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This report discusses the advantages of low volatile coals for pulverized coal injection (PCI) in blast furnaces. It finds that low volatile coals can increase the coke replacement ratio and decrease blast momentum, improving furnace stability at high injection rates. The coke replacement ratio increases with coal carbon content up to 91% dry ash free carbon. Blast momentum decreases with carbon content above 85%, influencing the raceway depth and coke degradation. Low volatile coals also improve mill performance by increasing capacity and decreasing power consumption due to their softness. Overall, using low volatile coals can save $8/tonne of hot metal by reducing coal costs when injecting at high rates.
This report discusses the advantages of low volatile coals for pulverized coal injection (PCI) in blast furnaces. It finds that low volatile coals can increase the coke replacement ratio and decrease blast momentum, improving furnace stability at high injection rates. The coke replacement ratio increases with coal carbon content up to 91% dry ash free carbon. Blast momentum decreases with carbon content above 85%, influencing the raceway depth and coke degradation. Low volatile coals also improve mill performance by increasing capacity and decreasing power consumption due to their softness. Overall, using low volatile coals can save $8/tonne of hot metal by reducing coal costs when injecting at high rates.
This report discusses the advantages of low volatile coals for pulverized coal injection (PCI) in blast furnaces. It finds that low volatile coals can increase the coke replacement ratio and decrease blast momentum, improving furnace stability at high injection rates. The coke replacement ratio increases with coal carbon content up to 91% dry ash free carbon. Blast momentum decreases with carbon content above 85%, influencing the raceway depth and coke degradation. Low volatile coals also improve mill performance by increasing capacity and decreasing power consumption due to their softness. Overall, using low volatile coals can save $8/tonne of hot metal by reducing coal costs when injecting at high rates.
31 Eurambeen Close, Mount Crosby, Qld. 4306, Australia Phone 07 3201 0979 ! Fax: 07 3201 1060 Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI Report No: 970005 Date: 2 August, 1997 Revision: May, 2000 Prepared for: Jellinbah Resources Attention: Mr R. Stainlay By: Philip A. Bennett Principal Consultant This report was prepared by Energy Tactics -trading name of CoalTech Pty Ltd. . Energy Tactics or any of its sub- contrac tors do no t: a) ma ke an y warr anty, exp ressed or implied, with respect to th e accu racy, co mpleten ess, or usefu lness of the information contained in this re port, or that the u se of any informa tion, appar atus, metho d, or process disclosed in this report may not infringe privately owned rights; or b) assume any liabilities with respect to use of, or for damages resulting from th e use of, any information, appa ratus, meth od, or process disclosed in th is report. Table of Contents Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Pulverised Coal Injection (PCI) Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Issues at High Injection Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Impact of Inject ed Coal Quality on Blast Furnace Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Replacement Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Coal Ash Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Combustibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Char Reactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Coke Degradation in the Raceway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Summary of the Impact of Coal Quality on Blast Fur nace Operation . . . . . . . . 13 Impact of Coal Quality on Mill Performance and Handability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Mill Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Mill Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Mill Power Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Product Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Blockages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Economic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Executive Summary Pulverised coal injection has become a standard practice in most major steelworks with injection rates varying from 100 to over 200 kg/tHM. The injection rat es and number of installations are expected to continue to increase result ing in a coal demand for injection reaching around 55 million tonnes per year by the year 2005. A major fact or limiting PCI r ates, while maintaining stable blast furnace operation, is the permeability of the coke bed surrounding the raceway. As inject ion rates increase the level of unburnt char entering the raceway and the blast momentum both incr ease, leading to: C changes in the size of the raceway, C mechanical degradation of coke in the raceway, C reduction of permeability of the coke surrounding the raceway, and C changes in temperature distribution in the raceway. All of these influence raceway stability and the distribution of gas flow through the lower sections of the blast furnace, both of which impact on furnace stability and therefore blast furnace productivity. A general overview was developed showing how the volatile content of the injected coals can impact on char formation, blast momentum and generation of coke fines in the raceway. Although, this overview was based on the idealised properties of coal and individual coals will vary from these properties. This overview does however highlight two important aspects of how coal properties can influence blast furnace performance. These are: C Coke replacement ratio increases with the dry ash free carbon content of the coal up to approximat ely dry ash free carbon content of 91% where the replacement ratio seems to level out. C The blast momentum decreases with increasing carbon content of the coal when the dry ash free carbon content is greater than 85%; the blast momentum directly influences the raceway depth and coke degradation within the raceway. At high injection rates and injecting a coal with a carbon content less than 85% daf, any fluctuations in the coal rate delivered to a tuyere will result in fluctuations in the raceway depth and the generat ion of coke fines. Fluctuations in raceway depth and the generation rate of fines will reduce blast furnace stabilit y and therefore pr oductivity. By choosing a coal with a dry ash free carbon content greater than say 88%, the impact of variations in coal feed rate on blast furnace stability will be reduced and furnace productivity will be maintained. The main economic benefit of coal injection is the replacement of high cost coking coals. The coke replacement ratio of a coal can be shown to be dependent on the energy or carbon content of that coal, with low volatile coals having the highest coke replacement ratio. This is shown by steelworks tending to buy PCI coals based on cents per percent carbon which is similar the purchase of iron at cents per % iron. At high injection rates and using low volatile coals for injection the saving in total coal costs will be about US$8 per tonne of hot metal produced. Low volatile coals also generally are softer coals with Hardgrove Grindability Index around 80. As these coals are ver y easy t o mill there will be savings fr om reduced mill power consumption for a given coal throughput. Low volatile coal also allows the mill capacity to be increased up to 40% above that of a 50 Hardgrove Grindability Index coal, thus allowing the steelworks to increase injection rates without further capital expenditure in further milling capacity. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 1 Pulverised Coal Injection (PCI) Technology The past improvements in productivity, coke consumption and fuel use within the steelworks have been hastened due to the steel industry being a very competitive global industry. It can be expected that further improvements in these areas of operations to reduce costs will continue, but the technological change within the integrated steelworks that is having the largest impact on the costs is that of pulverised coal injection (PCI). It is for this reason that PCI has become a standard practice in most major steelworks with injection rates varying from 100 to over 200 kg/tHM. The injection rat es and number of inst allations are expected to continue to increase. The use of PCI assists blast furnace operators through benefits such as: C lower costs through the substitut ion for higher cost coking coals and energy savings; C marked increase in productivity; C extended coke oven life due to decreased coke demand, and; C consistent quality of hot metal with a relatively low silicon content. Most injection systems use coal ground to appr oximately 75% minus 75m, as coal milling systems for this size are commonly used in power plants for electricity generation. A granulated coal injection system has been developed by British Steel, though this system has not been widely accepted by the international steel community. The main elements of a PCI system are: C a mill to pulverise the coal to around 70% minus 75m. The mill is normally swept with hot gases (low in oxygen) to dry and transport the coal t o the storage bins; C a distribution system which meters and transports the coal from the storage hoppers to the blast furnace and evenly distributes the coal to the 15 to 38 tuyeres, depending on the size of the furnace. Coal is injected directly into the raceway region through t he tuyeres with the hot blast. The hot blast can be enriched with oxygen to improve combustion efficiency or furnace stability. Uniform distribution of the coal to each tuyere is important for effective operation of the furnace and has been addressed by all suppliers of PCI systems. The coal absor bs heat, devolatilizes, the volatile matter combusts in approximate 10 ms before exiting the blow pipe and the tuyere. The coal char starts to combust as soon as it leaves the tuyere. At low injection rates the distance from the point of injection to the exit of the tuyere is great enough to ensure almost complete combust ion of the coal. At high injection rates the combustion of the coal is not completed and some unburnt char enters the coke bed. Some operators have decreased the distance from the injection point to the end of the tuyere to reduce the pressure drop through the tuyere or t o reduce ash build-up on the inside surface of t he tuyere (Yoshida and others, 1991). Figure 1 shows the important zones around the tuyere. The influence of the design of the lance on combustion of the coal has been investigated by Thyssen Stahl (Joksch and others, 1993) and Japanese researchers (Mati and others, 1996). They found that coaxial lances improve t he mixing of coal and oxygen leading to better combustion. Other means of enhancing combustion efficiency such as fuel blending, Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 2 Figure 1 Schematic representation of tuyere level coke structure applying external electric fields, finer grinding of the coal and chemical addit ives have been investigated by Babich and others (1996). Flierman and others (1996) argued that a simple single lance is sufficient as there is little benefit to be gained by more advanced designs. Current practice in European and Japanese steelworks has shown that lance designs improve combustion performance of the coal can contribute significantly to the ability to achieve stable operations at high injection rates (NKK 1999) Issues at High Injection Rates Pulverised coal injected at the tuyeres can fulfil two functions of the coke charge. These are to provide a source of heat and, at high injection rates, assist in the reduction of iron ore. PCI cannot provide a permeable bed in the furnace through which molten iron can descend and gases can ascend. As coal injection rates increase coke/ore ratios decrease leading to thinner coke layers which impact on furnace permeability. The raceway adiabatic flame temperature (RAFT) decreases due to the cooling effect of the injected coal and oxygen needs to be added to ensure that the RAFT does not go below about 2200 C. Also, the residence time of the coke increases which impacts on the coke strength and size. All of these changes in blast furnace operation can impact on furnace stability leading to a reduction in furnace productivit y. Furnace stability is determined by the: C variation in hot metal temperature and silicon content, C uniform burden descent, C tapping behaviour, C cooling losses and C dust content of top gas. Therefore operators of steelworks need to pay greater at tention to improvement in coke quality, increase in coke size and greater oxygen enrichment, which will help to reduce furnace stability problems and therefore ensure furnace productivity is not reduced with high injection rates. A major fact or limiting PCI r ates, that can be achieved with stable operation, is the Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 3 Figure 2 Comparison of PCI rate and corrected coke rate for Japanese and European blast furnaces (Holcombe & Coin, 1993) permeability of the coke bed surrounding the raceway. As inject ion rates increase the level of unburnt char entering the raceway and the blast momentum both incr ease, leading to: C changes in the size of the raceway, C mechanical degradation of coke in the raceway, C reduction of permeability of the coke surrounding the raceway, and C changes in temperature distribution in the raceway. All of these influence raceway stability and the distribution of gas flow through the lower sections of the blast furnace, both of which impact on furnace stability. The first two, size of the raceway and degradation of coke, are depended on the blast momentum which is determined by the amount of combustion of the injected coal, level of oxygen enrichment, blast temperature and tuyere diameter. At ultra-high injection rates it has been estimated (Lngen and Poos, 1996) that for an injection rate of 250 kg/tHM (coke rate of around 250 kg/tHM) the amount of coke gasified at the tuyeres can be as low as 20% of t he total coke. The remaining coke is gasified or dissolved by reactions occurring in the shaft and the bosh areas i.e., before the coke reaches the tuyeres. The residence time of the coke, at high PCI rates, is 3 to 5 times that of an all coke operation leading t o a size reduction of 40% of the original charged coke. The increased residence time of the coke impacts on the cokes ability to cope with the harsh environment in the raceway, this together with t he decrease in coke size will effect the amount of coke fines and therefore coke bed permeability. Yamaoka & Kamei (1992) estimated that the maximum injection rate of about 375 kg/tHM, and a coke rate of 180 kg/tHM, could be possible with 60% oxygen in the blast but t his would require an ore/coke ratio of 9.0, exceeding the currently achievable ore/coke ratio fed to operat ing blast furnaces. They predict ed that the maximum PCI rate, without exceeding the achievable ore/coke ratio, would be 250kg/tHM. As seen in Figure 2, no blast furnaces has operated for extended periods above about 215 kg/tHM which has been attained at British St eels's Scunthorpe works (Maldonado and others, 1993) and Hoogovens' IJmuiden Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 4 works (Koen and others, 1993). Peters (1994) summarised the maximum average PCI rates achieved for a period of one month and these are given in Table 1. The coke rate for these operations is about 300kg/tHM giving total fuel rates of between 481 and 496 kg/tHM. The Chinese achieved in 1966 injection rates of up to 360 kg/tHM but with coke rat es of around 300 kg/tHM giving a total fuel rate of over 620 kg/tHM (Liu, 1994). The most recent highest average monthly PCI rates given in the literature are: C 201 kg/tHM at Kobes Kakogawa No 1 blast furnace during 1994 (Kadoguchi and others, 1996). C 218 kg/tHM at NKKs Fukuyama No. 4 blast furnace in October 1994 (Maki and others, 1996). 266 kg/tHM at NKKs Fukuyama No. 3 blast furnace in July 1998 (NKK, 1999). The fuel rate (large coke, small coke and coal), for any given blast furnace or steelworks, seems to decrease for increasing PCI rates up to 120 kg/tHM, remain mostly constant for PCI rates from 120 to 160 kg/tHM and then rises slightly for rates from 160 to 200 kg/tHM. At PCI rates above 180 kg/tHM Koen and others (1993) feels that t here is need for further investigations as interactions within the blast furnace are more complicated than just the replacement of coke with coal. Some European works are currently invest igating ultr a high injection rates of above 200 kg/tHM to determine the feasibility of such operations and whether or not it is necessary t o revamp aging coke ovens(Flierman and others, 1996). The author of this report knows of one European steelworks that has recently reduced PCI rate down to about 140 kg/tHM to improve furnace permeability and therefore increase productivity. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 5 Table 1: High Pulverised Coal Injection Rates (Peters,1994) Works Thyssen Stahl AG Sollac Hoogovens Group BV British Steel Kobe Steel Blast Furnace Schwe lgern 1 Dunkerque 4 IJmuiden 6 Scunthrope Queen Vict oria Kobe 3 Hearth Diameter m 13.6 14.0 11.0 9.0 9.5 Production tHM/d 9102 8726 5850 3522 3729 Coke Consumption kg/t HM 297 287 272 294 308 Coal Consumption kg/t HM 197 194 212 202 188 Total Fuel Consumption kg/t HM 494 481 484 496 496 Sinter % 61 81 49 75 86.5 Pellets % 27.6 - 49 - 0.5 Lump Ores % 11.4 19 2 25 13 Slag Volume kg/t HM 248 313 236 266 270 Volatile Matter % 20 10 35 22 35 Blast Temp erature C 1230 1189 1183 1125 1185 Oxygen Enrichment of Blast % 3.3 2.2 5.6 8 3.1 Top Gas Temp erature C 160 187 154 122 184 Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 6 Table 2 : Changes in RAFT an d Replaceme nt Ratio with co al types (Hunty and others, 199 0). Coal Type C/H C/O kg injected per 100 K cha nge in RAFT Rep lacement Rat io Anthracite 43.7 44.2 122 0. 99 LV Bituminous 18.9 29.5 100 0. 90 MV Bituminous 13.7 12.7 86 0. 86 HV Bituminous 15.6 5.5 67 0. 72 Sub-bituminous 16.0 3.6 65 0. 54 Lignite 15.0 2.8 58 0. 50 (1) Impact of Injected Coal Quality on Blast Furnace Operation Replacement Ratio The choice of coal for use as the injected fuel does impact significantly on the cost benefit that can be obtained by pulverised coal injection. The primary factor that influences the cost benefit of PCI is the amount of coke that can be replaced by the injected coal. The replacement ratio normally quoted in the literat ure is the metallurgical corrected coke rate where the coke rate is corrected for furnace parameters, such as hot metal silicon content, blast temperature, etc., to give coke rates under standard conditions. The theoretical coke replacement ratio is between 0.8 and 1.0 kg coke/kg coal depending on the energy and carbon content of the coal. Actual replacement ratios achieved in blast furnace operations with low to moderate injection rates tend to be slightly higher due to reduced heat losses and some increase in reduction efficiency, at higher rates over 150 kg/tHm heat losses can increase which may lead to replacement ratios that are lower than theoretical. Hutny and others (1990) have reported a general increase in replacement ratio with the C/H ratio of coal. Their results have be summarised as given in Table 2. They also derived a relationship between the calorific value of the injected coal and replacement ratio which is given in Figure 3. More recently Brouwer and Toxopeus (1991) in summarising the PCI operating results at Hoogovens IJmuiden blast furnace derived a relationship between replacement ratio and the properties of the coal inject ed. This relationship, based on the dry carbon, hydrogen and ash content , is given below: Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 7 Figure 3 Variat ion in replacement ratio with the rank of the injected coals showing correlations based on actual (*) and theoretical (**). The above relationship reinforces the conclusion reached by Hutny and others that replacement ratio increases with the rank of the coal. Though the positive affect of ash on replacement ratio is not what is expected. The expected increase in replacement ratio with rank of the coal is shown in Figure 3, in this figure the data from several sources has been plotted against the dry mineral free (dmmf) carbon cont ent which is a measur e of the rank of a coal. As shown by Hur and others (1998) the replacement rat io is not only related to the properties of the injected coal but also can be influence by other fact ors such as oxygen enrichment. They showed that with oxygen enrichment the replacement ratio chnaged to 0.99 from 0.88. Coal Ash Chemistry Ash chemistry is important for PCI coals in terms of furnace operation and iron product quality. Generally the same considerations apply as for coke ash chemistry. Snyder and Fletcher (1991), based on experience at Armco Steel, suggested that 5.5 kilograms of extr a carbon must be injected to compensate for every kilogram of extra ash, and it can be deduced that this would correspond to a reduction in replacement ratio by approximat ely 0.05 per 1% absolute increase in ash. These authors acknowledged that this carbon penalty was considerably higher than most would expect. Experience at British Steel (Maldonado & others, 1985) on the other hand suggested that there was no carbon penalt y for extra ash, and allowing that this extra ash is inert there would therefore be a reduction in replacement ratio of approximately 0.01. High levels of sodium or potassium can cause coke degradat ion, while sulphur or phosphorus impact on hot metal quality. Sulphur can be removed from the iron in the blast furnace by the introduction of extra limestone flux, while phosphorus is removed in processing of the product subsequent to the blast furnace, but in either case there are costs involved. Absolute limits are not normally specified on the concentrations of these elements in the ash, and a blast furnace operator would normally take into consideration t he combined quantities in coal and coke. A low ash fusion temperature is favourable for slag fusibility, however the majority of operators have favoured high ash fusion temperatures to avoid deposition of the ash in the blowpipe or tuyere. There appears to be a trend for coal injection lances to be positioned Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 8 closer to the tuyere than previously, thus reducing the extent of impingement of ash in the blowpipe; it may be expected that in future this trend will allow a relaxation of the requirement for high ash fusion temperature. Some Asian PCI coal users favour coals with low SiO 2 content in the ash. The reasons for this are not clear, however it may be part of the blast furnace operating st rategy of limiting the silicon content of the iron product. An additional reason may be related to slag viscosity, and the increased flux requirements of high silica ash. Provided that a coal does not possess any outstanding fault s, many steel producers will evaluate it on the basis of dollars per unit energy or alternatively Cents per carbon unit.. Combustibility The role of PCI has traditionally been viewed as providing heat to drive the blast furnace reactions. At moderate PCI rates, up to around 160 kg/tHM, there is sufficient oxygen in the blast to consume all of the coal in the initial combust ion reaction pr oducing carbon dioxide and water. However, the coke in and around the raceway competes for the oxygen and hence there may be coal remaining after the oxygen is consumed. The dust formed by this unburnt char may lower the permeability of the coke bed to the movement of gases and liquids, or the entrained dust containing unused carbon may exit the BF with the top gas. This perceived need for rapid combustion of the injected coal has prompted blast furnace operators in the past to pulverise the coal very fine and to choose highly reactive coals. It is now recognised that complete combustion of the coal is not possible at high PCI rates, and some operators are introducing practices which are counter-productive to good burnout, such as the use of coarser pulverised coal (Kuwano, 1993) or of GCI (Jukes, 1993) to reduce milling costs and improve handling behaviour. Based on the widely accepted assumption that the coal devolatilises in the tuyere then the amount of char that enters the raceway depends on the amount of volatiles that are released at the high temperature within the blow pipe. Several researchers have examined the volatile release at high temperatures wit h most finding that the amount of volatiles released depends on the temperature and the rank of the coal and var ies between 1.2 to 2.0 times the volatile content as measured by the standard ASTM method. The ratio between the actual volatiles and the ASTM volatiles is usually termed the Q factor. Figure 4 summarizes the findings of some researchers relating the Q factor to the rank of the coal. Researchers evaluating t he charact eristics of low volatile coals (Tromp and others, 1992 & Wall and others, 1987) found the Q factor increased significantly with the rank of the coal. This sharp increase in the Q factor with higher rank coals may be due to some combustion of t he char occurring in t he favourable conditions of ent rained flow test furnances. Standard correlations (Van Krevelen, 1961 & Callcott and others, 1990) relating specific energy and volatile matt er to carbon content of the coal were used in the construction of Figure 4 and the best curves fitted to the dat a of the respective authors are given. Soot Formation The possibility of soot formation from injected coal was studied by de Lassat and others (1990) through the recovery of pyrolysis products and separation of the char, mixed tars Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 9 Figure 4 Variation of the Q factor with the rank of the injected coal (2) and soot. They showed that the quant ity of soot forming media produced at 1000 and 1200C increases with the amount of volatile components up to a level of about 40%. Although, it is expected that the soot yield will decrease for coals with a volatile content greater than 30% daf, as a greater fraction of the volatile components released from the coal are gases for these coals. Based on the estimated volatile yield as determined by Tromp and others (1992) and assuming 30% of the volatiles form soot then an estimate can be made of the char and soot that enters the raceway. Figure 5 indicates how this char and soot will vary with the rank of the coal. Char Reactivity Char reactivity does incr ease wit h the volatile cont ent of the coal, however at the elevated temperatures pertaining to char combustion in the raceway, chemical reactivity has very little significance since combustion rates are limited by the rate of diffusion of oxygen to the part icle, and bur nout times depend more on part icle size and oxygen concentration (Field and others,1967). The particle size depends on the swelling and/ or fracturing behaviour of the char particles. This is supported by the work of Bachhofen and others (1998) who found that the volatile matter of t he injected coal had no influence on the extent of coal conversion within the furnace. Stanmore(1992) evaluated the impact of coal properties on the swelling characteristics and, for the coals tested, he found that the particle diameter (d p )
could be related to the burnout (u), the initial particle diameter (d o ) and a swelling factor (") by the following equation: Stanmore found that " increased linearly with increasing volatile content of the coal. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 10 Figure 5 Variat ion of char, volatiles and soot produced in the tuyere with the rank of the injected coal. Using this relationship it can be shown that there is no significant swelling of the coal particle in the early stages of combustion. Therefore, since char combustion is diffusion controlled with a shor t residence time and reduced oxygen level in the raceway, there will be no great differences in the rate of char combustion for different coals. Steeghs and others (1994) using a coke filled test furnace found for a low volatile coal approximately 10% less coal is combusted near the tuyere than for a high volatile coal at the same injection rates. This agrees with the predicted char and soot yields given in Figure 5. Coke Degradation in the Raceway At increasing injection rates there has been observed an increase in carry over of fines from the top of the blast furnace as well as increasing physical raceway depth and instability, Willmers & Poultney (1992). This was considered to be partly due to the addition of unburnt coal t o the existing coke fines leading to lower permeability in the deadman zone resulting in reduced coke bed stability. However, these effects increased with increasing volatile content and finer size range of the injected coal. The explanation given was that as the combustibility of the coal was increased (increased volatile content and/or finer grind) there was greater combustion within the t uyere giving a greater volume of gases being injected into the raceway, ie greater blast momentum. This greater blast momentum caused the increase in raceway dept h and increased the degradation of raceway coke which led to increased coke fines carry-over. Peters and others (1991) reviewed the findings of several researchers examining the influence of the blast energy on the formation of the raceway, all researchers found a linear relationship between blast energy and the depth of the raceway. The increase in deadman instability and coke degradat ion due to increased blast momentum has also been modelled by Aoki and others (1993) and Tamura and others (1991). These models show that the depth of the Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 11 Figure 6 Effect of raceway depth on fine coke deposit near core surface, (Tamura and others, 1991) (3) raceway increases linearly with blast velocity for a constant coke strength, which is supported by the results of Negro and others (1996) when they examined the raceway depth of three blast furnaces. Using the data of Negro and others the raceway depth (m) can be estimated from the blast velocity (m/s) by the following equat ion: Tamura and others cited their earlier work where, in a two-dimensional cold test rig, the amount of coke fines increased sharply with raceway depth, see Figure 6. They postulated that the sharp incr ease in -1mm fine coke was due to the increase in the amount and the velocity of the coke circulating in the raceway, which in turn increases the frequency at which coke particles collide and the energy involved in those collisions. Blast velocit y, and therefore raceway depth, depends on the tuyere diameter, blast volume, blast temperature, blast pressure and the amount of the coal combusted within the tuyere. The fraction of coal combust ed within the raceway will be the volatile content of the coal, after allowing for any soot formation, as the residence time within the raceway is insufficient for any significant char or soot combustion to occur. The heat liberat ed from the combustion of the volatiles can be approximated using the correlations developed by Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 12 Figure 7: Variation of blast velocity with the rank of the injected coal Figure 8: Variation of coke fines with the rank of the coal injected Unsworth and others (1991). Using the previous relationships between char, volatile and soot yields and the rank of the coal it is possible to estimate how the blast velocity may change with the rank of the coal as shown in Figure 7 for several coal injection rates. The curves in this figure were determined for const ant blast air rate, oxygen enrichment and blast temperature. The maximums in blast velocity at carbon content of around 83 % dmmf is due to higher temperatures being obtained with in the tuyere due to the combust ion of the volatiles. For coals of higher rank than 83 % dmmf carbon, t he volatile matter release is lower and for lower rank coals there is a gr eater amount of moisture associated with the coal and the energy content of the volatiles is lower. An estimate can also be made on how the amount of coke fines may change due to the rank of the injected coal. This estimate was determined based on the data in Figure 7 to determine blast velocit y, by using equation (3) to determine raceway depth, and the fitted curve to the data of Tamura and others (1991) to estimate the amount of coke fines. Figure 8 indicates how the rank of the injected coal may impact on the generation of coke fines. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 13 Summary of the Impact of Coal Quality on Blast Furnace Operation A general overview of how coals of various rank can impact on the operation of a blast furnace has been given above. The performance of any individual coal depend on the propert ies of that coal. These properties can differ from the idealised properties used in the generation of Figures 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8. This general overview does however highlight two important aspects of how coal properties can influence blast furnace per formance, these are: C Coke replacement ratio increases with the dry ash free carbon content of the coal up to approximately 91% carbon where the replacement ratio seems to level out. C The blast momentum decreases with the carbon content of t he coal when the carbon content is great er than 83% dmmf; the blast momentum influences the raceway dept h and coke degradation within the raceway. As seen by Figures 7 and 8 at high injection rates and injecting a coal with a carbon content less than 83% dmmf, any fluctuations in the coal rate delivered to a tuyere will result in fluctuations in the raceway depth and the generation of coke fines. Fluctuations in raceway dept h and the generation rate of fines will reduce blast furnace stability and therefore productivity. Due to t he design of all coal injection syst ems, it is to be expected that there will be significant variations in coal feed rate at each tuyere. By choosing a coal with a dry ash free carbon content greater than say 88%, the impact of variations in coal feed rate on blast furnace stability will be reduced and furnace productivity will be maintained. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 14 Figure 9: Mill capacity correction factor for Hardgrove Grindability Index Figure 10: Mill capacity correction factor for fineness Impact of Coal Quality on Mill Performance and Handability Mill Capacity The performance characteristics of a particular mill are determined by a series of capacity correction curves which are normally supplied by the mill manufacturer. The maximum throughput of a mill can be determined by multiplying the mill capacity by the mill correction factors. Typical vertical spindle mill capacity correct ion curves for Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) and product fineness are given in Figures 9 and 10. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 15 Figure 11: Variation in mill specific power with Hardgrove Grindability Index (Bennett & Holcombe, 1994) Mill Drying The processes which occur in pulverising mills are drying and size reduction of the coal. Drying is necessary in order to obtain a pr oduct which will be transportable through the pneumatic handling systems and in the storage bins. Typically, the coal is dried to produce a moisture level which is somewhat less than the air dried moistur e measured as part of the proximate analysis. According to Brouwer & others (1991) the moisture content of coal leaving the mill is two thirds the air dried moisture level, so that the quantity of moisture which must be removed in the mill is given by : Moisture removed in mill = (as received moisture) - b (air dried moisture) High moisture coals require a higher inlet air temperature and/or a higher air flow. These requirements can reduce the mill capacity or cause mill fires. The throughput of the mill may be limited because, as the temperature of the inlet air is increased, the capacity of the inlet air fan is reduced. In some other cases there may not be sufficient heating capacity to produce the required temperature. Mill fires can occur with high moisture coals as a result of the higher mill inlet temperatures and also because these coals tend to be more pr one to spontaneous combustion. Mill Power Consumption For a given coal mill power consumption varies with the fineness of the coal, so there is scope for reducing the power consumption if the mill motor is being overloaded by reducing fineness. This may be necessary when PCI rates are increased above the level for which the mills were designed, or when using difficult coals. Mill power consumption depends on the mill design, mill settings, t he required fineness and the properties of the coal. However, mill power can be estimated from the Har dgrove Grindability Index of the coal , as shown in Figure 11. This figure is based on pilot scale vertical spindle mill test result s when the mill was set at t he optimum settings to achieve 70% minus 75m product. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 16 Product Fineness Size reduction is normally required in order to maximise the bur nout of the coal in the raceway area. A typical requirement on fineness is 70% passing 75 m, but there are large variations in the perceived requirements, the extreme case being the use of granular coal injection (<2mm) at British Steel. Cases where coarser grinds are being adopted are evidence of the trend to ascribe less importance to the need for high burnout in the raceway. The acceptance of coarser product has the advantage of requiring less milling energy, and in some cases enables greater output from smaller capacity mills to be achieved. Another bonus can be the improved handling characteristics of the product. The fineness of mill product can be varied by the operator applying a number of measures, including varying the coal feed rate, the classifier set tings, the air flow rat e or the roller pressure (vertical spindle mills). Provided the mill has the spare capacity, it is therefore normally possible to achieve the required fineness. However, some operators are loathe to tune a mill to suit the coal, and where a number of coals are being used some of these may not achieve the specified fineness. Blockages The usual places where blockages occur in a PCI syst em are: C in the injection lance where the coal enters the blow pipe, and C the transport lines and storage bins. Blockages that occur in the injection lance are due to the coal being heated to a temperature where it can become sticky. A coal propensit y to form these blockages can be related to the Crucible Swelling Number of the coal. These problems can be overcome by ensuring the temperature of the coal in the injection lance does not exceed 300C by cooling the lance or shortening the length of the lance that protrudes into the blow pipe. Handling problems of pulverised coal both in bulk storage bins and pneumatic transport systems can be related to some extent to the amount of very fine material and moisture in the product. The moisture content of pulverised coal mill product is normally assumed to be a fraction of the inher ent moist ure level of the coal. This implies that mill product moisture level would be relatively independent of the total moisture in the mill feed coal, which is a reasonable assumption provided the mill outlet temperature is able to be maintained at the required value of around 70-90C. Fur ther drying of the coal has been reported to occur in the storage tanks when these are swept with inert gas to prevent fires. Based on these considerations, moisture should not be a cause for poor handling of pulverised coal. In colder climates where there may be condensation on the inside of bin walls, external heaters and/or insulation may be required to reduce the likelihood of bin blockages. This is especially import ant when the hot gas fr om the mill enters the bin. In bulk storage bins the Hausner Ratio, the rat io between t he compacted and uncompacted bulk density, is used to indicate possible onset of bridging in bins. The Hausner Ratio does increase when the amount of minus 5.8 m material increases above around 12%. Studies were carried out into the dense and dilute phase handling characteristics of PCI coals in a pilot scale loop at Wollongong University (Holcombe & others, 1994). The pressure drop along the pipe versus the air flow rat e for a given solids flow rate typically Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 17 reaches a minimum at a flow rate which is defined as the boundary between dense and dilute phase flow. If the air flow is increased above this point in the dilut e phase region the pressure drop along the pipe increases as a result of the increased air flow. As the air flow is decreased below the boundary in the dense phase region the pressure drop increases up to a point where blockage occurs. Studies of different coals, and the same coals at different fineness, indicated that the boundary line at which blockage occur red for different solids flow rates was similar for all coals. However, the steepness of the pr essure/air flow lines approaching this boundary was generally greater for those coals which were either finer overall or which contained a higher percentage of very fine material. It seems likely that most coals should be able to operate at the same air and solids flow rates, although the finer coals may require a slightly higher driving pressure. The finer coals which possess the steeper characteristic curves may be more sensitive to inevitable fluctuations in coal feed rate or in back pressure, and therefore are more likely to depar t from the design operating point and to reach the blockage point. Bench scale tests, also performed on the same coals at Wollongong University, tend to confirm that the handling properties of hard coals have values at one extreme while those of soft coals which have been pulverised using the same mill settings as for the hard coals, and which are therefore finer overall, will have propert ies at the other extreme. If, on the other hand, the soft coals are pulverised using modified mill settings to make a product which is less fine overall, there will still be a relatively high proportion of very fine material in the products, and the handling properties will have intermediate values. In summary, softer coals may be more susceptible to blockages in storage bins and in dense phase transport systems than harder coals if milled under the same conditions, but the risks of blockages will be reduced by mat ching the mill settings to the characteristics of the softer coal to reduce the amount of fine coal. By ensuring the grinding pressure is reduced and the classifier is adjusted for softer coals not only are handling problems reduced but t he capacit y of the milling system is significant ly increased. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 18 Figure 12: Savings in total coal costs from the replacement of coking coals Economic Impact The main economic benefit of PCI use within steelworks is principally due to the substitution of coking coal with lower cost non-coking coals. Flierman and others (1996) noted that the operational costs of coking and injection were similar, therefore an early closing of coke batt eries which are in good condition and construct ion of injection plant will increase hot metal costs. The level of PCI rate within a given steelworks depends on the current hot metal demand, capacity of coking plant, oxygen plant capacity and the availability of other fuels, eg coke oven gas, to preheat the blast. Where a steelworks has an existing PCI plant of a capacity that will not meet the expected future requirements of the st eelworks then the use of a high Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) coal, i.e. a softer coal, will allow the milling capacity of the PCI plant to be increased without investing in new plant. The extent of the increase in mill capacity will depend on the HGI of the coal and the required size distribut ion of the pulverised coal, Figure 9 shows the impact of HGI on the capacity of a vertical spindle mill producing the same size of grind. For example, by using a coal with a HGI of 80 about a 40% increase in capacity can be obtained while producing the same fineness. Considering the construction costs of a new 45 t/h PCI plant in Japan has been given as 5 billion Yen (Tex Report, 1997) this increase in capacity by the use of a softer coal can be significant. The economic benefit of the coke replacement ratio can be illustrated in the following simplified example using Brouwer & Toxopeus (1991) data to calculate replacement rat io (Figure 3) and assuming: C a CIF coking coal price of US$63/t, C a CIF PCI coal price of US$50/t, C 1.43 t onnes of coking coal is required for each tonne of coke, and C the total fuel rate is 490 kg/tHM. Then the coal cost savings can be calculated as shown in Figure 12. This figure shows up to $8/tHM can be saved at high injection rates using a low volatile coal. Advantages of Low Volatile Coals for PCI COALTECH PTY LTD 24 May, 2000 Page 19 References Aoki H., Nogami H., Tsuge H., Miura T., Furukawa T., (1993), Simulation of transport phenomena around the raceway zone in the blast furnace with and without pulverised coal injection, ISIJ International, Vol 33, No 6, 1993. 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