INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

AC DC POWER SUPPLY
FROM

POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA PVT. LTD.

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG.
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
MR. V.K.KHANNA
(HEAD OF OPERATIONS R&D)
POWERTEC SUPPLIES INIDIA PVT. LTD
.

TEK CHAND MANN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GANNAUR (SONEPAT)

SUBMITTED TO:

SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. DHEERAJ
H.O.D. OF ECE DEPT.

VINOD SAINI
ROLL NO: 1130140665

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Training is an agglomeration of the theoretical and practical and
technical concepts, which enhances our skills in the filed of technology.
Training plays a strong role in the building up of strong personality.
Training at POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA PVT.LTD. is a learning
experience.
I would like to thank POWERTEC for providing us the opportunity to
carry out my industrial training. It is a wonderful experience working with
learned people of the institute.
I am extremely thankful to Mr.V.K.KHANNA (Head of training
department) for allowing us to carry on my training at this prestigious
organization. I am extremely indebted to him for allowing us to train
myself in various processes carried out in institute and helping me to do
my job properly.
I feel duty bound to express my sincere token of gratitude to Mr.
Devender Singh and Mr. Ashish Jain for their excellent expert guidance,
motivation and all the help, which has powered me to here today. They
explained the technicalities to me, which will remain of great help to me
in times to come.
I express my gratitude to all the employees for their immense support
and cooperation.
I am also thankful to those to whom I have forgotten to mention.
VINOD SAINI

PREFACE
Training is an agglomeration of the theoretical and practical and
technical concepts, which enhances our skills in the field of technology.
Training plays a strong role in the building up of strong personality.
Training at Silicon technical institute is a learning experience.
The training report has been developed as a part of the industrial
training that MDU, Rohtak requires its students to undergo after the fifth
semester of the curriculum the purpose of the industrial training is to
familiarize the students of the Bachelor or engineering course with the
present working environment in the country.
To provide them to study with the latest trends those have been
established and edged a well as the ones that are being developed in
the country. Moreover to make students feel sure that whatever they are
learning in this training period would certainly help them for the future
courses of action and help them to develop their potential and technical
skills.
To allow them to explore various fields and to better equip them as a
professional in the time to time.
The training is being carried out at POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA
PVT.LTD. is An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company situated at B-112 ,
Phase-II, Noida-201305. Its a perfect industry for the persons want to
shape their career.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1)

Company Profile 1 4

2)

Power Supply................................................................5_ 6

3)

Printed Circuit Board.....................................................8

4)

Introduction to Electronic Devices 9 - 42

5)

Introduction to Regulator............................................41

6)

Introduction to Filter Circuit ..........................................42

POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA PVT.LTD.

Profile
Powertec , was formed in 1996 with the objective to offer the Electronic
Industry in India quality power products conforming to International standards.
Powertec was established with the aim of designing, developing manufacturing
and marketing top of the line products in Switch Mode Power
Supplies(SMPS), AC/DC and DC/DC converters for the quality conscious
Indian consumer.

In 1997, Powertec entered in to an agreement with Cosel Co. Ltd. Japan for
national distribution of Power supplies and convertors. Cosel is one of the most
respected brands in the International power supply industry.

In 2006 Vicor Corp. USA appointed Powertec as the authorized distributors in

India for their products consisting of Power Conversion components like DCDC & AC DC Converters and power supplies.
Since inception, the brand name `Powertec' has been well established for its
high quality product lines. Developing innovative products with the latest
technology is the core strength of Powertec. Requirements can be met by
standard or customized products based on Cosel & Vicor Power supplies and
converters.

Power Supply

In a digital circuit power supply voltage levels are constrained to two

distinct values
logic high voltage (called LHV or Vdd) and
logic low voltage (called LLV or GND).

The GND net in any circuit is the universal reference voltage against
which all other voltages are measured. In a schematic, it is often difficult
to show lines connecting all GND nodes; rather, any nodes labelled
GND are assumed to be connected into the same node. Often, a
downward pointing triangle symbol is attached to a GND node in
addition to (or instead of) the GND label.

The Vdd node in a digital circuit is typically the highest voltage, and all
nodes labelled Vdd are tied together into the same node.

Vdd may be thought of as the source of positive charges in a circuit,

and GND may be thought of as the source of negative charges in a
circuit. In modern digital systems, Vdd and GND are separated by
anywhere from 1 to 5 volts. Older or inexpensive circuits typically use 5
volts, while newer circuits use 1-3 volts.

Printed Circuit Board

Electronic components are often assembled and interconnected on a flat

surface known as a circuit board.

The several types of existing circuit boards may be divided into two
broad categories:
those intended for prototype or experimental circuits;
and those intended for production and/or commercial sale.

Circuit boards used for experimental work are often referred to as

breadboards or protoboards.

Production circuit boards are design usually using specialised CAD

software (e.g. OrCAD, Protel, etc..). Once the design is completed, the

PCB has to be manufactured. Typical steps are shown in the picture.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged
in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads.
Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a
printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function
(for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be
packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less
complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array,
logic gate etc). Active components are sometimes called devices rather than
components.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:
Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes the
passage of an electric current. The Sl unit of electrical resistance is the ohm,

The quantity of resistance in an electric circuit determines the amount of

current flowing in the circuit for any given voltage applied to the circuit.
R=V / I
where
R is the resistance of the object, usually measured in ohms, equivalent to
J.s/C2
V is the potential difference across the object, usually measured in volts
/ is the current passing through the object, usually measured in amperes

Resistors are two-terminal devices that restrict, or resist, the flow of current.
The larger the resistor, the less current can flow through it for a given voltage
(an equation known as Ohm's law, V=113, relates current, resistance, and
voltage). Electrical resistance within the resistor body is caused by the
collisions of electrons in motion through the resistor. Such collisions cause
energy to be dissipated in the form of heat or light (as in a toaster or light bulb).
Resistance is measured in Ohms - a 1 Ohm resistor is relatively small, and a
100KOhm resistor is relatively large. Resistors find many uses in electronic
systems, On the Digilab board, resistors are used to limit the current that flows
into an output LED (so they don't burn too bright and destroy themselves) and
to limit the current that flows in response to a button or switch input being
activated. The Digilab board uses several different resistor values. Of course,
the correct resistor must be loaded in the correct place on the PCB.
Resistors come in many shapes and sizes, and depending on their size and
construction technology, they can dissipate differing amounts of power (the
amount of power dissipated in a resistor can be calculated using the equation
P=I 2 R, where I is the current flowing through the resistor and R is the
resistance). Typically, resistors used in digital systems encounter relatively low
voltages and currents, and therefore, they can be relatively small. The Digilab
resistors are rated to dissipate 250mW of power, or 1/4 Watt. Resistors that can
dissipate more than 1/4 Watt are physically larger. For example, power resistors
that can dissipate several Watts or more can be cigar-sized or even larger. For
small resistors, resistor values are "encoded" as a series of coloured bands on
the resistor body.
To determine the value of a small resistor (i.e., 1/8 Watt or 1/4 Watt), first
locate the tolerance band on one end of the resistor - it will typically be either
gold (59% tolerance) or silver (10% tolerance). The colour band at the other
end of the resistor is band1. Use the table below to find the two-digit number
associated with the colors of bands 1 and 2. The band nearest the tolerance

band is the multiplier (or exponent) band - the digits associated with the first
two colour bands are multiplied by 10 raised to the power indicated by the
colour of the multiplier band. The following table associates band colors to
digits and multiplier factors. Simply multiply the two-digit value by the
multiplier, and youve got the resistor value.
BAND

1st and 2nd band Multiplier Tolerance

COLOR
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
Gold
Silver
No color

digits
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
N/A
N/A
N/A

100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
.1
.01
N/A

1%
2%
3%
4%
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
5%
10%
20%
Resistor schematic
Symbol

Resistors are manufactured with many body colors, with tan or light brown
being the most typical. The only significant resistor body colors are white and
blue; these colors signify a non-flammable or fusible resistor. Such resistors are
used in circuits where overheating might pose a safety risk. In circuit
schematics and in parts lists, resistor reference designators always begin with
an "R". You can see several rectangular white boxes with "R-" on the Digilab
board silk-screen. The schematic symbol for a resistor is shown above.
Resistors are non-polarised, so they can be placed in a PCB in any orientation.

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not
depend on the amount of current flowing or the amount of applied voltage. V
can either be measured directly across the object or calculated from a
subtraction of voltages relative to a reference point. The former method is
simpler for a single object and is likely to be more accurate. There may also be
problems with the latter method if the voltage supply is AC and the two
measurements from the reference point are not in phase with each other.

RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuits
A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so
the current has only one path to take. The current is the same through
each resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply
adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors:
equivalent resistance of resistors in series : R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

A series circuit is shown in the diagram above.

With a 10 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is:

I = V / R = 10 / 20 = 0.5 A. The current through each resistor would be
0.5 A.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their
heads connected together, and their tails connected together. The
current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each
parallel branch and re-combining when the branches meet again. The
voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.
The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up
the reciprocals of the resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal
of the total:
Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R 1 + 1 / R2 + 1 /
R3 +...

A parallel circuit is shown in the diagram above. In this case the current
supplied by the battery splits up, and the amount going through each
resistor depends on the resistance. If the values of the three resistors
are:
With a 10 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is: I = V / R
= 10 / 2 = 5 A.
The individual currents can also be found using I = V / R. The voltage
across each resistor is 10 V, so:

I1

10

1.25

I2

10

1.25

I3=10 / 4 = 2.5 A
Note that the currents add together to 5A, the total current.
A parallel resistor short-cut
If the resistors in parallel are identical, it can be very easy to work out
the equivalent resistance. In this case the equivalent resistance of N
identical resistors is the resistance of one resistor divided by N, the
number of resistors. So, two 40-ohm resistors in parallel are equivalent
to one 20-ohm resistor; five 50-ohm resistors in parallel are equivalent
to one 10-ohm resistor, etc.
When calculating the equivalent resistance of a set of parallel resistors,
people often forget to flip the 1/R upside down, putting 1/5 of an ohm
instead of 5 ohms, for instance. Here's a way to check your answer. If
you have two or more resistors in parallel, look for the one with the
smallest resistance. The equivalent resistance will always be between
the smallest resistance divided by the number of resistors, and the
smallest resistance. Here's an example.
You have three resistors in parallel, with values 6 ohms, 9 ohms, and 18
ohms. The smallest resistance is 6 ohms, so the equivalent resistance
must be between 2 ohms and 6 ohms (2 = 6 /3, where 3 is the number
of resistors).
Doing the calculation gives 1/6 + 1/12 + 1/18 = 6/18. Flipping this upside
down gives 18/6 = 3 ohms, which is certainly between 2 and 6.

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field
between a pair of closely-spaced conductors (called 'plates). When voltage is
applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite
polarity, build up on each plate.
A capacitor is a two-terminal device that can store electric energy in the form
of charged particles. You can think of a capacitor as a reservoir of charge that
takes time to fill or empty. The voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the
amount of charge it is storing - since it is not possible to instantaneously move
charge to or from a capacitor, it is not possible to instantaneously change the
voltage across a capacitor. It is this property that makes capacitors useful on the
Digilab board.

Capacitance is measured in Farads - a one Farad capacitor can store one

Coloumb of charge at one volt. For engineering on a small scale (i.e., hand-held
or desk-top devices), a one Farad capacitor stores far too much charge to be of
general use (it would be like a car having a 1000 gallon gas tank). More useful
capacitors are measured in micro-farads (uF) or pico-farads (pF). The terms

"milli-farad" and "nano-farad" are rarely used. Large capacitors often have
their value printed plainly on them, such as "10 uF (for 10 microfards). Smaller
capacitors, appearing as small disks or wafers, often have their values printed
on them in an encoded manner (similar to the resistor packs discussed above).
For these capacitors, a three digit number indicates the capacitor value in Pico
farads. The first two digits provides the "base" number, and the third digit
provides an exponent of 10 (so, for example, "104" printed on a capacitor
indicates a capacitance value of 10 x 10 4 or 100000 pF). Occasionally, a
capacitor will only show a two digit number, in which case that number is
simply the capacitor value in pF. (To be complete, if a capacitor shows a three
digit number and the third digit is 8 or 9, then the first two digits are multiplied
by .01 and .1 respectively). Often, a single letter is appended to the capacitance
value -this letter indicates the quality of the capacitor.
Capacitors are used on the Digilab board to keep the voltage supplies and some
signals stable regardless of circuit activity, and to store charge when inputs are
activated in order to slow their assertion times. Twenty-seven capacitors of
three different types and values are used on the Digilab board. The majority of
the capacitors (24 out of 27) are used to decouple Digilab's integrated circuits
from the power supply. These 24 bypass capacitors are placed on the board
very close to the Vdd pins of all chips, where they can supply the short-term
electrical current needs of the chips. Without such bypass capacitors, individual
chips could cause the Vdd supply across the entire Digilab board to dip below
5V during times of heavy current demand. Nearly every chip in every digital
system uses bypass capacitors. Bypass capacitor value can be determined if the
worst-case current requirements are known (by using the formula I = C dv/dt),
but more typically, capacitors in the range 0.01uF to 0.1uF are used without
regard to the actual current requirements. The Digilab board uses 0.047uF
bypass capacitors. The board also uses a bulk bypass capacitor (C27) to provide
charge storage for the entire circuit board - this large 47uF capacitor can supply
the individual bypass capacitors during times of exceptional need.

ENERGY STORAGE
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging
circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are common used
in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being
changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
Capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or
half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy
storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage,
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic
devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal
current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power
supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses
several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into
the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power
source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car
audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance
and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

The total capacitance of the above circuit is:

1
1
1
1

......
Ceq
C1 C2
Cn

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

The total capacitance of this circuit will be:

Ceq = C1 + C2 + .. + Cn
CAPACITOR TYPES

Metal film:

Made from high quality polymer foil (usually

polycarbonate, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester (Mylar), and for

high quality capacitors polysulfone), with a layer of metal deposited on
surface. They have good quality and stability, and are suitable for timer
circuits. Suitable for high frequencies.

 Mica: Similar to metal film. Often high voltage. Suitable for high
frequencies. Expensive.
Paper: Used for high voltages
Glass: Used for high voltages. Expensive. Stable temperature
coefficient in a wide range of temperatures.
Ceramic: Chips of altering layers of metal and ceramic. Depending on
their dielectric, whether Class 1 or Class 2, their degree of
temperature/capacity dependence varies. They often have (especially the
class 2) high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation,
their capacity depends on applied voltage, and their capacity changes
with aging. However they find massive use in common low-precision
coupling and filtering applications. Suitable for high frequencies.
Electrolytic: Polarized. Construction ally similar to metal film, but the
electrodes are made of aluminum etched to acquire much higher
surfaces, and the dielectric is soaked with liquid electrolyte. They suffer
from high tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacity especially
when subjected to heat, and high leakage. Special types with low
equivalent series resistance are available. Tend to lose capacity in low
temperatures. Can achieve high capacities.
Tantalum: Like electrolytic. Polarized. Better performance with higher
frequencies. High dielectric absorption. High leakage. Have much better
performance in low temperatures.

 Supercapacitrs: Made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or

highly porous electrode materials. Extremely high capacity. Can be used
in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.

USES OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors are used for several purposes:
Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and
discharging.
Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to
connect aloudspeaker.
Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
Tuning - for example in a radio system.
Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit

CURRENT
Electric current Is by definition the flow of electric charge. The Sl unit of
blectric current Is the ampere (A), which Is equal to a flow of one coulomb of
charge per second.
VOLTAGE
Voltage is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an
electronic circuit, expressed in volts [1]. It measures the capacity (not the
technical meaning) of an electric field to cause an electric current in an
electrical conductor. Depending on the difference of electrical potential it is
called extra low voltage, low voltage, high voltage or extra high voltage

RESISTANCE
Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes the
passage of an electric current. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm.
OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law predicts the current in an (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device) to
be applied voltage divided by resistance:
I=V/R
Where
/is the current, measured in amperes
V is the potential difference measured in volts
R is the resistance measured in ohms

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.
The voltage can be measured by allowing it to pass a current through a
resistance; therefore, a voltmeter can be seen as a very high resistance ammeter.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little
as possible and hence the instrument should draw a minimum of electric
current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or micrometer
in series with a high resistance.
The moving coil galvanometer is one example of this type of voltmeter. It
employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When
an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and
compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current
that is flowing through the coil- For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is
added so that the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage
AMMETER
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the flow of electric
current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes, hence the name.
The word "ammeter" is commonly misspelled or mispronounced as
"ampmeter" by some.
The earliest design is the D'Arsonval galvanometer or moving coil ammeter. It
uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil
to move in a magnetic field. The voltage drop across the coil is kept to a
minimum to minimize resistance across the ammeter in any circuit into which
the it is inserted.

Moving iron ammeters use a piece or pieces of iron which move when acted
upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of (usually heavy gauge) wire.
This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed
to the moving coil ammeter, which works on direct current only).
To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with
the meter. Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small
fraction flow through the meter. With this solution, arbitrarily large currents can
be measured with a single meter. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt
reaches full-scale deflection when a voltage of 50mV is placed across its coil,
so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of 50mV when
carrying their full rated current.
More modern ammeter designs are non-mechanical, or digital, and use an
analog to digital converter to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor. The
ADC is read by a microcomputer that performs the calculations to display the
current through the resistor.
One problem with the use of an ammeter is the need for the meter to be inserted
into the circuit and become part of it. Mistakenly placing the ammeter in
parallel with a circuit will blow the fuse, possibly damaging the meter and
causing injury. In AC circuits, an inductive coupling adapter converts the
magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current that can be easily
read by a meter. See clamp meter. In a similar way, accurate DC non-contact
arnmeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors

OHMMETER
An Ohmmeter is an electrical measuring instrument that measures electrical
resistance, the opposition to the flow of an electric current.
The original design of an ohmmeter provided a small battery to apply a voltage
to a resistance. It used a galvanometer to measure the electric current through
the resistance. The scale of the galvanometer was marked in ohms, because the
fixed voltage from the battery assured that as resistance decreased, the current
through the meter would increase.
A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an electronic circuit that passes a
constant current I through the resistance, and another circuit that measures the
voltage V across the resistance. According to the following equation, derived
from Ohm's Law, the value of the resistance R is given by:
R= V/1
For high-precision measurements the above types of meter are inadequate, This
is because the meter's reading is the sum of the resistance of the measuring
leads, the contact resistances and the resistance being measured. To reduce this
effect, a precision ohmmeter has four terminals, called Kelvin contacts. Two
terminals carry the current from the meter, while the other two allow the meter
to measure the voltage across the resistor. With this type of meter, any current
drop due to the resistance of the first pair of leads and their contact resistances
is ignored by the meter. This four terminal measurement technique is called
Kelvin sensing, after William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, who invented the Kelvin
bridge in 1861 to measure very low resistances.

DIODES
Diodes are constructed from the same type of silicon as transistors, but they are
simpler devices that have only two terminals. Called the anode and cathode, the
two ends of the diode are constructed of positively doped silicon (the anode)
joined directly to negatively doped silicon (the cathode). This pn-junction
exhibits the unique characteristic of allowing current to flow in only one
direction (from the anode to the cathode). Diodes have a minimum threshold
voltage (or Vth, usually around 0.7V) that must be present between the anode
and cathode in order for current to flow. If the anode voltage is not at least Vth
greater than the cathode voltage, no current will flow. Likewise, if the cathode
voltage is greater than the anode voltage, the diode is said to be reverse-biased
and no current will flow. In an ideal diode, if the diode voltage equals the
threshold voltage (plus a small amount), then unlimited current can flow
without causing the voltage across the diode to increase. And, if the diode is
reversed-biased, no current will flow regardless of reverse-voltage magnitude.

Diodes
Diodes have many uses in electronic circuits. As examples, they are frequently
employed in power supply circuits to turn alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC), they are used to limit the amount of over-voltage that can be
applied to a given circuit node, and they are used to force given circuit nodes to
remain at or below a certain voltage. On the Digilab board, three individual
diodes are used to limit the voltages applied to the Red, Blue, and Green pins
of the VGA connector (M) to 0.7VDC or less.
Note the identification methods used to mark a diode's cathode -terminal: the
schematic symbol has a line at the point of the triangle; the physical diode has a
dark line on the plastic component housing; and the silk-screen pattern has both
a line at the cathode end and a square pad for the cathode lead. When loading a
diode into a circuit board, make sure that the dark line on the diode matches the
line in the silk-screen pattern. Remember that since diodes allow current to
flow in only one direction, a backwards diode will cause the circuit to
malfunction.

LED SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

Diodes locations on the circuit board are typically denoted with a "D-"
reference designator
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent
narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction. This
effect is a form of electro luminescence. The color of the emitted light depends
on the composition and condition of the semi conducting material used, and

can be infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio

Corporation of America first reported on infrared emission from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Experimenters at
Texas Instruments, Bob Biard [1] and Gary Pittman, found in 1961 that gallium
arsenide gave off infrared (invisible) light when electric, current was applied.
Biard and Pittman were able to establish the priority of their work and received
the patent for the infrared lightemitting diode. Nick Holonyak Jr. of the General
Electric Company developed the first practical visible-spectrum LED in 1962.
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED
has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type
for general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular.
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install
on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help
to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in
holes. Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.
As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their
viewing angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard
LEDs have a viewing angle of 600 but others have a narrow beam of 300 or
less.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good
guide to the range available.

ADVANTAGES OF USING LEDS

LEDs produce more light per Watt than do incandescent bulbs; this is
useful in battery powered devices.
LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters
that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can
lower initial costs.
The solid package of an LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector
to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not
change their colour tint as the current passing through them is lowered,
unlike incandescent lamps, which yellow.
LEDs are built i1nside solid cases that protect them, unlike incandescent
and discharge sources, making them extremely durable.
LEDs have an extremely long life span: upwards of 100,000 hours,
twice as long as the best fluorescent bulbs and twenty times longer than
the best incandescent bulbs. (Incandescent bulbs can also be made to last
an extremely long time by running at lower than normal voltage, but
only at a huge cost in efficiency; LEDs have a long life when operated at
their rated power.)
Further, LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt
burn-out of incandescent bulbs,
LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve
full brightness in microseconds; LEDs used in communications devices
can have even faster response times.
LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit
boards.

Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to
connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with
the same current as just one LED.

All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they
are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to
provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another
2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the
LED voltages

SIZE AND SHAPES

LEDs are produced in a staggering array of shapes and sizes, The 5 mm

cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at
80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is
often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There
are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkies.

Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue
and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colors.

The color of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the

coloring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colors are available in
uncolored packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as

I water clear'). The colored packages are also available as diffused (the standard
type) or transparent

LIST OF LED APPLICATIONS

Some of these applications are further elaborated upon in the following text.
Architectural lighting.
Status indicators on all sorts of equipment.
Traffic lights and signals.
Exit signs.
Motorcycle and Bicycle lights.
Toys and recreational sporting goods.
Railroad crossing signals.
Light bars on emergency vehicles.
Elevator Push Button Lighting.
Thin, lightweight message displays at airports and railway stations and
as destination displays for trains, buses, trams and ferries.
Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in
environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field,
e.g. night time animal watching and military field use.
Red, yellow, green, and blue LEDs can be used for model railroading
applications.
Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.

 In dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages.

Glow lights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable
alternative to Glow sticks.
Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice.
Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been
used for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake
lights and turn signals for some time, but many high-end vehicles are
now starting to use LEDs for their entire rear light clusters. Besides the
gain in reliability, this has styling advantages because LEDs are capable
of forming much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic
reflectors. The significant improvement in the time taken to light up
(perhaps 0.5s faster than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by
giving drivers more time to react.
Backlighting for LCD televisions and displays. The availability of LEDs
in specific colors (RGB) enables a full-spectrum light source which
expands the color gamut by as much as 45%.
New stage lighting equipment is being developed with LED sources in
primary red-green-blue arrangements.
LED phototherapy for acne using blue or red LEDs has been proven to
significantly reduce acne over a 3 month period.
As Voltage Reference in electronic circuits. The constant voltage drop
(e.g. 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode

in low-voltage regulators. Zener diodes are not available below voltages

of about 3 V.

RELAY
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another
electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an
electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by
Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of
higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be
a form of electrical amplifier

OPERATION
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either
makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil
is switched off, the armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong
as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce
noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil,
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to
circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring"
creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the
armature during the AC cycle. [1]

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a

solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device.
To achieve electrical isolation, a light emitting diode (LED) is used with a
photo transistor.

APPLICATIONS
Relays are used:
to control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some
types of modems,
to control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the
starter solenoid of an automobile,
to detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
to isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two
are

at

different

potentials,

for

example

when

controlling

mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often

applied to co~trol office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They
may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to
conserve energy,
to perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is
realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by
connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts
perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions; for NAND

and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. Due to the failure modes
of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used in
safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste
handling machinery. -

ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and
direction vary cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction remains
constant. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this
result in the most efficient transmission of energy. However in certain
applications different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves.
Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to
businesses and residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on
electrical wire are also examples of alternating current. In these applications, an
important goal is often the recovery of information encoded (or modulated)
onto the AC signal.

DIRECT CURRENT
Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is considered as the constant flow
of electrons in the single direction from low to high potential. This is typically
in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. In direct
current, the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from
alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic
current.

ALTERNATING VS. DIRECT CURRENT

So far we have been talking about a constant supply of voltage - one that
doesn't change over time, such as a battery before it starts to run down. This is
what is commonly know of as direct current or DC which is to say that there is
no change in voltage over a period of time. This is not the kind of electricity
found coming out of the sockets in your wall at home. The electricity supplied
by the hydro company changes over short periods of time (it changes over long
periods of time as well, but that's an entirely different story...) Every second,
the voltage difference between the two terminals in your wall socket fluctuates
between about -170 V and 170 V sixty times a second (if you live in North
America, at least ...). This brings up two important points to discuss.
Firstly, the negative voltage... All a negative voltage means is that the electrons
are flowing in a direction opposite to that being measured. There are more
electrons in the tested point in the circuit than there are in the reference point,
therefore more negative charge. If you think of this in terms of the two tanks of
water - if we're sitting at the bottom of the empty tank, and we measure the
relative pressure of the full one, its pressure will be more, and therefore
positive relative to your reference. If you're at the bottom of the full tank and
you measure the pressure at the bottom of the empty one, you'll find that it's
less than your reference and therefore negative. (Two other analogies to
completely confuse you.., it's like describing someone by their height. It doesn't
matter how tall or short someone is - if you say they're tall, it probably means
that they're taller than you.
Secondly, the idea that the voltage is fluctuating. When you plug your coffee
maker into the wall, you'll notice that the plug has two terminals. One is a
reference voltage which stays constant (normally called a "cold" wire in this
case ...) and one is the "hot" wire which changes in voltage realtive to the cold
wire. The device in the coffee maker which is doing the work is connected with

each of these two wires. When the voltage in the hot wire is positive in
comparison to the cold wire, the current flows from hot through the coffee
maker to cold. One one-hundred and twentieth of a second later the hot wire is
negative compared to the cold, the current flows from cold to hot. This is
commonly known as alternating current or AC.
So remember, alternating current means that both the voltage and the current
are changing in time.

Filtering
The output of a PWM supply averages a sine wave. However, the high
frequency components must be eliminated to obtain a sine wave. Figure 9
shows one method of filtering the output using an inductor and a capacitor.
The low pass filter cutoff frequency is determined by the LC resonant
frequency.

Figure 4:2 Filter Circuit

Power Supplies
To power the control circuitry, power supplies must be designed. Using the AC
power available at the output of the inverter, simple rectification circuits using
voltage regulators can be used to produce the desired voltages: +15V and
-15V. However, initially voltage must be pulled directly from the inverter input
voltage to provide power during start-up. Due to the limited time and manpower, this portion of the design was not completed. It is useful to note that the
-15V supply is not necessary for inverter output. However, if the -15V supply
is not established, the output will be a square wave and will not be controlled
by the 12V/36V control circuit. Also, the PWM circuit is capable of accepting
a wide range of voltages. This, however, is limited by the buffers.

Protection
A considerable amount of design work would have to be performed before this
inverter design could be marketed. In addition to the protection given to the
components to internal problems, it is also important to protect against external
problems. For example, the design would have to be protective of consumers
for problems such as electrical shock. The inverter should also protect against
over-discharging a battery. Due to the switching nature of the design,
significant protection must be given against EMI (Electro-Magnetic
Interference), specifically radiated EMI. Conducted EMI must also be
prevented since it could have a detrimental effect on the automobile electrical
system. The inverter must also protect itself from over-current states, shortcircuit conditions, and over-temperature conditions.