference to the Ground level, penstock pie can be over the ground and
under the ground.

Alignment Layout
When making these layouts, the penstock should be located on stable foundation sites such as along a ridge
or a bench that has been cut into the mountainside, Avoiding of troublesome sites such as underground water
courses, landfill, fault zones and potential slide areas is quite important.

Because low-head penstocks cost less than high-head penstock, the pipeline at high elevations needs to be
made as long as possible before going down the mountainside into powerhouse.

To minimize costly anchors and costly pipe transition sections, vertical bends, horizontal bends, and changes
in diameter should be combined in a way to have them at the same location.

Hydraulic hammer also known as water hammer. Water hammer is the result of a change in flow
velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic waves to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-13
due to sudden closure and opening of the gates before the turbine inlet. The elastic waves, in turn, cause
increase or decrease in pressure as they travel along the line, and these pressure changes are variously
referred to as water hammer, surge or transient pressure or hydrodynamic pressure.

The water hammer Pressure is given by
(

\
|
+
=
m TE
D
K
g
V
P
i
2
1
1
1

Reference Hydraulic books of Modi and

Sethi
Where T = wall thickness of the penstock pipe, E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity of the pipe materials, K =
bulk modulus for the liquid, D = internal diameter of the pipe, 1/m = poisons ratio = ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain, V = mean velocity of water flow in the penstock pipe, = specific unit weight of the water

i) The value of elasticity of the pipe materials E is high (E=2.110
11
N/m
2
) so D/TE is neglected then

K
V where
g
V V P
h and
g
K
V P P
i
i i i
= = = = =
0
0 max
max max
and V
0
is the velocity of the
celerity wave (velocity of hydrodynamic pressure wave)
ii) Neglecting the poisons ratio i.e. 1/m =0 The water hammer pressure is given by
(

+
=
TE
D
K
g
V
P
i
1

iii) Considering all the elements, the water hammer pressure is given by
(

\
|
+
=
m TE
D
K
g
V
P
i
2
1
1
1

Numerical Examples: A steel penstock pipe of 0.6 m diameter has shell thickness of 12 mm. The modulus of
Elasticity of the pipe materials E = 2.110
5
N/mm
2
with poisons ratio 1/m = and volume modulus of elasticity
of water is K = 2.110
3
N/mm
2
. The pipe is designed to discharge water a mean velocity of 2.1 m/s. Determine
the water hammer pressure rise caused by sudden closure of the valve at the downstream end for the
following cases
i) Neglecting the Elasticity of the pipe materials (Ans 3.04310
6
N/m
2
)
ii) Considering the elasticity of pipe materials but neglecting poisons ratio (Ans 2.48510
6
N/m
2
)
iii) Considering both elasticity and poisons ratio (Ans 2.53810
6
N/m
2
)

Numerical Examples: what is the maximum permissible velocity of flow and then discharge in a cast iron pipe
line of 100 mm diameter and 15 mm thick, which can be suddenly stopped by a valve at the outlet end of the
pipe without letting the rise of pressure in the pipe to exceed 1.54510
3
KN/m
2
taking E = 123.60810
9
N/m
2

and K = 206.0110
7
N/m
2
. (Ans V = 1.135 m/s solution page 563 of Modi and Sethi)

Determination of Pipe diameter:
Preliminary analyses-
Sarkaria Formula
65 . 0
35 . 0
62 . 0
H
P
D = (Dandekar book)
Where P is power in HP (1 HP = 735 W) and H is net head over the power plant in m.
DoED water conveyance guideline Thumb rule for diameter D= 0.49x P
0.43
x H
-0.57
Where P is power in KW and H is net head over the power plant in m
For Feasibility Study/analyses

The optimum economic diameter of the penstock pipe is found by considering the cost of construction and the
cost of energy loss in the penstock pipe. The diameter corresponding to the minimum total cost (sum of
construction cost and energy loss cost) gives the economic diameter of the penstock pipe.

Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-14

In general, the head loss in the penstock pipe is limited to 4% of the gross head (as per ESHA Guide line)
The USBR recommended optimum velocity in the penstock pipe is given by V = 0.125 gH 2 H-the max
working head

Numerical Example: A scheme has a gross head of 85 m, a discharge of 3 m
3
/s and 173 m long steel
penstock pipe. Calculate the pipe diameter of the penstock so that the power loss due to friction in the pipe is
limited to 4% of the gross head. Take the Mannings coefficient for the penstock is 0.012.( Ans 0.88m)

Wall thickness:
Wall thickness of the pipe materials depends on the pipe materials, its ultimate tensile strength (hoop stress)
and the operating pressure including the water hammer pressure. The wall thickness for the steel pipe is
generally calculated by the equation
s
f f
e
k
D P
e +

=
2

Where: e = pipe wall thickness in mm, es = extra thickness to allow for corrosion ~0.15 mm, Hydrostatic
pressure including water hammer pressure in KN/mm
2
. k
f
= welding efficiency =1 for seam less pipe, 0.9 for x-
ray inspected welds, 0.8 for welding joint, f = allowable tensile stress = 1400 KN/mm
2
for mild steel pipe. D =
internal diameter in mm.
ASME recommendation: Minimum wall thickness = t
min
in mm = 2.5D(in m)+1.2
Other organization = t
min
in mm =
(

+
400
508
mm in
D

5.5 Forebay and Surge tanks: Importance, location, condition of their application
Fore bay and surge tanks are the broad sections of the canal located in front of the power
intake where the head race canal ends. The pressurized flow occurs beyond the forebay
and surge tank through the penstock pipe. The fore bay and surge tank site should be
geologically stable areas having wide areas.
The forebay and surge tanks are important to wipe out the water hammer pressure wave in the
non pressure conduits by providing cushion to the water hammer pressure. It will protect the head
race canal/ conduit from damage due to internal high pressure. Beside this the fore bay and surge
tank also provide as the storage tank to regulate the flow in the penstock pipe during sudden
acceptance of the load in the power plant. The forebay and surge tank also helps to distribute flow
among the penstock pipes if separate penstock pipes are provided for each turbine unit.
Condition of their applications: the fore bay and surge tanks may avoid if the length of the head
race canal is short like in power house at the toe of the dam. They can be avoided for small head
power plants where the water hammer pressure induced in the pressure conduit can withstand by
nominal thickness of the pipe. If the water hammer pressure induced in the penstock pipe is high
enough and can not withstand by the nominal thickness for having long headrace conduit, the fore
bay or surge tank is necessary for economic cost of construction of head race conduit. Fore bay
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-15
are usually used in small ROR project while surge tanks are used in medium to large Hydropower
project of PROR or reservoir project having long head race tunnel/canal/pipe.
Generally Forebay have spillway structures to throw out the excess water due to surge wave
during sudden load rejection. So the location of forebay should be in such a place having natural
river drain near to the site to dispose the sediment and excess water. The surge tanks may or may
not be with spillway facilities. Most of the surge tanks in Nepal do not have spillway.
5.6 Design of Forebay structures
The fore bay also act as secondary settling basin in which the sediment that were carried out
from the settling basin and inlet side drains in the head race will be settled down.
The suction head is important and should provide enough suction head to avoid the air
entrance to the penstock pipe and corresponding cavitations effects. The minimum suction
head required is given by
gD
V
D S
h
= where = coefficient =1.8 for symmetrical and
2.2 for lateral, D diameter of the pipe and V = mean velocity of flow in the pipe at the design
flow (m/s).


Typical plan and section of forebay
The suction head should be higher than the velocity head V
2
/2g
The size of the fore bay should be sufficient to store the design discharge of at least 3
minutes or more than the realistic water starting time
L/B of the forebay is in the range of 3 to 10 based on site condition
The Horizontal velocity of flow is limited in the range of 0.2 m/s to 0.3m/s and the
effective depth i.e. the live depth is chosen to have settling velocity if the fore bay is acting
as the settling basin.
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-16
The upsurge in the forebay caused by the load rejection is estimated using following equation.
In case of sudden closure, the maximum height of the surge is given by the expression known as:
Feifels equation:
h
g
V
g
V
g
V
h +
|
|

\
|
+ =
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
max

For the gradual and complete closure
g
h
V
g
V
h + =
4
2
max

Where, V = water velocity (mean velocity of flow in fore bay) h = water depth effective
depth
max
h = height of the surge
The spill way should have of enough capacity to dispose design discharge
2
3
CLH Q =
Where,
Q - Discharge in m
3
/s, C - Discharge Coefficient depends on the shape of the structure 0.6
to 0.75, H - Water head in meter L - Spillway Length
Surge Tank
Surge Function: The surge tank provides protection to the penstock against the detrimental effects of
water hammer
Storage function: One of the most important purpose of surge tank is to provide water supply to the
turbines in case of starting up (load demand) until the conduit velocity has accelerated to the new
steady state value.
The height of the surge tank is governed by the highest possible water level that can be anticipated
during operation.


Water hammer pressure are transient and oscillatory in nature and also termed as mass oscillation
Stable surge tanks are those where the mass oscillation gets dampened quickly. Nearer the surge
tank to the powerhouse, greater the frequency of oscillation (number of cycle per unit time).





Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-17
Types of surge tank


















Surge Tank with Variable Section or Expansion Chamber
Restricted /Throttle type

Differential surge tank

Example: A hydropower Project has a surge tank at the end of 2030 m long tunnel, 4.22 m
diameter. The surge tank of circular section has diameter of 15.85 m. The penstock system
consists of 5 pipes each of 1.525 in diameter and 380 m long. These pipes can be represented by a
single penstock of 3.41 m diameter and of long 380 m. friction factor for tunnel and penstock are
0.018 and 0.03 respectively. The acoustic wave velocity in the penstock is 1370 m/s. In steady
state, the head reservoir level is 457 m with a discharge of 26.2 m
3
/s. compute the water hammer
pressure for sudden closure. Compute maximum upsurge and down surge with the time of
oscillation.

Solution: the maximum water hammer pressure, neglecting friction is given by
g
V Vc
hw

=
Velocity of flow in penstock pipe (single) V= Q/(d
2
/4) =2.88 m/s and hw = 1370*2.88/9.8 = 402
m

For Surge tank analyses
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-18
The frictional head loss in the tunnel for the steady state flow m
g D
LV
f hf
o
54 . 1
2
2
= = putting f
=0.018, L =2030, D = 4.22, V
0
= Q/At = 1.87

Jaeger formula for hydraulic design of surge tanks for computing the maximum up or down surge
k surge
headrace tunnel race head
A
A
g
L
V Z
tan
0
max = = 7.22 m without considering the frictional head loss in the
head race canal/tunnel. For calculating the maximum up surge Z
up
with the head loss in the head
race conduit,
max 9
1
3
2
1
max
0
2
0 0
Z
hf
P where P P
Z
Z
up
= + = O0.7 here P0 = 1.54/7.22 = 0.213 O0.7 so
Z
up
= 6.24 m

Clame and Gaden have given the formula for computation of lowest down surge after the first
upward swing
max
2 1
max
0 0
Z
hf
P where P
Z
Z
down
= + = and Z
down
= -4.15 m
Time of oscillation is the time period for complete damping of the surge wave in the tank =
race head
surge race head
A
A L
T

= 2 = 339 secs
D Thoma Formula for Surg Tank Area calculation
) ( 2
2
0
tan
hf H
A
L
g
V
A
race head
race head k surge

Where H
is Gross head and h
f
is the head loss in the head race conduit.



5.7 Hydraulic tunnels: Definition; rock pressure, hardness coefficient of rocks pressure and
non pressure tunnel their types and design, head loss in pressure tunnel, design of tunnel
lining

tunnel, underground passage usually made without removing the overlying rock or soil.
Conveyance tunnels for hydropower plants are generally used to shorten the water conveyance length in
the power plant.
Tunnel type:
Based on shape: circular an non circular. Structurally circular tunnels are more suitable, stable
where internal pressure is high. While non circular shape like D shaped, Horse shoe shaped
having arch roof are suitable for non pressure tunnel for ease in construction.
Circular Section
Circular section is most suitable from structural considerations. However, it is difficult for excavation,
particularly where the cross sectional area is small. In a case where the tunnel is subjected to high internal
pressure but does not have good quality rock or adequate rock cover around it, circular section is
considered to be most suitable.

D-Shaped Section
D shaped sections is suitable for tunnels located in good quality rocks. The main advantages of this
section over horse shoe section are the added width of the invert which gives more working floor space in
the tunnel during driving and flatter invert which helps to eliminate the tendency of wet concrete to slump
and draw away from the tunnel sides. The added invert width also permits the use of concurrent lining of
the tunnel which may not be possible for circular and horse-shoe tunnels of the same dimensions.
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-19


Figure showing A Modified Horse-shoe Section


Horse-shoe or Modified Horse-shoe Sections
These sections are a compromise between circular and D shaped sections. These sections are structurally
strong to withstand external rock and water pressure. These sections are found to be most suitable, where
a moderately good rock is available, advantages of a flatter invert are required for construction purposes
and the tunnel has to resist internal pressure. These modified horse-shoe sections also afford easy change
over the circular sections with minimum additional cost in reaches where rock quality is poor or rock cover
is inadequate.
Based on function: a) water carrying tunnel are wet and impermeability and porosity important
b) service tunnels are dry used for services like access/passage tunnel, cable tunnel, ventilation
tunnel (fans fitted at the end)
Water carrying tunnels may be i)head race tunnel to gain head (open channel flow like in
Marshyangdi HPP), ii) power tunnel to supply water to the powerhouse (pressure flow like in
Khimti, Andhikhola etc) III) Tail race tunnel to convey water from the power house to the river
(like in khiimti HPP) iv) Diversion tunnel for diverting the water from the construction site. They
are low pressure high discharge tunnel and it will be either plugged or used as spill way or under
sluice or penstock tunnel after the construction of major structures like dam etc.
Based on Alignment: Tunnels having small slope 1:1000 in bottom, Shaft tunnel for vertical
alignment, incline shaft for steep slope greater than 1:100.
Based on Pressure of flowing fluid: Pressure tunnel and non pressure tunnel
Pressure Tunnel: discharge with full sections directly to the turbines. Owing to the considerable difference
in elevation they are subjected to very large internal pressure. Pressure tunnels are subjected to an
internal water pressure which is frequently many times in excess of the external rock and groundwater
pressure. The resultant tensile stresses can be resisted most economically by a circular cross-section.
Pressure tunnels are therefore built with a circular or horseshoe-shaped cross-section, the latter being
more readily adaptable to drilling methods. These tunnels cannot be built, unless the rock is completely
immobile and solid, i.e. pressure tunnels, or pressure shafts must not be constructed in rocks interlaced
with faults and cracks and tending to slip, or in those liable to tectonic movements.
Low pressure tunnel having internal water pressure less than 10 m head of water, Medium pressure tunnel
having 10 to 100 m head of water, High pressure tunnel having greater than 100 m head of water. Extend
of over burden pressure is an important for high and medium head pressure tunnel. Seepage flow (loss)
may be important parameter to be considered in study of high to medium pressure tunnel.

Non pressure Tunnel: tunnels constructed for the sole function of conveying water by normal gravity
from one side of a mountain to the other, or from the point of diversion to the head of the steep incline, are
termed discharge tunnels. Non pressure tunnels usually designed with a modified horse-shoe cross-
section, the internal pressure executed by the water conveyed is negligibly small in comparison with the
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-20
rock pressure acting on the tunnel. But the application of a reliable interior water seal is essential. A typical
modified horse-shoe section of the tunnel is shown.


Tunnel lining: structures (grouting, RCC or steel lining) provided inside the tunnel for improvement of the
strength of rocks in tunnel walls and imperviousness (impermeability) of the tunnel are called tunnel lining
or tunnel liners.
In sound rock foundations tunnels can remain unlined even when the pressure as high as 200 m of H20
like in khimti. For pressure greater than 200 m of H20, lining is required in strata of low strength where rock
is anistropic (not uniform). Cost of lining is very high so decision needs to be taken based on the
economical analyses of cost and benefits.

Advantages of lining: i) provide strength and stability and facilitate tunneling in weaker strata. II) helps to
distribute internal pressure or loads uniformly to the surrounding rocks iii) head loss is reduced
considerably hence save the energy iv) reduce the cross sectional flow area due to minimization of
roughness coefficient of the tunnel increasing conveyance capacity v) reduce danger of accidental rock
falls in the tunnel cavity, vi) seepage control reduce loss of water, vii) cost of rip rap trap is avoided by
lining the tunnel
Invert paving is the lining in tunnel only at floor leaving walls and roofs in unlined conditions to facilitate
construction or increase the velocity of flow.
The lining techniques generally follow a continuous process with mobile shuttering. A specially built shutter
traveler operating on rails can remove the shuttering from an earlier portion and erect it at a portion where
fresh concrete is to be poured.
Types of Tunnel lining
Plain concrete Lining: applied only when tunnel walls are to support the outside pressure due to the rock
but low internal pressure of water flow
RCC lining: RCC lining is provided to take care of tension crack/stress that may develop due to high
internal pressure. High pressure grouting in rock mass of walls and roofs improves the compressive
strength of the rock mass to withstand the high pressure exerted due to external over burden and internal
pressure.
Steel lining: steel lining is generally provided in pressure shaft tunnels to withstand internal high water
pressure change within short distance and it may be anchored to the concrete lining and walls with
projected iron angles welded with the lining.

Design features of Tunnel:
i) Alignment Selection
Following points should be considered during the tunnel alignment selection:

Length: should be shortest as far as possible-this would ensure minimum loss and shall be
economically cheapest,
Minimum loss of head: It should be straight as far as possible- introduction of bends in the
alignment shall involve losses at all such bends and the cost of tunneling would increase,
Location: It should be easily accessible- an easy access near the entrance and exit to the
tunnel becomes essential for the construction facility,
Careful selection of entry and the exit locations with minimum length and depth of approach
cutting and no weathered, loose fractured layers slope towards portal.
However it is not always possible to follow a straight alignment because of the following parameters
affecting the design of hydraulic tunnels:
Topography: there may not be sufficient vertical and or lateral cover,
Geological section along the alignment: it may show certain difficult strata through which the
process of tunneling may be cumbersome and uneconomical,
Ground and/or rock water loads along the tunnel alignment may be excessive thus
increasing the overall cost of the tunnel,
Rock mechanics properties: the in-situ stresses, joint pattern shear strength, unconfirmed
compressive strength, shear modulus of deformation etc may not be favorable along a
particular alignment,
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-21
Creep or tectonic movement along the tunnel: the tunnel may be passing through active
faults or lineaments which could cause collapse of the tunnel.
ii) Investigation or Exploration should be extended to determine: Top cover, Quality of subsurface
rock, Surface drainage conditions, Position, type and volume of water and gases contained in
subsurface rock, the physical properties and resistance to tunneling offered by the
encountered rock.
iii) Slope: depends on the carrying capacity for free flow tunnels. For pressure tunnel, slope is fixed
up based on the dewatering requirement. Power tunnels have gentle slope up to surge tank,
steep slope in shaft tunnels.
iv) Velocity: depends on lined and unlined tunnel. In Unlined tunnel velocity are limited to 2 to 2.5 m/s
(max) to prevent rip rap from the walls of tunnels. For concrete lined tunnels, the velocity can
range up 4 to 5 m/s while the steel lined tunnels can have velocity up to 9 m/s. Greater velocity
can create the problem of cavitation erosion.
v) Over burden pressure: over burden pressure are important for balancing internal water pressure.
At limiting condition, the over burden rock pressure = Internal water pressure.
w w r r
h h = Factor of safety = Resisting force/active force = 2.5 =
w w
r r
h
h

since
r
/
w
=
2.5 and hence h
w
Oh
r
as thumb rule. Messonyi recommends to take hw = 0.4 to 0.8 h
r
. when the
depth of overburden is less than
8 . 0 4 . 0 to
h
h
w
r
= RCC lining is required.
vi) Thickness of lining: depends on the load shared by the lining.
a. Plain concrete lining to resist compressive pressure due to outside external rock pressure
and low internal water pressure hw O10 m. general thickness is in the range of 20 cm to 40
cm depending upon the rock formation and pressure.
b. RCC lining: for medium internal water pressure hw>10 m to 100m. Grouting is applied
before the RCC lining to improve the strength of rock which will provide plain surface also
for RCC lining.
c. Steel lining: for high internal water pressure like in pressure shaft tunnel with hw>100 m.
Thumb rule for thickness of steel lining
400
50
min
+
=
D
t where t
min
= minimum thickness of
steel liner in cm, D internal diameter of the tunnel in cm. The thickness of the steel lining
provided is generally 2 mm more than that of the t
min
considering corrosion effects.

For Internal pressure: Thickness t of the steel lining is calculated by
e
D P
t

=
2
where P
part of internal pressure that need bear by the lining (kg/cm2), permissible stress in steel
(kg/cm2), e = efficiency of log weld joint 90% to 95%.

For External pressure: if the anticipated external design pressure then, thickness of the
steel lining is calculated by
2
3
2
) 1 (
12
8
) 1 ( 8
D
K t
E
D
K EI
Pext

=

= where, P
ext
=
design external pressure (kg/cm
2
), E = Modulus of Elasticity of steel in kg/cm
2
, I = moment
of inertia per unit length = t
3
/12 and t = thickness (cm), k = factor depending upon the
angle of buckling = 0.62 for 30
0
angle of buckling.

vii) Buckling: is the bending of the tunnel steel lining due to heavy excessive pressure. The buckling
can be prevented to large extend by:
a. Using dense concrete or strong concrete between the rock mass and the liner
b. By grouting deep in to rock mass
c. Providing anchorage for steel liner in to the concrete backing

Hydraulic Design of the Tunnel

Basically, there are two flow conditions in the hydraulic tunnel design:

Free Flow Tunnel

Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-22
Hydraulic design of the free flow tunnel is executed as the hydraulic design of canal and Mannings
frictional formula and factors are used to compute the head loss in length.
Mannings formula:
2 / 1
3 / 2
2 / 1
3 / 2 2 / 1 3 / 2
1 1
/ 1
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
= =
L
hf
R V or
L
h
AR S AR Q
f


Where,
f
h - Frictional loss, V - Velocity of water in the tunnel in m/s, L - Length of the tunnel in
m R - Hydraulic radius n - Rougosity coefficient

For concrete lined tunnel the value of rougosity coefficient n varies from 0.012 to 0.018. For unlined tunnel
the value of n depends upon the nature of rock and the quality of trimming. Recommended values of n for
various rock surface conditions are given below:
Surface Characteristics Minimum value of n Maximum value of n
Very rough 0.04 0.06
Surface trimmed 0.025 0.035
Surfaced trimmed and invert concreted 0.02 0.03

Partially Lined Tunnel and Open channel flow: the resultant value of Manning roughness coefficient is
calculated by:
3 / 2
2 / 3
Pr
Pr
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
Ps
Ps
r
s
r

where n
r
= Mannings roughness for unlined section with
wetted perimeter Pr and n
s
= Mannings roughness for lined section with wetted perimeter Ps.



Pressure Flow Tunnel

Hydraulic design of the pressure flow is computed as the pipe flow and the head loss is computed using
Darcy/Weisbach frictional factor. Discharge through a pressurized hydraulic tunnel is calculated using a
continuity equation with control volume approach: A V Q * =
Where, Q = discharge in m
3
/s, V = velocity in m/s A = Area in m
2


Frictional loss is calculated by Darcy Weisbach formula:
gD
fLV
h
f
2
2
=
Where,
f
h - Frictional loss, f - Friction coefficient, L - Length of the tunnel in m, D - Diameter of
tunnel in m, V - Velocity of water in the tunnel in m/s

The friction coefficient f depends upon the Reynolds number and the relative roughness k
s
/D where k
s
is
the equivalent sand grain roughness and its value depends upon the surface characteristics. For new
concrete lined tunnels using forms the value of k
s
varies from 0.015 mm to 0.18 mm. For welded steel lined
tunnels, the value of k
s
ranges from 0.05 to 0.1.

Because of fluctuation in the load demand, the turbines keep an accepting or rejecting water. This causes
the flow in the water conductor system to be turbulent. For turbulent flow in the range of Reynolds number
between 3000 to 10000 (normally expected in steel lined and concrete lined tunnel) the friction factor is
calculated by using simplified formula: 74 . 1
2
1
log 0 . 2
1
10
+ =
E f
for Colebrook and white Equation
(
(

+ =
f
D K
f
s
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
log 2
1
10
for Re =

VD
> 2000
Where, f is the factor use in the Darcy formula and E is relative roughness given by: E=k
s
/D

Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-23
For unlined tunnels, the value of f depends upon the variation in cross sectional area obtained in the field.
The frictional loss factor may be estimated by measuring cross sectional areas at intervals and determining
the value of f by the following formula: 00257 . 0 = f ------ [Dandekar book-page 300]
Where 100
1
1 99
x
A
A A
= and
99
A - area corresponding to 99 percent frequency
1
A -area
corresponding to 1 percent frequency If 100 actual readings were taken for x-section areas, A
99
would be
the area which should be greater than or equal to 99 of them and A
1
would be the area corresponding to
the lowest of them. Usually =20 to 35 thus f = 0.055 to 0.096



Determination of Optimized diameter of the Tunnel based on Economic Analyses

Tunneling methods
a) Heading and Benching method, b)Full face tunneling method
Heading and benching method is old. Only a part of the total tunnel cross section and keeps as the bench
marks or guiding marks in different parts. The remaining parts is then enlarged to the required size after
completing the heading and benching parts.
In full face tunneling method, the entire tunnel cross section is excavated uniformly. Due to development of
modern tunneling equipments like jumbos, drilling and blasting machines, it is possible to complete the full
face tunneling at rapid rate.

Tunneling Sequences a) Drilling, b) Blasting, c) ventilation for the exhaust of the fumes cushion, d) scaling,
e) Mucking and haulage of rock pieces f) Ribbing (fixing of the steel supports), g) concreting the space
between the rock and steel support (termed as initial concreting)


Rock Mass Classification:

The information acquired during the preliminary design stage through the test aditing with supplementation
of a few judiciously positioned boreholes will be more accurate and confirmative data for rock mass
classification. The information collected should be useful to establish the Rock Mass Rating Value (RMR-
value) and Rock Tunneling Quality Index, Q-value and consequently the required tunnel support is
determined corresponding to the obtained RMR-value and Q-value.

The following six parameters are considered to classify a rock mass using the RMR system.
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material,
Rock Quality Designation (RQD),
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-24
Spacing of discontinuities,
Condition of discontinuities,
Groundwater Conditions, and
Orientation of discontinuities.

Tunneling Quality Index (Q) value is also used for determination of rock mass characteristics and the
tunnel support requirement. The numerical value of this index Q is defined by:


SRF
J
J
J
J
RQD
Q
w
a
r
n
=

Where RQD is the Rock Quality Designation

n
J is the joint set number

r
J is the joint roughness number
a
J is the joint alternation number
w
J is the joint water reduction factor
SRF is the stress reduction factor







































Rock Mass Rating System (After Bieniawski, 1989)
Chapter 5 of Hydropower Engineering


3-25

A. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS AND THEIR RATINGS
Parameter Range of Values
1.
Strength of
intact rock
material
Point-load
strength index
> 10 MPa 4-10 MPa 2-4 MPa 1-2 MPa
For this low range
uniaxial compressive
test is preferred
Uniaxial comp.
strength
> 250 MPa 100-250 MPa 50-100 MPa 25-50 MPa
5-25
MPa
1-5
MPa
< 1
MPa
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
2.
Drill core Quality RQD 90%-100% 75%-90% 50%-75% 25%-50% < 25%
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
3.
Spacing of discontinuities > 2 m 0.6-2 m 200-600 mm 60-200 mm < 60 mm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
4.
Condition of discontinuities
Very rough
surfaces Not
continuous No
separation
Unweathered wall
rock
Slightly rough
surfaces
Separation < 1
mm Slightly
weathered
walls
Slightly rough
surfaces
Separation < 1
m Highly
weathered
walls
Slickensided
surfaces or
Gouge < 5 mm
thick or
Separation 1-5
mm
Continuous
Soft gouge > 5 mm
thick or Separation > 5
mm Continuous
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
5.
Ground
water
Inflow per 10 m
tunnel length
(1/m)
None < 10 10-25 25-125 > 125
(Joint water
press)/(Major
principal
0 < 0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.5 > 0.5
General
conditions
Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
B. RATING ADJUSTMENT FOR DISCONTINUITY ORIENTATIONS (See F)
Strike and dip orientations Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable Very Unfavourable
Ratings
Tunnels & mines 0 -2 -5 -10 -12
Foundations 0 -2 -7 -15 -25
Slopes 0 -5 -25 -50
C. ROCK MASS CLASSES DETERMINED FROM TOTAL RATINGS
Rating 100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 < 21
Class number I II III IV V
Description Very good rock Good rock Fair rock Poor rock Very poor rock
D. MEANING OF ROCK CLASSES
Class number I II III IV V
Average stand-up time
20 yrs for 15 m
span
1 year for 10 m
span
1 week for 5
m span
10 hrs for 2.5 m
span
30 min for 1 m span
Cohesion of rock mass (kPa) > 400 300-400 200-300 100-200 < 100
Friction angle of rock mass (deg) > 45 35-45 25-35 15-25 < 15
E. GUIDELINES FOR CLASSFICATION OF DISCONTINUITY CONDITIONS
Discontinuity length (persistence) < 1 m 1-3 m 3-10 m 10-20 m > 20 m
Rating 6 4 2 1 0
Separation (aperture) None < 0.1 mm 0.1-1.0 mm 1-5 mm > 5 mm
Rating 6 5 4 1 0
Roughness Very rough Rough
Slightly
rough
Smooth Slicken sided
Rating 6 5 3 1 0
Infilling (gouge) None
Hard filling < 5
mm
Hard filling >
5 mm
Soft filling < 5
mm
Soft filling > 5 mm
Rating 6 4 2 2 0
Weathering Unweathered
Slightly
weathered
Moderately
weathered
Highly
weathered
Decomposed
Rating 6 5 3 1 0
F. EFFECT OF DISCONTINUITY STRIKE AND DIP ORIENTATION IN TUNNELLING
Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis Strike parallel to tunnel axis
Drive with dip-Dip 45
0
-90
0
Drive with dip-Dip 20-45
0
Dip 45
0
-90
0
Dip 20-45
0

Very favourable Favourable Very unfavourable Fair
Drive against dip-Dip 45
0
-90
0
Drive against dip-Dip 20
0
-45
0
Dip 0
0
-20
0
Irrespective of strike
0

Fair Unfavourable Fair
* Some conditions are mutually exclusive. For example, if infilling is present, the roughness of the surface will be overshadowed by
the influence of the gouge. In such cases use A.4 directly.
** Modified after Wickham et al. (1972).
Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

26

Table: Recommended rock support measures

Rock
Support
Class
Rock Mass Classification
Mode of Failure
Support Comments / Influence on
Construction
Q RMR GSI Type Dimensions
I Class A Class I > 80 Generally Stable No support N/A None
Excessively
Good to
Extremely
Good
Very Good
Rock
> 100 81 100
II Class B Class II 55 to 80 Local rockfalls Spot bolts 2.0 m dowels or longer to
secure specific blocks
Immediate support where
workers safety is impacted. Good to Very
good
Good Rock
10 to 100 61 80
III Classes D & C Class III 45 to 65 Loosening of the rock mass Pattern bolting, straps and
localized reinforced shotcrete
2.0 m dowels at 1.5 2.0 m
spacing, 50 mm shotcrete
in localized weak or
unstable areas, Spot
bolting as required
Support soon after mucking
to prevent further
relaxation.
Poor to Fair Fair Rock
1 to 10 41 to 60
IV Class E Class IV 30 to 45 Progressive relaxation of the
rock mass
Pattern bolting and fibre
reinforced shotcrete, or
shotcrete and mesh if
adhesion is a problem
2.0 m dowels at 1 to 1.5 m
spacing. 50 to 90 mm of
shotcrete in crown
Support to be provided
within one tunnel diameter
of the face
Very Poor Poor Rock
0.1 to 1 21 to 40
V Class F Class V 20 to 35 Local roof falls and
deformation in jointed, weak
or weathered rock
Pattern bolting and fibre
reinforced shotcrete or
shotcrete and mesh if
adhesion is a problem
2.0 m dowels at 1m
spacing. 90 150 mm
shotcrete in crown and 50
to 90 mm on walls
Support to be provided
immediately behind the
exposed face
Extremely Poor Very Poor Rock
0.01 to 0.1 3 to 20
VI Class G Class V 0 to 20 Potentially large roof falls
due to weak fault zones,
shearing or colluvium;
significant deformation. Also
zones with no self
supporting capability and
colluvium. Zero standup
time.
Steel arches with lagging,
shotcrete and rockbolts with
reinforced ribs of shotcrete, or
cast concrete lining.
Stabilization such as
forepoling, spilling and
grouting may be required
ahead of the face.
Up to 100 mm of quick
setting shotcrete may be
required as temporary
support. Invert struts may
be needed in highly
stressed gound, or yielding
ribs with friction joints.
Tunnel rounds to be
shortened. Support to be
provided immediately at
and behind the face. Much
handwork as support must
be installed under the
forepoling or grout canopy.
Exceptionally
Poor
Very Poor Rock
< 0.01 < 3


N/A denotes not available.


Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

27


Guidelines for excavation and support of 10 m span rock tunnels in accordance with RMR system
(After Bieniawski, 1989)

Rock mass class Excavation Rock bolts (20 mm
diameter, fully
grouted)
Shotcrete Steel sets
I Very good rock
RMR: 81-100
Full face, 3 m
advance
Generally no support required except spot bolting
II Good rock
RMR: 61-80
Full face, 1-1.5 m
advance.
Complete support
20 m from face
Locally, bolts in
crown 3 m long,
spaced 2.5 m with
occasional wire
mesh
50 mm in crown
where required
None
III Fair rock
RMR: 41-60
Top heading and
bench 1.5-3 m
advance in top
heading.
Commence
support after each
blast. Complete
support 10 m from
face.
Systematic bolts 4
m long, spaced
1.5-2 m in crown
and walls with wire
mesh in crown
50-100 mm in
crown and 30 mm
in sides
None
IV Poor rock
RMR: 21-40
Top heading and
bench 1.0-1.5 m
advance in top
heading Install
support
concurrently with
excavation, 10 m
from face
Systematic bolts 4-
5 m long, spaced
1-1.5 m in crown
and walls with wire
mesh
100-150 mm in
crown and 100
mm in sides
Light to medium
ribs spaced 1.5 m
where required
V Very poor rock
RMR: < 20
Multiple drifts 0.5-
1.5 m advance in
top heading, Install
support
concurrently with
excavation.
Shotcrete as soon
as possible after
blasting
Systematic bolts 5-
6 m long, spaced
1-1.5 m in crown
and walls with wire
mesh. Bolt invert
150-200 mm in
crown, 150 mm in
sides, and 50 mm
on face
Medium to heavy
ribs spaced 0.75 m
with steel lagging
and forepoling if
required. Close
invert.






















Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

28

Table (i): Classification of Individual Parameters used in the Tunneling Quality Index Q
(After Barton et al, 1974)

1. Rock Quality Designation RQD
A Very Poor 0 25
B Poor 25 50
C Fair 50 75
D Good 75 90
E Excellent 90 100
Note: i) Where RQD is reported or measured as <10 (including 0), a nominal value of 10 used to evaluate Q.
ii) RQD intervals of 5, i.e., 100, 95, 90, etc, are sufficiently accurate.
2. Joint Set Number J
n

A Massive, no or few joints 0.5 1.0
B One joint set 2
C One joint set plus random joints 3
D Two joint sets 4
E Two joint sets plus random joints 6
F Three joint sets 9
G Three joint sets plus random joints 12
H Four or more joint sets, random, heavily jointed, sugar cube, etc 15
J Crushed rock, earthlike 20
Note: i) For intersections, use (3.0 X J
n
)
ii) For portals, use (2.0 X J
n
)
3. Joint Roughness Number J
r

a) Rock-Wall contact, and b) rock-wall contact before 10 cm shear
A Discontinuitous 4
B Rough or irregular, undulating 3
C Smooth, undulating 2
D Slikensided, undulating 1.5
E Rough or irregular, planar 1.5
F Smooth, planar 1.0
G Slickensided, planar 0.5
Note: i) Descriptions refer to small scale features and intermediate scale features, in that order.
c) No rock-wall contact when sheared
H Zone containing clay minerals thick enough to prevent rock-wall contact 1.0
J Sandy, gravelly or crushed zone thick enough to prevent rock-wall contact 1.0
Note: i) Add 1.0 if the mean spacing of the relevant joint set is greater that 3 m.
ii) J
r
= 0.5 can be used for planar slicksided joints having lineations, provided the lineations are
orientated for minimum strength.
4. Joint Alteration Number

r
approx
J
a

A Tightly healed, hard, non-softening, impermeable filling, i.e. quartz or epidote 0.75
B Unaltered joint walls, surface staining only 25 35
0
1.0
C Slightly altered joint walls, Non-softening mineral coatings, sandy particles,
clay-free, disintegrated rock, etc.
25 30
0
2.0
D Silty or sandy-clay coatings, small clay fraction (non-softening) 20 - 25
0
3.0
E Softening or low friction clay mineral coatings, i.e. kaolinite or mica. Also
chorite, tale, gypsum, graphite, etc. and small quantities of swelling clay
8 - 16
0
4.0
b) Rock-wall contact before 10 cm shear (thin mineral fillings)
F Sandy particles, clay-free disintegrated rock, etc 25 35
0
4.0
G Strongly over-consolidated non-softening clay mineral fillings 16 - 24
0
6.0
H Medium or low over-consolidation, softening, clay mineral fillings (continuous,
but < 5 mm thickness)
12 16
0
8.0
J Swelling-clay fillings, i.e., montmorillonite (continuous, but < 5 mm
thickness). Value of J
a
depends on percent of swelling clay-size particles,
and access to water, etc.
6 12
0
8 - 12
c) No rock-wall contact when sheared (thick mineral fillings)
KLM Zones or bands of disintegrated or crushed rock and clay (see G, H, J for
description of clay condition)
6 24
0
6, 8 or 8
-12
N Zones or bands of silty- or sandy-clay, small clay fraction (non-softening) - 5.0
OPR Thick, continuous zones of bands of clay (see G, H, J for description of clay
condition)
6 24
0
10, 13 or
13-20
Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

29

Table (ii): Classification of Individual Parameters used in the Tunneling Quality Index Q
(After Barton et al, 1974)

5. Joint Water Reduction Factor Approx. water
pressure
(kg/cm
2
)
Jw
A. Dry excavations or minor inflow i.e., < 5 l/min locally < 1 1.0
B. Medium inflow or pressure, occasional outwash of joint fillings 1 2.5 0.66
C. Large inflow or high pressure in competent rock with unfilled joints 2.5 10 0.5
D. Large inflow or high pressure, considerable outwash of joint fillings 2.5 10 0.33
E. Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure at blasting, decaying with time > 10 0.2-0.1
F. Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure continuing without noticeable
decay
> 10 0.1-0.05
Note: i) Factors C to F are crude estimates. Increase Jw if drainage measures are installed
ii) Special problems caused by ice formation are not considered.

6. Stress Reduction Factor SRF
a) Weakness zones intersecting excavation, which may cause loosening of rock mass when tunnel is excavated.
A. Multiple occurrences of weakness zones containing clay or chemically
disintegrated rock, very loose surrounding rock (any depth)
10
B. Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically disintegrated rock (depth
of excavation < 50 m)
5
C. Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically disintegrated rock (depth
of > 50 m)
2.5
D. Multiple shear zones in competent rock (clay-free), loose surrounding rock
(any depth)
7.5
E. Single shear zones in competent rock (clay-free) )(depth of excavation < 50 m) 5.0
F. Single shear zones in competent rock (clay-free) (depth of excavation > 50 m) 2.5
G. Loose, open joints, heavily jointed or sugar cube, etc. (any depth) 5.0
Note: i) Reduce these values of SRF by 25 50% if the relevant shear zones only influence but do not
intersect the excavation.
b) Competent rock, rock stress problems c/ 1 0/ c SRF
H Low stress, near surface, open joints > 200 < 0.01 2.5
I Medium stress, favourable stress condition 200-10 0.01-0.3 1.0
J High stress, very tight surface. Usually favourable to stability, may be
unfavourable for wall stability
10-5 0.3-0.4 0.5-2
K Moderate slabbing after > 1 hour in massive rock 5-3 0.5-0.65 5-50
L Slabbing and rock burst after a few minutes in massive rock 3-2 0.65-1 50-200
M Heavy rock burst (strain-burst) and immediate dynamic deformations in
massive rock
< 2 > 1 200-400
Note: ii) For strongly anisotropic virgin stress field (if measured): when 5 < 1/ 3 < 10, reduce c to 0.7 c.
When 1/ 3 > 10, reduce c to 0.5 c, where c = unconfined compression strength, 1 and 3
are the major and minor principal stresses, and 0= maximum tangential stress (estimated from elastic
theory).
iii) Few case records available where depth of crown below surface is less than span width. Suggest SRF
increase from 2.5 to 5 such cases (See H).
c) Squeezing rock: plastic flow of incompetent rock under the influence of high rock pressure 0/ c SRF
N Mild squeezing rock pressure 1 - 5 5 - 10
O Heavy squeezing rock pressure > 5 10 - 20
Note:
iv: Cases of squeezing rock may occur the depth H > 350
3 / 1
O (Singh et al., 1992). Rock mass
compression strength can be estimated from
3 / 1
7 . 0 O q = (MPa) where =rock density in kN/m
3

(Singh, 1993).
d) Swelling rock: chemical swelling activity depending on presence of water
R Mild swelling rock pressure 5 10
S Heavy swelling rock pressure 10 15
Note: J1 and Ja classification is applied to the joint set or discontinuity that is least favourable for stability both
from the point of view of orientation and shear resistance, (where ~ ( )
n r n
J J / tan
1
. Choose the
most likely feature to allow failure to initiate.
SRF
J
J
J
J
RQD
Q
w
a
r
n
=
Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

30


Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

31




Chapter 5.0 of Hydropower Engineering

32


Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

1

6.0 Spill way 6 hours
Spill way is structure constructed at a dam/weir site for effectively disposing safely the surplus water
from upstream to the downstream of the dam
6.1 Function of spillway, types and capacity, provision of gates
Functions of spillways are: i) dispose surplus water keeping the water level not to rise above
the pre defined water level for the reservoir or head pond, ii) spillways must have adequate
capacity to dispose of entire surplus water at the time of the arrival of worst design flood.
Design considerations: i) surplus water should be disposed without causing any damages to
the u/s and d/s, ii) should be strong adequately hydraulically and structurally, iii) precise
estimation of design flood flow over estimate causes high cost of investment, under estimate
may cause serious damage at d/s due to overtopping and breaching of the dam iii) dissipation
of energy to prevent downstream erosion.
Types of Spill way:
Based on control of water flow: a) controlled spillway in which, the spill way of water are controlled
by installing gates over the spill way crest. Out flow can be
controlled and by operation of the gates and preferred in
modern dams for flood control and augmenting surcharge
storage in the reservoir,
b) Uncontrolled spillway in which no gates and control
structures are installed. Water will flow over the spill way
depending upon the water level in the reservoir and
corresponding head over the spill way.


Based on structures: a) straight drop spill way or over fall spill way: the downstream face is vertical,
ventilation of nappe is required in order to avoid pulsating/fluctuating effect of jet,



b) Chute Spillways: it is also called as trough spill ways, waste weir and mostly applicable in non
rigid dams like in earth fill and rock fill dams. Chute spillway is a type of spillway in which the
Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

2

discharge is conveyed from a reservoir to the downstream river level through a steep open channel
placed either along the dam abutment or through a saddle. In a chute spillway, the velocity of flow is
always greater than the critical and hence provided with RCC of 25 mm to 50 mm thick at the base
and with proper energy dissipater at the downstream. The chute is narrowed at the reservoir dam
level and widened at the end to reduce the velocity. The discharge capacity of the spillways is
calculated by general weir formula
2 / 3
CdLH Q =


c) Side Channel spillways:
It is provided in the narrow valley where no side
flanks of sufficient width to accommodate a chute
spillway are available. The side channel spillway
differs from the chute spill way in the sense of
water flow direction. In a chute spillway, the
water flows at right angle to the dam/weir crest
axis while in side channel spillway, the flow of
water is parallel to the dam axis and turned by 90
0

after passing through the crest of the spill way.
The discharge capacity of the spillways is
calculated by general weir formula
2 / 3
CdLH Q = .
The value of cd is slightly less than that for chute
spillways.


Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

3

D) Shaft Spillways
Water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft which conveys the water into a horizontal tunnel
discharging at downstream of the dam site. Such spillways are also called as morning glory spillways
and provided in the non rigid dams where chute and side channel spillways can not be provided due
to limited space, topography and geology. The shaft spillways are not much more effective compared
to the side channel and chute spillways at the time of worst flood events. The discharge capacity of
the shaft spillways is given by gH A c Q
d
2 =












Advantages: The main advantages of such type of spillways are as follows:
1. The nearly maximum capacity may be attained at relatively low heads.
2. It is ideal for sites where maximum spillway overflow is to be limited.

E) Siphon spillways
A siphon spillway is a short enclosed duct whose longitudinal section is curved. When flowing full,
the highest point in the spillway lies above the liquid level in the upstream reservoir, and the pressure
at that point must therefore be sub- atmospheric. This is the essential characteristics of a siphon.

The siphon has usually three parts, 1) the inlet or mouth; 2) throat, and 3) lower limb.
When the water level exceeds the crest level, the water commences to spill and flows over the
downstream slope in much the same way as a simple Ogee spillway.


Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

4

As the water rises further, the entrance is sealed off from the atmosphere. Air is initially trapped
within the spillway, but the velocity of flow of water tends to entrain the air (giving rise to aeration
of the water) and draws it out through the exit. When all the air has been expelled, the siphon is
primed and is therefore acting as a simple pipe. There are thus three possible operating conditions
depending on upstream depth.
1. Gravity spillway flow 2. Aerated flow (during self priming) 3. Pipe flow (after priming).

Potential problems encountered with siphon spillway are:
i) blockage of spillway entrance by debris ( this problem could be overcome by
submerging the inlet of the hood into the water or installing a trash intercepting grid in front of the
intake)
ii) Substantial foundations required to resist vibrations during operation of siphon
iii) Waves arriving in the reservoir during storms may alternately cover and uncover the entry, thus
interrupting smooth siphon action

The discharge of a saddle siphon can be calculated from the following formula;
Q = CA (2gH)
0.5

Where A = area of cross section at crown; A = L x b, L = length of hood (going into the paper) b =
height of throat, H = operating head = Reservoir level downstream tail water level if outlet is
submerged
H = Reservoir level - downstream centre of outlet if the outlet is discharging freely.
C = Coefficient of discharge. Its average value may be taken as 0.65.

F) Breaching Section or Emergency spillway
Emergency spillway is an earthen dyke located in an adjacent saddle depression ans used as auxillary
spillway only when the flood magnitude is such that it may likely to cause damage to the main dam
itself. The elevation of the dyke is kept in between the maximum reservoir level and top level of the
main dam.

G) Ogee spillway or Overflow spillway: widely used in concrete masonry arch and buttress dam.
Applicable where river width is of sufficient width to provide the required crest length and river bed
below (downstream) the dam can be protected from scour at the moderate cost.

Design of Spillway
The mostly used spillway in concrete gravity dams, arch dams are Ogee or Overflow spillway. It is
also called as nappe shaped spillway as the downstream face of the spill way is provided to follow
the lower face of free flow nappe.

The design discharge Q of the spillway is given by
2 / 3
0
H CL Q
e
= or
2 / 3
0
CH
L
Q
q = =
Where, C = coefficient of discharge approximately equals to 2.2, H
0
measured head over the crest
including velocity head = H
0
=h
0
+V
2
/2g, L
e
= effective length of the crest weir
The effective length of the crest is given by the equation: Le = L 2(NKp Ka)
Where L = Total clear length of crest, N = No. of piers in the spillway, Kp = pier contraction
coefficient, Ka = abutment contraction coefficient






Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

5

Coefficient of pier contraction


Coefficient of abutment contraction


Ogge Spill way profile the lower nappe of the free flow sharp crested weir can be represented by the
equation Y H X
n n 1
0

= or it can be represented by the equation

n
H
X
K
H
Y

=
0 0
where = 1/K
the value of K and n depends on the slope of upstream face of the dam
The location of the X and Y axis are as shown in the fig below. The value of and n depends upon
the slope of the upstream face of the dam.

Slope of the upstream face
(H:V)
Value of Value of n
Vertical 2 1.85
1:3 1.936 1.836
1:1.5 1.939 1.810

The value of X
a
= 0.282 H
0
, Y
c
= 0.175H
0
, R1 = 0.2H
0
and R2 = 0.5H
0
.


Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

6

Spillway gates:

Spillway gates are the temporary barrier installed over the permanent crest of the spillway, for
storing additional water during dry weather season. The small flows in excess above the spillway
gates is allowed to pass over the gates, but in case of large flood, the spillway gates are opened and
the full capacity is used to remove excessive flood water.
Spillway gates can be provided on all types of spillways except siphon spillway.
Following types of spillway gates are commonly used:

a) Flash board gates



b) Stop logs or needle gates

c) Radial gates

of pin
Anchor
Yoke girder Pin
Radial ram
Face of
pier
Compression
diagram
Yoke girder
Face of
pier
Load carrying
anchors
Face of
pier
of Trunnion
Stiffener
Skin plate
Rubber seal
Wall plate Face of pier
Force diagram
Enlarged section X-X
Enlarged section Y-Y
End arm
Braces
Gusset plate
Skin
plate
Lifting
bracket
Horizontal
girder
? of trunnion
X
X
Y
Y
l
x
l
y
fc
C
L
C
L




Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

7

d) Vertical lifts gates i.e. ordinary gate

e) Rolling gate like a shutter

Based on the gate operations, the gates can be of two types i.e. Manual and Machine operated gates.
The machine operated gates are of heavy and of large size.

6.2 Occurrence of cavitations and Erosion
The crest of Ogee spillway (d/s profile) can be made to confirm only to one particular nappe formed
by the corresponding design head of the spillways.
But in practice, the actual head of the water on the spillway crest may be less or more than the
designed head. When the head is greater than the design head, the lower nappe of the flowing jet may
leave the ogee profile there by generating the negative pressure at the point of separation.
The generation of vacuum or negative pressure may lead to formation of bubbles or cavities in the
water. Such cavities or bubbles are filled up with air vapour and other gasses which go on
condensation increasing the volume and resulting implosion or collapse of the cavities.
The continuous bombardment of these implosions with high pressure will thus take place near the
surface of the spillway causing fatigue failure of its materials. The small particles of masonry or
particles are thus broken away causing formation of pits on its surface giving the spongy appearance.
This damaging action of cavitations is called pitting.
The cavitations plus the vibrations form the alternative making and breaking of contact between the
water and face of the ogee may thus result in serious structural damages to the spillway crest.
If the head of water over the spillway is less than the design head, the falling jet adhere to the crest of
the ogee spillway, creating positive hydrostatic pressure and wear and tear by the sediment particles.
It also reduces the discharge coefficient of the weir.

6.3 Energy dissipation: types of energy dissipators, their necessity, role of tail water depth,
The velocity of water passing through a spillway is so high that it is liable to cause erosion of the bed
channel immediately below the toe of the structures. It can produce serious scouring effects.
The high velocity is caused mainly due to considerable head difference between the head water and
tail water within short distance. Super critical flow occurs at the toe of the dam yielding very high
velocity.
High energy of the flowing water therefore has to be destroyed before the water is discharged in the
tailrace by creating turbulence at desired location (in apron).

Types of Energy Dissipators: Energy dissipation below the overflow sections of river diversion
structures of run-of-river hydropower projects shall be achieved through one of the following
structures:
a. Hydraulic jump type stilling basins.
b. Roller buckets.
c. Deflector or flip buckets also called as Sky jump bucket type dissipater.
a. Hydraulic Jump Type Stilling Basins
Hydraulic jump type stilling basins shall be used to dissipate the energy of discharge passing the
overflow section before the discharge is returned to the downstream river channel. This shall be
attained through formation of a controlled hydraulic jump within the confines of the basin over the
entire range of flow conditions under which the basin is expected to operate. The design of these
basins shall depend on the type of hydraulic jump expected and, hence, on the Froude number of the
incoming flow, F
r
computed as
gD
V
F
r
=
Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

8

Where, V is the velocity of flow of the hydraulic jump, D is its depth measured perpendicular to the
stilling basin floor and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
D
1
V
1
hs
L
b
L
j
End sill
D
2
1 2
V
2
1 2
hc
Chute block

The relationship between the pre and post depth of the hydraulic jump is given by the equation
( ) 1 8 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
+ = F
D
D
and the energy loss or dissipated by the jump is given by
2 1
3
2 1
2 1
3
1 2
4
) (
4
) (
V V
V V
D D
D D
E

=

= .
If the tail water depth at the downstream y
2
is greater than the D
2
then jumps get submerged and
effective energy dissipation takes place.
If the tail water depth at the downstream y
2
is less than the D
2
then jumps get swept off downstream
and cause river bed and bank erosion.
The formation of hydraulic jump is facilitated by some appurtenances like Chute blocks, Baffle
blocks, and End sills in stilling basins. Chute blocks are at the toe of the spillway, friction blocks or
baffle walls piers on the horizontal apron and solid or notched end sills at the end of the apron.
The effectiveness of the hydraulic jump depends on Froude numbers
Froude number Types of jump % of loss of energy
loss
Remarks
F1< 2.5 Weak jump Less than 17%
F1 is 2.5 to 4.5 Oscillating jump
Length of jump =
5(D
2
-D
1
)
Less than 45% Gives rise to heavy
waves on the surface.
Waves suppressor may
be needed
F1 is 4.5 to 9 generally
occurs in spill ways
Jump performance is
best called steady jump
and length of the jump
is almost constant L =
6 D
2

Less than 70% For large spill ways y2
is quite high, very long
and expensive stilling
basins are required.
Chute blocks, baffle
walls and end sills are
provided to reduce the
length of basin
F1 greater than 9 Strong jump, jump is
likely to be rough and
choppy.
Less than 85% Bucket type energy
dissipater is preferred
to a stilling basin of
hydraulic jump type

Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

9

b. Roller Bucket Type Dissipator
This type is employed where the tail water condition is not favorable for adopting hydraulic jump
type basin due to long stilling basin. Roller bucket is spoon type structure at the toe of the spill way.
Pool
H
H
1
H
2
R
Surface roller
r
Ground roller TWL

D
3
h
S
Channel bed

When the high velocity sheet of water slides down the spillway, it gets arrested by the tail water, this
gives rise to surface roller as well as bottom roller action and eddy turbulence accompanied by the
energy dissipation.
Bucket type energy dissipater has a relatively short structure as compared to the hydraulic jump type
stilling basin. For successful roller action, tail water depth has to be slightly greater than that needed
by the hydraulic jump type basin.
The main design parameters is radius of the bucket R = 15 m to 25 m, and lip angle = 20
0
to 40
0
.
The physical model test or studies is required to have optimum dimension.
c. Sky jump Bucket type dissipator:
The jet of water from the spill way flows over the bucket and springs up clearly in air following a
trajectory hits the river bed at some distance away from the toe of the dam. It is also called as a
trajectory or flip bucket type dissipator.
The invert of the sky jump is relatively higher than that of the roller bucket so that a clear sky jump
action can takes place.
It is more suitable for good quality rock in foundation which can withstand erosive action of the
plunging jet.
Tail water has to be low, best for arch dam spillways.
Pool
H
H
1
H
2
R

H
4
H
5
TWL Y a
X
d
S


Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

10

Energy dissipation occurs due to the combine effect of air resistance, viscous effects and turbulence
due to impact on the river bed.
The lip angle is in between 30
0
to 40
0
. Adoption of larger lip angles in this range shall increase the
trajectory length and provide better dissipation as the jet impacts the tail water at a steeper angle with
less violent side eddies; however, steeper angle of impact may lead to deeper scour in the river bed.
Trajectory Length in horizontal direction X is given by
V
V
H Y Sin Cos Sin
H
X
+ + =
2
2 2
Where Hv = velocity head of the sky jump at the bucket
The vertical distance of throw, a, above the lip level may be calculated from the following formula:
g
v
a
a
2
2 2
sin
= where v
a
is the actual velocity of flow entering the bucket in m/s
6.4 Design of stilling basin
Stilling basins are the basins in which the energy dissipation action is confirmed.
Based on Froude number F
1
, stilling basins are designed. USBR has developed standard stilling
basins for different values/ranges of F
1
.
For most of the spillways in dams and weir, the F
1
values are greater than 4.5 and the USBR II
settling basin is applicable in rectangular X-section.
L = 3.6 D
2
for F
1
= 4,
L= 4.0 D
2
for F
1
= 6,
L= 4.2 D
2
for F
1
= 8,
L= 4.3 D
2
for F
1
= 10 or more
The floor of the basin should be set at such level as to produce 5% more water depth than the D
2
.



Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

11


USBR II stilling basin (applicable to F
1
> 4.5) and its components design

Stilling basin shortens the length of the hydraulic jump making the economic construction of
structure as it reduces up to 35% of the length since the length of the hydraulic jump L = 6 D
2
is
reduced L = 4.3 D
2
.

The values of F
1
= 2.5 to 4.5 generally in canal weirs and falls diversion dams etc. USBR stilling
basin IV is used in rectangular X-section
Oscillating waves are generated in this range, they are controlled at source by providing large chute
blocks (L = 2 D1, B = D1, H= 2D1 spacing at distance 2.5 D1 to 0.75 D1 depending on the
requirement of the better performance) with the top surface slope at 5
0
. Sill is not dentate or not
notched (grooved).


USBR IV stilling basin applicable for F1 number 2.5 to 4.5
Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

12


See page no 1184-1185 of SK Gorg books of Design of Hydraulic structures for details. R.S.
Varsheny book Hydropower Structures for details.


USBRII Settling Basin without notched end sill

Numerical Example:
1. Calculate the maximum discharge of spillway flow for the spillway through 4 vents weir of each
length 10 m for the flood level of 735 m if the crest level of the weir is 730 m. take C
d
= 2.2 and
neglect the contraction coefficient of pier and abutment.

Solution:
2 / 3
0
H CL Q
e
= where L = 4*10 =40, H = 735-730 = 5 m then Q = 983.86 m
3
/s neglecting
the approach velocity head.

2. In order to dissipate energy below the spillway by forming a hydraulic jump in the stilling basin with
depth D
1
= 1 m, to D
2
= 3.8 m. calculate the discharge over the spill way for the provided effective
length of 50 m spill way.
Solution: For hydraulic jump ( ) 1 8 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
+ = F
D
D

Calculate F
1
= 3.02, then
1
1
1
gD
V
F = calculate V1 = 9.45 m/s and then Q = V
1
*D
1
*L=472.5 m
3
/s



Chapter 6 of Hydropower Engineering

13

Various types of standard USBR stilling basin
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

1

Chapter 7.0 Hydro-Electrical Machines


7.1 Hydro-mechanical installation: turbines- peloton Francis, Kaplan and their performance
characteristics
Turbines: are mechanical machines to transform the water potential energy of flowing fluid into
mechanical rotational energy. Turbines are called runners. The rotational energy is transformed to the
generators through the power shaft (connecting rod and fly wheel) to run the generator smoothly for
electricity production.
Turbines are developed form of water wheels in water mills used for ore crushing and flour mills
(developed 400-500 years ago)



Schematic diagram of turbines in powerhouse
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

2

Types of Turbines:
Basis Types
Pressure Impulse Turbine: pressure less, energy of water is converted to kinetic in the form
of water jet issuing from nozzle/s and hitting the wheel vanes, runners.
Reactive Turbine: High pressure
Head Low head 2-15 m propeller, Kaplan, High discharge low head turbines
Medium head: 16-70 m Kaplan/Francis Turbine
High head: 71-500 m Francis/pelton Turbine
Very high head>500 m Pelton Turbine, low discharge high head











Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

3





Interesting facts about turbine: Maximum output power from a single unit
a) Pelton 330000 hP, b) Francis 960000 hP, c)Kaplan 300000 hp

Performance Characteristics
Performance characteristics curves indicates the performance of the turbine over the full range of the
turbine running
The curves of discharge and efficiency verses speed at a constant head are called main characteristics
curves of the turbines.





















The performance curves are given by the turbine maker/manufacturer based on the design of the
turbine runner, its shape, used materials and shape of the blades. Universal characteristics curves are
generally used to compare the performance of the turbine under different heads. The parameters of the
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(

)

Speed of Turbine (rpm)
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

Q

Kaplan
Pelton
Francis
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

4

universal characteristics curves are Unit Discharge (Qu =
H
Q
), Unit Speed (Nu = )
H
N
and Unit
Power (Pu=
H
P
)




Typical small hydro turbines efficiencies at different values of Q



7.2 selection of turbines and their specific speed

The type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine will be fundamentally conditioned by the following
criteria:
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

5

Net head, Range of discharges through the turbine,, Rotational speed, Cavitations problems , Cost

Specific Speed of a Turbine:

Since the generator and turbines are directly coupled, the rated speed of the turbine is same as that of the
synchronous speed of the generators.
The speed of the generator is given by
P
f
N
* 60
= where f = 50 HZ and P = number of pairs of magnetic
poles (fixed 8 to 10 pairs) and N is constant irrespective of the power output.

The Specific Speed of the Turbine Ns is given by
4 / 5
H
P N
Ns =
Where Ns = Specific speed of the turbine i.e. it is the speed of the turbine in rpm which produce 1 metric
Horse power (1 hP) under the head of 1 m.
P = Power produced from the turbine (hP) =
5 . 735
H Q g
P =
Types of Runner based on Specific Speed of Turbines (Ns in rpm)
Runner Slow Medium High
Pelton 4-15 16-30 31-70
Francis 60-150 151-250 251-400
Kaplan 300-450 451-700 701-1100
Pelton Turbine with single nozzle jet, The Max Ns = 30 and the Ns value for the multiple nozzle jet n
= Nmj = 30 n and the maximum number of jet for a pelton turbine = 6 Hence the maximum speed
of the Pelton wheel Ns max = 70 73 30 6 = . The use of single jet for large discharge is limited
and not convenient. The efficiency of the turbine can be increased with the introduction of multiple jet
(max 6) as it increase the specific speed Ns of the turbine. The jets interference should be avoided and
the water jet should strike the buckets tangentially. The Bucket deflection angle is to be about 165
0
.

Turbines and their maximum range of the Specific speed Ns used in the world

Type of Runner Max head (m) Max power (hP) Maximum wheel
dia (m)
Specific Speed Ns
(rpm)
Pelton 300-2000 330000 5.5 4-70
Francis 30-500 960000 10 60-400
Kaplan 2-70 300000 10 300-1100

Selection Guidelines of Turbines
Range of operating heads for each type of turbines (ESHA Guide line Part II)


Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

6



Numerical Examples: #1] the quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275 m3/s under
the head of 18 m. assuming the speed of the turbine (N) to be 150 rpm and their efficiency to be 82%.
Determine the least number of machines, all of the same size, that will be needed if i) Francis turbine
whose Ns must not exceed 395, ii) Kaplan turbine whose Ns must not exceed 690 are chosen. What
would be the individual output of the units in two cases?

Solution: Power to be developed from the project
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

7

P
out
= hP
QH
54120
735
82 . 0 18 275 81 . 9 1000
=

=


Now Ns =
4 / 5
H
P N

Case i) for Francis Turbine the limiting value of Ns = 395 =
4 / 5
18
150 P
or P = 9530.75 hP
Number of units to be installed for the Francis turbine = n = nos
P
P
out
6 678 . 5
75 . 9530
54120
= = so
the power output from each unit = 54120/6 = 9020 hP
Hence the specific speed of the Francis turbine to be used in the power plant will be Ns =
384 24 . 384
18
9020 150
4 / 5 4 / 5
=

=
H
P N
rpm.

Case ii) for Kaplan Turbine, the limited Ns = 690 =
4 / 5
18
150 P
or P = 29082.473 hP
Number of units =54120/2 = 27060 hP and the Specific speed of the Kaplan turbine will be Ns
= 666 5 . 665
18
27060 150
4 / 5 4 / 5
=

=
H
P N
rpm

Numerical Examples: #2] the quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275
m3/s under the head of 18 m. assuming the speed of the turbine (N) to be 150 rpm and their
efficiency to be 82%. Determine the least number of machines, all of the same size, that will be
needed if i) Francis turbine whose Ns must not exceed 395, ii) Kaplan turbine whose Ns must
not exceed 690 are chosen. What would be the individual output of the units in two cases?

A powerhouse is equipped with 4 units of vertical shaft pelton turbines to be coupled with
70000 KVA 3 phase 50 hertz generators. The generators are provided with 10 pairs of poles.
The gross design head is 505 m and transmission efficiency of headrace tunnel and penstock
together is to be 94%. The four units together will provide total power of 348000 hP at the
guaranteed efficiency of 91% and the nozzle efficiency is 0.98 then find
a) jet diameter and numbers of jets
b) the nozzle tip diameter
c) the pitch circle diameter of the wheel
d) the specific speed of the turbine
e) number of buckets on the wheel

Solution: Synchronous speed of the generators N = 300
10
50 * 60 60
= =

P
f
rpm
Water transmission efficiency = 94%, So, net head H = 505*0.94= 475 m
The total power output from all 4 units = 348000 hP so, Power output from each unit P =
87000 hP at overall efficiency of 91%.
So, for each turbine unit P = 1 . 15
91 . 0 475 1000 81 . 9
735 87000
735
=

= Q or
QH
m
3
/s
a) Specific speed of the turbine Ns =
4 / 5
H
P N
=
4 / 5
475
87000 300
= 39.90 40>Nsj max = 30 so multi
jet runners is required. Number of jet = nos
Nsj
Nmj
4
20
40
2
2
=

taking Nsj 20
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

8

So, Discharge through each nozzle jet = 15.1/4 = 3.775 m
3
/s and the velocity of the nozzle jet
V = s m gH K / 5 . 94 475 81 . 9 2 98 . 0 2 = =
For jet diameter Q =AV or cm m
V
Q
d 55 . 22 225481 . 0
4
= =

b) Nozzle pipe diameter = 25% bigger than the diameter of the jet flow = 1.25*22.55=28.19 cm
c) For pitch circle diameter of the wheel: for maximum efficiency, linear velocity of moving
wheel u is kept 48% of the nozzle jet velocity i.e u = 0.48 V = 0.48*94.5 = 45.3 m/s. (Modi
and sethi, Hydraulics and fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines chapter 20-22)
So, For the mean bucket circle diameter
60
DN
u

=
so Diameter of the wheel = D = (45.3*60) /(300*22/7) = 2.88 m
d) Number of buckets or striking plates = nos
d
D
Z 22 39 . 21
2255 . 0
88 . 2
5 . 0 15 5 . 0 15 = + = + =
The term D/d is also called as jet ratio

7.3 Introduction to bulb draft tube, tailrace canal and their importance

Bulb units are derived from Kaplan turbines, with the generator contained in a waterproofed bulb
submerged in the flow. Figure 6.13 illustrates a turbine where the generator (and gearbox if
required), cooled by pressurized air, is lodged in the bulb. Only the electric cables, duly protected,
leave the bulb. The bulb unit are specially designed for low head (<10 m) power project. The draft
tube provided for the bulb turbine is called as bulb draft tube which connects the outlet of the
reactive turbine runner to the tail race. The draft tube recovers the velocity head creating negative
suction pressure at the runner outlet. The draft tube also permits to set up the turbine above the
tailrace which might be critical for very low head power plants.



Tail race canal is the canal in which water is discharged after passing through the turbine. If the
power house is close to the stream, the out flow may be discharged directly in to the stream.
The tail race canal should be designed in such a way to have non silting and non scouring and
the minimum head loss.

7.4 Electromechanical installation: Generators and their types

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

9

Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although most early hydroelectric
systems were of the direct current variety to match early commercial electrical systems, nowadays
only three-phase alternating current generators are used in normal practice. Depending on the
characteristics of the network supplied, the producer can choose between:

Synchronous generators: They are equipped with a DC electric or permanent magnet
excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator to control the output
voltage before the generator is connected to the grid. They supply the reactive energy required
by the power system when the generator is connected to the grid. Synchronous generators can
run isolated from the grid and produce power since excitation is not grid-dependent.

The synchronous generator is started before connecting it to the mains by the turbine rotation.
By gradually accelerating the turbine, the generator must be synchronized with the mains,
regulating the voltage, frequency, phase angle and rotating sense. When all these values are
controlled correctly, the generator can be switched to the grid. In the case of an isolated or off
grid operation, the voltage controller maintains a predefined constant voltage, independent of
the load. In case of the mains supply, the controller maintains the predefined power factor or
reactive power.

Asynchronous generators: They are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with no possibility
of voltage regulation and running at a speed directly related to system frequency. They draw
their excitation current from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism.
Adding a bank of capacitors can compensate for the absorbed reactive energy. They cannot
generate when disconnected from the grid because they are incapable of providing their own
excitation current. However, they are used in very small stand-alone applications as a cheap
solution when the required quality of the electricity supply is not very high.



7.5 Purpose and working principles of Governors

Turbines are designed for a certain net head and discharge. Any deviation from these parameters
must be compensated for by opening or closing the control devices, such as the wicket-gates,
vanes, spear nozzles or valves, to keep either the outlet power frequency constant.
In schemes connected to an isolated network, the parameter that needs to be controlled is the
turbine speed, which controls the frequency. if the generator becomes overloaded the turbine
slows-down therefore an increase of the flow of water is needed to ensure the turbine does not stall.
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

10

If there is not enough water to do this then either some of the load must be removed or the turbine
will have to be shut down. Conversely if the load decreases then the flow to the turbine is to be
decreased.

A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed deviation and convert
it into a change in servomotor position. A speed-sensing element detects the deviation from the set
point; this deviation signal is converted and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic or electric,
that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine, where there is a reduction in water
flow you need to rotate the wicket-gates. For this, a powerful governor is required to overcome the
hydraulic and frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-gates in a partially closed position or to
close them completely.

In a modern electrical-hydraulic governor a sensor located on the generator shaft continuously
senses the turbine speed. The input is fed into a summing junction, where it is compared to a speed
reference. If the speed sensor signal differs from the reference signal, it emits an error signal
(positive or negative) that, once amplified, is sent to the servomotor so this can act in the required
sense.



Schematic Diagram of a Mechanical Governor

7.6 Classifications and dimensions of powerhouses
Classification of powerhouse based on ground level: a) surface powerhouse, b) underground
powerhouse and c) semi underground powerhouse

a. Surface powerhouse
Surface powerhouse is made above the natural ground level and mostly used in small RoR to
PROR projects having low head and at the wide river valleys for powerhouse area. The surface
powerhouse generally does not have space limitations and need sound rock in foundation and
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

11

some architectural design. Proper River training works is important to protect the powerhouse
from flood damage. Generally the surface powerhouse are economical and ease of construction
if the river valley is wide and free from land and rock slide having stable river banks free from
the flood hazard and bank erosion.

b. Underground powerhouse: under special circumstances such as when gorge or valley forms
is narrow providing not enough space for surface powerhouse, underground powerhouses are
worth. Underground powerhouse would be an appropriate proposition when there are more
surface hazards like rock slides, land slide, floods etc. the basic requirements of the
underground power house is the availability of good sound rocks at the desired location and
depth. Underground power houses are safe from air attack during war time. Important
characteristics of underground power house station are its flexibility of layout. The shortest
possible layout through various feasible alignments can be drawn up with minimum size of
pressure conduits and omissions of anchor and valves. The first fully underground power
station was constructed in 1911 in Sweden and operated under a head of 24 m. Khimti (69
MW) hydropower project is the underground powerhouse of Nepal.
Powerhouse Structures
The hydropower station can be broadly classified into three parts: i) Substructure ii) Intermediate
structure and iii) Super structures





The sub structure of the power house is that part of the structures which is situated below the turbine
level. This part is almost universally below the ground level and it includes the draft tube, tail water
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

12

channel in case of impulse wheels, the other natural drainage pipes of waste water from the power
house, drainage galleries. The sub structure transmits the load of the structure above it to the
foundation strata and is usually a massive concrete construction.

The intermediate structures extend from the top of the draft tube to the top of the generator
foundation. The turbine including its casing, the galleries for the auxiliary machines and governor
servo-motor system are housed in this part. The turbine floor is generally provided immediately above
the turbine level and it can be used to have an access to the turbine runner and the regulating ring. The
turbine floor is below the generator floor and is accessible through stairs. For horizontal shaft
arrangement, the intermediate structures may be absent as the turbine and generators are housed in
adjacent halls at the same floor.

The superstructure of the powerhouse is the portion extending from the generating floor, called the
main floor, up to the roof top. It consists of the generators and governors, control room, the exciters
and the auxiliary equipment such as needed for ventilation and cooling. The generators themselves are
either entirely above the floor level or partially above the floor level. The super structure consists of
walls and the roof with a main travelling gantry crane at the roof level. The control room is often
provided with the large glass panel which looks down upon the generator floor. The super structure
also consists of one wing having the office and stores.

Powerhouse Dimensions
The superstructure of the power house has the following three bays: a) machine hall or the unit bay b)
erection or the loading bay, c) control bay.

Machine hall: Length of the machine hall depends upon the number of units, the distance between the
units, and size of the machines. For the vertical alignment unit, the centre to centre distance between
the units is controlled by the total width of the scroll casing layout. The standard distance of scroll
casing is about 4.5 D to 5 D with the turbine outlet diameter as D. The minimum clearance of about 2
to 3 m. so the centre to centre distance between the units is taken as (5D+2.5) m. for higher specific
speeds, this requirements can be reduced to (4D+2.5)m. knowing the total number of units, the total
length of the machine hall can be worked out. The additional fore for the erection//loading is generally
equal to minimum one unit length by size.
Width of the machine hall is also determined by the size and the clearance space from the walls needed
as a gangway. Since the gangway requirements are of the order of 2.5 m, as a first approximation, the
width of the machine hall can be presumed to be (5D+2.5)m. the width is kept as less as possible to
keep small span of the girder and roof structures. In machine halls, the generator placing is not exactly
on the centre line of the hall but shifted to one side so as to provide adequate operating space for the
crane operations on the other side.
Height: the height of the machine hall is fixed up by the head room requirements (about 2.0 m to 2.5
m) of the crane operations. The hall must have a height which will enable the cranes to lift the rotor of
the generator or the runner of the turbine clear off the floor without any other machine sets forming
obstruction. To this clearance space is to be added the depth of crane girder and head room for the
operating cabin.
Loading bay: the loading bay, also known as erection or service bay, is a space where the heavy
vehicles can be loaded and unloaded, the dismantled parts of the machines can be placed and where
small assembling of the equipments can be done. The loading bay should be of sufficient to receive the
large parts like the rotor and runner. The loading bay floor will be having a width at least equal to the
centre to centre distance between the machines.
Control bay: is the main room and control other equipments like runner, gate valves, generator etc. it
may be adjacent to the unit bay i.e. machine halls as it sends instructions to the operation bay from
where the operation control is achieved.
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

13



7.7 Pumps: Centrifugal, reciprocating and their performance characteristics, selection
and starting speed
Pumps are mechanical devices which converts mechanical energy supplied to it from the external
source in to hydraulic energy. Almost all the pumps increase the pressure energy of the liquid which is
subsequently converted into potential energy as the liquid is lifted from a lower level to higher level.
The pumps can be broadly classified into two groups: a) reciprocating (positive displacement) pumps,
b) Centrifugal (Rotodynamic) pumps

Reciprocating Pump: A reciprocating pump are also called positive displacement pumps in which the
liquid is sucked and then it is actually pushed or displaced due to thrust exerted on it by moving
member which results in lifting the liquid to the required height. These pumps usually have one or
more chambers which are alternately filled with the liquid to be pumped and then emptied again. As
such the discharge of liquid pumped by these pumps almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump.

A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which moves to and fro in close
fitting cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes, each of which is provided
with a non return or one way valve called suction valve and delivery valve respectively. The suction
valve allows the liquid only to enter the cylinder and the delivery valve permits only its discharge
from the cylinder. The piston or plunger is connected to a crank by means of connecting rod.
If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger only, it is known as single acting pump.
If the liquid is in contact with both the sides of piston or plunger, it is known as double acting pump.
Double acting pump has two suction and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves, so that during
each stroke when suction takes place on one side of the piston, the other side delivers the liquid.





















Typical characteristics curves of reciprocating curve
The operating characteristics curves are plotting of discharge, power input and overall efficiency
against the head developed by the pump when it is operating at a constant speed. Under the ideal
condition, the discharge of the reciprocating pump operating at constant speed is independent of the
Head (m)
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

Q


I
n
p
u
t

P
o
w
e
r


E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y



Efficiency
Discharge
Discharge
Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

14

head developed by the pump. However, in actual practice it is observed that the discharge of a
reciprocating pump decreases as the head developed by the pump increases.
(See Modi and seth books on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic machines chapter 23
for details)

Centrifugal pump: also called as rotodynamic type of pumps in which dynamic pressure is developed
by rotating the fluid by a rotor. The basic principle on which centrifugal pump works is that when a
certain mass of fluid is made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of
rotation and centrifugal head is impressed due to centrifugal action which enables it to rise to the
higher level. If more liquid is made available at the centre of rotation, a continuous supply of liquid at
higher level may be ensured.
Based on the direction of flow of liquid within the passage of the rotating wheel or impeller, the
rotodynamic pumps are classified as: i) centrifugal, ii) mixed flow and iii) axial flow or propeller
pumps
In centrifugal pump the liquid flows in the outward radial direction while the flow of liquid in a
propeller is in the axial direction parallel to the rotating shaft. The mixed flow pump, impeller has an
intermediate form so that the flow of liquid is in between the radial and axial directions. However
there are no rigid boundaries for separating these three types of pumps and often all the three types of
pumps are called centrifugal pumps. All these pumps are in close to the reverse of reactive turbine.

The main advantages of the centrifugal pump is that its discharging capacity is very much greater than
that of the reciprocating pump which can handle relatively small quantity of liquid only.
Reciprocating pumps may be in trouble due to clogging of valves in pumping muddy, viscous fluid etc
compared to that of the centrifugal pump. The maintenance cost of centrifugal pump is low and
reciprocating pumps are low speed pumps compared to that of the centrifugal pumps.
(See Modi and seth books on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic machines chapter 24
for details)























Typical operating characteristics curves of the centrifugal pumps
Head
Efficiency
Output power
Input power
Discharge
H
e
a
d


E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

I
n
p
u
t

P
o
w
e
r

O
u
t
p
u
t

P
o
w
e
r

Hydropower Engineering Curriculum 1

Hydropower Engineering
BEG457CI
Year 4 Semester 2
Teaching
Schedule
hours/week
Examination Schemes Total
marks
Remarks
Final Internal
Assessment

Theory Practical Theory
marks
Practic
al
marks

L P T Duration
Hours
Marks Duration
Hours
Marks
3 2/2 2 3 80 - - 20 25 125

1.0 Introduction 4 hours
1.1 Power situation in Nepal and world: Historical Background and
development
1.2 Introduction to Power system
1.3 Types and Classification of Hydropower Plants as Low head, medium
head and High head
1.4 Run off the river, storage and pump storage plants

2.0 Power Regulation 4 hours
2.1 Definition and meaning of terms such as Firm power, Secondary
power, mean and peak load, utilization and diversity factors
2.2 Power variation: Daily, weekly and seasonal
2.3 Power Grids, Components of Power System

3.0 Planning and Layout of Hydropower Projects 6 hours
3.1 Site selection for Hydropower Projects: Reconnaissance, preliminary,
hydrological and geological investigations
3.2 requirements for Hydropower: Use of Flow Duration and Mass curves
Energy flow diagram, estimation of power potential, Demand and
Prediction
3.3 Reservoir regulation: Peak and normal flow discharges, Distribution of
Sediments and their control, Life of reservoir
3.4 Layout of Hydropower Projects: Intake, reservoir, Penstock, Supply
conduits, casing, draft tube, tail race

4.0 Water Retaining structures 9 hours
4.1 Dams: Different types of dams based upon function, Head, Hydraulic
consideration, Materials and Storage
4.2 Choice of Dam depending upon the site condition and economy
4.3 General consideration for Design of Dams
4.4 Design principle of Straight Gravity dam: strength, stability and factor
of safety



Hydropower Engineering Curriculum 2

4.5 Foundation treatments: Grouting, remedies against piping and Exit
gradient
4.6 Design of Concrete Gravity dams: General considerations, cross
sectional profiles, strength, stability and safety factors against over
turning, sliding, floating, free board
4.7 Design of Earthen dams: General consideration, strength, stability and
safety factors against slope stability, phreatic line, seepage flow
discharge

5.0 Regulatory Structures 10 hours
5.1 Intake: Importance, location and types
5.2 Design of intake structure
5.3 Hydraulic tunnels: Definition; rock pressure, hardness coefficient of
rocks pressure and non pressure tunnel their types and design, head
loss in pressure tunnel, design of tunnel lining
5.4 Settling basin: types of settling basins and their locations, settling
velocity, Horizontal velocity and lifting velocity, characteristics of
suspended sediments, settling basins with periodic and continuous
flushing, components of basin and their design
5.5 Forebay and Surge tanks: Importance, location, condition of their
application
5.6 Design of Forebay structures
5.7 Penstock Linners: Importance, location, condition of their application,
hydraulic hammer, Hydrodynamic pressure calculation, turbine head
and determination of penstock diameter.

6.0 Spill way 6 hours

6.1 Function of spillway, types and capacity, provision of gates
6.2 occurrence of cavitations and Erosion
6.3 Energy dissipation: types of energy dissipators, their necessity, role of
tail water depth,
6.4 Design of stilling basin

7.0 Hydro-Electrical Machines 6 hours
7.1 Hydro-mechanical installation: turbines- pelton Francis, Kaplan and
their performance characteristics
7.2 selection of turbines and their specific speed
7.3 Introduction to bulb draft tube, tailrace canal and their importance
7.4 Pumps: Centrifugal, reciprocating and their performance
characterisitcs, selection and starting speed
7.5 Electromechanical installation: Generators and their types
7.6 Purpose and working principles of Governors
7.7 Classifications and dimensions of powerhouses

Recommended books
1. MM Dandekar and K.N. Sharma, water power engineering
2. M.M Grishin, Hydraulic structures, Mir Publisher, Moscow 1982
3. R.S. Varsheny, Hydropower structures, Nem Chand nd bros, roorkee 1986
4. GI Kivchenko, Mir publisher moscow
Lecture Notes
On
BEG:457CI Hydropower Engineering
For
Bachelor of Civil Engineering