Anda di halaman 1dari 23

Babel 57: 3 (2011), 283304.

Fdration des Traducteurs (fit) Revue Babel


doi 10.1075/babel.57.3.03ead issn 05219744 e-issn 15699668
Translating English modal expressions
An Arab translator trainees perspective
Domenyk Eades
University of Salford, United Kingdom
1. Introduction
1
Modality is a linguistic category which is concerned with notions of possibility,
factuality, and necessity. In English, modality is associated with the system of ver-
bal auxiliaries referred to simply as modals. Tese forms are known to be dif-
cult structures for the translator due to the subtle and complex nature of their
meanings. Previous studies dealing with complexities involved in the translation
of modal expressions from English into Arabic and vice versa (e.g. Abdel- Fattah
2005; Badran 2001; El-Hassan 1991) showed that a major source of difculty for
the translator posed by modals stems from their characteristically ambiguous
semantics. A single given modal can potentially convey a range of interrelated
meanings, and the precise sense intended can be determined only through con-
sideration of the broader context of its use. A second difculty noted in previous
studies stems from the signifcant diferences in the formal coding of modality be-
tween English and Arabic. In contrast with English, modality in Arabic is not as-
sociated with a distinct, unitary formal category, but rather is expressed by means
of a heterogeneous set of categories.
Te present study sheds light on the difculties in the translation of modal
expressions from English into Arabic as experienced by a group of native Arabic
speaking translator trainees. Previous studies dealing with the translation of mo-
dality from English to Arabic and vice versa focussed primarily on problems as-
sociated primarily with the English modal auxiliaries. Te present study takes a
broader approach, including modal expressions of other grammatical categories
in the analysis. Te study seeks to determine the nature of difculties faced by the
trainees on the basis of errors in their translations. To do this, a small-scale study
was conducted whereby the translation of an English source text (ST) into Arabic
1. Many thanks to Adel Abu Radwan, Omar Atari, James Dickins, and Maria Persson for help-
ful comments and suggestions on earlier drafs of this paper; any remaining errors of fact or in-
terpretation are my own.
284 Domenyk Eades
target texts (TT) by a group of native translator trainees in the fnal year of their
degree were examined. Errors in the translation of modal expressions in the trans-
lations of each student were analyzed with respect to frequency of occurrence, the
grammatical category of the modal expression in the ST, and the grammatical shif
required to adequately render the expression in the TT. Tese factors are consid-
ered with respect to the diferent types of errors with which they correlate. Based
on the results of the analysis, reasons for the diferent types of errors are proposed,
and some general strategies for dealing with these problems in the training of the
students are suggested.
2. Modality in English and Arabic
2.1. Defning modality
Modality is expressed in English by a structurally distinct system of auxiliary
verbs, which constitute a basic category within the grammatical system of the lan-
guage. Due to the neat formal delineation of modality in English in comparison
with many other languages, studies of modality have traditionally employed the
English modal system as a basis for defning the category as a universal for the
purposes of cross-linguistic comparison (Palmer 1990: 2). However, developments
in typological studies in recent decades have seen the emergence of a diversity
of approaches to the defnition of modality due to the diferences in criteria em-
ployed, whether semantic, syntactic, pragmatic or diferent combinations of these.
In many languages modal meaning does not coincide with a single formal cate-
gory. For these reasons, purely meaning-based defnitions of modality without re-
course to structural criteria have emerged in recent decades for the purposes of
cross-linguistic comparison. Tis has allowed the inclusion of a signifcantly great-
er range of data in studies of modality than would be possible with structurally-
based approaches.
Te traditional focus on formal criteria in the defnition of modality meant
that periphrastic alternatives in English to the modal system were generally ne-
glected in grammatical studies of the language. However, the developments out-
lined in the preceding paragraph have meant that more recent studies have seen
the inclusion of grammatical categories other than auxiliaries into accounts of mo-
dality in English (e.g. Hoye 1995; von Fintel 2006). Te following are some of the
diferent grammatical means by which modality is expressed in English:
a. modal auxiliaries (e.g. He can/must/may be home.)
b. semi-modals (e.g. He has to/seems to/wants to be home.)
c. adverbs (e.g. Perhaps he is home.)
Translating English modal expressions 285
d. nouns (e.g. Tere is a slight possibility that he is home.)
e. adjectives (e.g. It is far from necessary that he is home.) (von Fintel 2006: 1)
Te basic semantic/notional classifcation employed in much of the literature on
modality is that of the division between epistemic and non-epistemic types (Coates
1983; Palmer 1986, 2001). Epistemic modality deals with a speakers degree of con-
fdence in the veracity of a proposition, and is characterized by Coates as modal-
ity which is concerned with the speakers assumptions or assessment of possibili-
ties and, in most cases, it indicates the speakers confdence (or lack of confdence)
in the truth of the proposition expressed (1983: 18). Epistemic modality encom-
passes meanings of possibility, prediction, and factuality. Tese are exemplifed in
(1ac) respectively:
(1) a. You may go home.
b. Tere will be rainfall on the weekend.
c. Mary could be at home now.
Non-epistemic modality comprises two sub-types: deontic and dynamic modality.
Tese two sub-types can be incorporated into a single general category due to the
similarity of their meanings, as it is ofen difcult to distinguish between the no-
tions of permission (deontic modality) and ability (dynamic modality) due to the
fact that these meanings ofen overlap (Coates 1983: 86). Deontic modality is con-
cerned with the speakers judgment about whether a potential event is permissible
or acceptable (Palmer 2001: 78), and is concerned with the possibility or neces-
sity of acts in terms of which the speaker gives permission or lays an obligation for
the performance of actions at some point in the future (Hoye 1997: 43). Deontic
modality encompasses meanings of permission and obligation, as shown in (2ab):
(2) a. You may go home.
b. You must pay the agent in full.
In contrast, dynamic modality is the real-world ability or intention of the subject
to perform the action expressed by the main verb in the clause, and is not tied to
the subjective judgment of the speaker (Palmer 1990). Tis is illustrated in exam-
ples (3ab):
(3) a. Adrian can speak Swahili.
b. He could see a car in the distance.
In example (1a) the auxiliary may conveys a sense of possibility (epistemic modal-
ity), while in (2a) the same form conveys a sense of permission (deontic modal-
ity). In many cases the intended sense conveyed by a modal in a given instance of
use is unclear, a characteristic which was referred to by Leech and Coates (1980)
286 Domenyk Eades
and Coates (1983) as indeterminacy. Tis means that a single given modal can
potentially convey a variety of possible senses, with the precise meaning intended
in a given instance being retrievable to the reader only by taking into considera-
tion the context in which it occurs. In contrast with the English modal auxiliaries,
indeterminacy is not a characteristic of English periphrastic modal expressions
or Arabic modal expressions in general (Abdel-Fattah 2005: 44; Badran 2001: 48).
In addition to the indeterminate nature of some modal expressions, the sub-
tle and fuzzy nature of modal meaning itself is another potential source of dif-
culty for the translator. Tis was noted by Lyons (1977), who remarked that epis-
temic modal meaning does not contribute to the propositional content of a text,
but rather involves information about subjective matters of knowledge, belief, or
opinion rather than fact. Tis was also discussed by Palmer (1986: 6), who stat-
ed that modality represents the grammaticalization of speakers (subjective) at-
titudes and opinions. Modal meaning is accordingly highly pragmatic in nature,
with the precise meaning intended in a given instance of modal use ofen being dif-
fcult to pin down with precise defnitions.
Te highly pragmatic nature of modal meaning was also discussed by Badran
(2001) in a study of modality in the translation of Arabic political texts into Eng-
lish. Badran argues that as modality is a means by which a speaker can refect, re-
fract, or obscure their views of reality (2001: 49). According to Badran, modal-
ity represents some sort of a link, a mediation (or even an obstacle) between the
speaker and reality and is thus a carrier of at least part of the speakers meanings or
intentions (p. 49). To measure the success or failure of a given translation, Badran
considers two distinct parameters with respect to modal meaning: frstly, the type
of involvement, i.e. the semantic value of the modal expression; and secondly the
degree of involvement, i.e. the strength or weakness of the modal expression, and
therefore the degree of power conveyed on behalf of the writer toward the audience.
To illustrate this second, highly pragmatic, function of modality, Badran shows that
in the English translation of an Arabic political speech that the equivalent of the
Arabic You understand . . . ( [tafamn]) was rendered in one translation
as You must understand . . . Te addition of the modal thus results in a sense of
greater power over the audience on the part of the speaker than what is conveyed
in the original Arabic text, and so the attitude of the speaker toward the audience
is drastically misrepresented in the translation. Accordingly, the successful trans-
lation of modal expressions depends upon careful consideration of macro-textual
factors (context, register, text-type, authors intention, etc.) in both the ST and TT.
Te difculty posed to the translator in the translation of English modal ex-
pressions specifcally into Arabic stems from the signifcant formal contrasts in
the way modality is expressed in the two languages. Te formal coding of modal-
ity in English and Arabic is discussed in the next section.
Translating English modal expressions 287
2.2. Te formal expression of modality
Modality is prototypically associated in English with the modal auxiliaries and
their periphrastic counterparts, examples of which were shown in the preceding
section. Te English modal system does not have a defned grammatical counter-
part in Arabic. Some of the grammatical means by which modality is expressed in
Arabic are as follows:
a. particles (e.g. . qad ya`d ila lbayt. He may go home.)
b. full verbs (e.g. . yastat
.
` an yamila l-kutub. He can carry the
books.)
c. prepositional phrases (e.g. .
mina lmumkin isti`ml ala`shbi -ibbiyyah li lwiqyah min ba`i lamr. It
is possible to use medicinal herbs for protection against some diseases.)
d. certain grammaticalized metaphors (e.g. . l budda annahu
`da ila lbayt. He must have gone home. (lit. there is no way out that he went
home.)) (cf. Anghelescu 1999: 130)
Nevertheless, Anghelescu (1999) points out a number of formal properties which
are shared by a wide range of Arabic modal expressions. She notes that many forms
expressing modal meaning in Arabic belong to the class of verbal expressions re-
ferred to by the medieval Arabic grammarians as [annawsikh]. Tis cat-
egory is represented by various preverbal elements which include [kna],


[inna], and [anna], and is defned by Owens (1988: 241) as a class of words
which enter a non-verbal sentence (topic and comment) and change the govern-
ance relations in it (i.e. the topic NP changes from nominative to accusative case).
Anghelescu (1999) describes a number of distinct grammatical patterns which
code modality in Arabic. A highly frequent pattern encompasses semi-grammat-
icalized metaphors of the type [min almumkin] It is possible, which con-
sist of the preposition [min] from followed by a participle or adjective. Tese
all occur sentence-initially and include: [(min) almuntaar] it is expected
and [(min) alwi] it is clear, clearly, etc. Tis is illustrated in example
(4). Te Arabic translation and transliteration are followed by a word-for-word
gloss in square brackets.
(4) Te idea that the name could have remained a secret was quite unrealistic.
.


knat alfkrah bi annahu qad kna min almumkin an yabqa lism sirran
ghayr wqi`yah
[it was the-idea that-it had been from the possible that it-remains the
name a.secret not realistic]
288 Domenyk Eades
Another pattern for the expression of modality in Arabic encompasses grammat-
icalized metaphors. Patterns of this type include [f was`ihi an] and
[f maqduratihi an] it is possible for him; he can, and [l yasa`un]
I cant, I am not able:
(5) What could he do?

wa ma lladh kna f was`ihi an yaf`alahu
[and what that was in his ability that he.does-it]
In addition to formal contrasts between English and Arabic modal expressions,
the greater tendency toward sentence-initial position of Arabic modal expressions,
and diferences in semantic perspective which characterize the grammaticalized
metaphors all constitute signifcant challenges for the translator.
3. Te study
3.1. Te subjects of the study
To shed some light on the nature of the difculty which English modal expressions
pose to native Arabic-speaking translator trainees, a study was conducted involv-
ing eleven native speakers of Arabic majoring in translation in their fnal year of a
fve-year degree at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman. All of the participants are
fuent in English, having undertaken English language skills courses for the frst
two years of their degree followed by courses in practical and theoretical transla-
tion, linguistics, and English language profciency. Accordingly, the students were
familiar with issues such as context, register, and notions of equivalence etc. (cf.
Baker 1991; Hatim and Mason 1990).
3.2. Te text
Te participants were asked to read and translate a 260-word edited excerpt from
Will global warming trigger a new ice age?
2
Te article is an argumentative text
which deals with the topic of climate change. Te author of the text is an expert in
the feld of climatic science, and in the article he makes a number of predictions
of the possible consequences of global warming in the future. Tese predictions
are expressed in a cautious and measured tone, and the use of modal expressions
is crucial in conveying this tone throughout the article. Te analysis of the transla-
2. McGuire, Bill. Will global warming trigger a new ice age?, Te Guardian, UK, Tursday
13November 2003
Translating English modal expressions 289
tions focused on eleven tokens of modal expressions in the ST, comprising six to-
kens of auxiliaries, three adverbs, and two nouns.
3.3. Method
Te participants were given the text to be completed within the normal class time
of eighty minutes, and the translation was written in Standard Arabic. Tey were
not permitted to use a dictionary during the exercise so as to encourage them to
rely on their background knowledge and contextual factors to interpret the text
rather than the dictionary (Kussmaul 1995: 25). Te dictionary entries of ten po-
tentially challenging vocabulary items, none of them modal expressions, were also
provided. Te types of errors and their frequency were examined to provide some
insight into difculties posed by diferent types of modals and the diferent syn-
tactic environments in which they occur. It is assumed that such errors would in-
dicate shortcomings in the participants skills and/or training (cf. Kussmaul 1995;
Al-Mijrab 2005). Tree general criteria for error assessment are employed, based
on Al-Mijrab (2005).
3
Tese are as follows:
a. Frequency
Te frequency of a given error type is considered in relation to the category of a
given token and to the total number of participants who have made a particular
error. In this regard, Al-Mijrab (2005: 6) remarks that the high frequency of an
error-type means that the teaching method either ignores the students areas of dif-
fculty or simply fails to address them correctly.
b. Interpretation
Te criterion of interpretation refers to the accuracy of the translation with re-
spect to whether all the information is included and that nothing is added, omit-
ted and/or diferent (Larson 1984: 48990). Tis criterion relates to the traditional
paradigm of faithfulness in translation (Al-Mijrab 2005: 7). Tree specifc areas
are considered with respect to errors in interpretation:
Lexical: Te choice of modal expression in the TT is inaccurate. Tis is illus-
trated in example (6):
(6) You may leave the ofce only afer you have fnished the job.
.
qad tughdir al-maktab ba`d alintih min hdha l`amal faqa
might you.leave the ofce afer fnish from this work only
Back translation: You might leave the ofce only afer you have fnished
the job.
3. Two further criteria which were outlined in Al-Mijrab (2005) were deemed not to be relevant
in this study; these are intelligibility and generality.
290 Domenyk Eades
Te Arabic translation in example (6) above misrepresents the English ST due to
the fact that the particle [qad] denotes uncertainty (epistemic). A more appro-
priate choice of modal expression would have been ) ) [yumkinuka (an)],
which conveys the meaning of permission (nonepistemic) that was intended in
the ST.
Structural: Te scope of modal modifcation in the TT is inaccurate. Tis is il-
lustrated in example (7)
(7) Tere is a possibility he is unhappy about your appointment to the Board.
.
innahu ghayr murt li-timl ta`ynikum f l-majlis.
he not be.happy about possibility appointment-your to the-board
Back translation: He does not feel happy about the possibility of your ap-
pointment to the Board.
In this example, the choice of the modal expression [itiml] to mean possi-
bility is appropriate, but modifes the wrong element of the clause in the TT, thus
resulting in a mistranslation.
Missing: Te sentence in the TT is not modalized. Tis is exemplifed in ex-
ample (8):
(8) Constitutional breakdown in the country may lead to secession by the South.
.
inna ttafakkuka ddustr f lbild yuadd il infli ljunb
the breakdown constitutional in the-country leads to separation the-
south
Back translation: Te constitutional breakdown in the country is leading
to the secession of the South.
Te Arabic translation in example (8) contains no modal expression, and there-
fore the proposition that the South will secede is presented as a factual statement.
Tis contradicts the message of the ST, where the modal may signals that the prop-
osition is merely a possibility. A range of modal expressions could be used to de-
note a meaning of possibility in the Arabic sentence, e.g. [qad], [min al-
mumkin], [yumkin], [la`alla] might, maybe, possibly.
c. Naturalness
According to the criterion of naturalness, the translated text is assessed for the ex-
tent to which it refects the idiomatic forms of the TL.
Translating English modal expressions 291
4. Results
Te results indicate that the participants showed a broad sensitivity to the inten-
tions of the ST author in general terms as well as to modal use. Tey also generally
demonstrated a sound knowledge of the dictionary meanings of each modal ex-
pression. Te results are shown in Table 1, which shows the specifc type of error
in relation to word class:
Table 1. Errors in the participants translations by frequency and type
Word class Tokens Errors
Adequately
translated
Interpretation Natural ness
Lexical Structural Missing
Auxil. might (1) 3 0 4 0 4
can 3 1 0 1 6
must 4 0 1 0 6
will 0 0 5 0 6
could 2 0 1 0 8
might (2) 2 1 2 0 6
Adverb seemingly 1 9 1 0 0
really 0 0 4 0 7
actually 0 0 5 0 6
Noun possibility (1) 0 0 1 1 9
possibility (2) 0 1 0 7 3
4.1. Auxiliaries
Errors in the translation of the auxiliaries by the participants were manifested in
the use of inaccurate modal expressions due to misinterpretation of the ST. In each
of the following excerpts, the modal expression under discussion is in boldface.
All of the translations in the following sections are samples of the participants
work, each of which is given along with its back translation.
a. However, more recently these warnings have been drowned out by the great glob-
al warming debate and by consideration of how society might cope in future with
a sweltering planet.
Te auxiliary might occurs within a complement clause in this excerpt, and de-
notes possibility with respect to the occurrence of the hypothesized future event in
292 Domenyk Eades
the predicate it modifes. Te modal has an important pragmatic function within
the complex sentence here, as it conveys a sense of the authors neutrality on the
issue of whether or not the hypothesized event will actually be realised in the fu-
ture. Tis function was successfully captured in the translations of only three par-
ticipants through their use of the forms [qad] and [yumkin] maybe, might,
as exemplifed in (9) below:
(9) . . . .
. . . wa kayfa an al-mujtama` qad ya`shu f kawkab shadd alarrah f
lmustaqbal badalan min kawkab jald.
. . . how society might live in a sweltering planet in the future rather than
a frozen one.
Te remaining translations were inaccurate. Tree participants employed the fu-
ture marker [sa-], resulting in mistranslation due to the greater sense of certain-
ty conveyed in comparison with the ST:
(10) . . . .
. . . kayfa sa-yatamil almujtama` kawkab yashtadd arratuhu.
. . . how society will tolerate a planet with intense heat.
In four other translations the modal was overlooked entirely, also resulting in a
mistranslation due to the increased sense of certainty about the proposition than
in the ST:
(11) . . . .
. . . `al kayfyyah ta`yush almujtama` ma` mustaqbal qim `al ar
dhibah.
. . . the way society (will) live with a future on a melting planet.
b. So that the warm surface waters of the Gulf Stream can continue to push north-
wards, there must be a comparable, deep return current of cold water from the
Nordic seas.
Tis excerpt contains two modal auxiliaries: can and must. Te translations of
these forms are discussed in turn in sections b-1 and b-2 below.
b-1 can (dynamic modality)
Various forms in Arabic specify meanings of ability (dynamic modality), most of
which are verbs. Tese are distinguished from each other by subtle semantic con-
trasts. Here the modal can conveys a sense of ability which is the result of an in-
tervening external force. One verb which can express such a meaning in Arabic is
[tamakkan] can, be able, which takes a complement introduced by the prepo-
sition [min]. Tis verb occurred in the translations of fve participants, although
Translating English modal expressions 293
in one translation the complement was not introduced with the required preposi-
tion, thus rendering the sentence ungrammatical.
Mistranslations resulted from the use of lexical items conveying an incorrect
modal sense. Tree participants employed the modal verbs [ista`] and
[qadar] have the capacity, ability, aptitude. Te use of these forms is inaccurate as
they specify dynamic ability which is independent of an outside source, and typi-
cally involve an animate agent. Consider example (12):
(12) . . .
. . . likay tastat
.
` su almiyh addfah lada ttayyr addf an takmila
mina littijh nawa ashshiml . . .
. . . so that the warm surface waters of the Gulf stream can end up toward
the north . . .
Te modal verb [yumkin] it is possible can also adequately convey the in-
tended meaning of the modal expression, and was employed by one participant.
Te mistranslations of this excerpt suggest that the participants did not consider
the context beyond the immediate clause in which the modal auxiliary can is used
in the ST.
4
b-2 must
Te modal must was translated satisfactorily by fve participants through the use
of the modal verb [yajib] or )( [l budda (min)] must, should. When
followed the expression [min], [l budda] should, must can convey a dy-
namic modal meaning. However, without the preposition, this expression strict-
ly conveys an epistemic sense of inference based on a conclusion, i.e. Tere must
be . . . (Abdel-Fattah 2005: 43), and is thus inappropriate with respect to the in-
tended meaning of this segment of the ST. Tis occurred in the translation of one
participant:
(13) . . . .
. . . fa innahu l budda an yakna hunlika qarnan wa huwa tayyr
`amq `aks brid min albir ashshimlyah.
. . . there must (conclusion) be an accompanying deep, cold, opposing
current from the Nordic seas.
Tree other participants mistranslated this form through their use of the verb

[yatawajjab], which is used to specify obligation (deontic), typically in legal


4. It is also possible that these inaccurate modal forms were employed due to inadequate knowl-
edge of the meaning distinctions of the Standard Arabic modal expressions, which are very dif-
ferent from those which occur in spoken Omani Arabic. Tis issue is discussed below in sec-
tion 5.1.
294 Domenyk Eades
contexts. Tese were inaccurate, however, as the modal in the ST is used to convey
a cause/efect relationship and not one of moral or legal obligation. Finally, in one
translation no modal was provided.
c. [Seemingly, the fact that we are still within an intermediate period during which
the ice has largely retreated has been forgotten and replaced with the wide-
spread view that] one good thing you can say about global warming is that it will
at least stop the return of the glaciers.
In this sentence, the modal will is used to specify a prediction. Only six of the par-
ticipants rendered the modal correctly in their translations, employing the parti-
cle / [sa/sawfa] will. However, in the remaining fve translations the modal
was missing altogether, resulting in inaccurate renditions. For instance, in exam-
ple (14) the absence of a modal expression conveys a sense of the event being on-
going rather than a future prediction:
(14) . . . .
. . . fa innahu yumkin alqawl nuqah jbyah `anhu, wa dhlika bi anna-
hu yamna` ruj` alanhr aljaldyah `ala laqall.
. . . there is one good thing you can say about global warming; that is that
it stops the return of the glaciers at least.
d. Is this really true, or could the rapidly accelerating warming that we are experi-
encing actually hasten the beginning of a new ice age?
In this sentence the modal could specifes possibility (epistemic modality). Tis
meaning was successfully conveyed in the translations of eight participants, who
employed the particle [qad] may, might or the modal verb )( [yumkin
(an)] maybe. However, translations by two participants were inaccurate due to
the use of the future marker [sawfa] will, which conveys an epistemic sense.
One other translation was inaccurate as the modal was overlooked entirely. Te
notably higher ratio of adequate translations for this sample is most likely due to
the fact that the modal is syntactically prominent because of its fronted position
in the structure.
4.2. Adverbs
In contrast with the translated auxiliaries, errors in the translation of adverbs (and
nouns) were not due to a poor choice of modal expression in the TT. Tis is most
likely due to the fact that modal adverbs do not exhibit the same degree of se-
mantic indeterminacy as the auxiliaries do. Nevertheless, many renditions of the
three sentences containing modal adverbs in the ST were problematic due to either
Translating English modal expressions 295
a misconstrual of the scope of the adverbs modifcation or to the fact that the
modal expression was missing in many of the translated texts.
a. Seemingly, the fact that we are still within an intermediate period during which
the ice has largely retreated/has been forgotten . . .
Tis sentence proved to be the most problematic for the participants of all of the
sentences in the ST. Ten of the eleven translations were inaccurate primarily the
scope of modifcation was misconstrued. Te adverb seemingly is a lef-dislocated
sentential adverb in the ST, and its scope of modifcation is over the entire com-
plex sentence which follows it. Nine of the participants correctly determined that
the nearest equivalent to seemingly is the verb [yabd] it seems. Tis verb
takes a direct clausal-complement, and the scope of the modifcation encompasses
only the immediate predicate which follows it and not the entire complex sentence.
Accordingly, the grammatical shif involved here results in diferences in the scope
of modifcation between the ST and TT modal expressions. Only one participant
successfully rendered the sentence into Arabic by making a signifcant rearrange-
ment in the syntax of the clause, bringing the ST main predicate into the position
immediately following the modal expression in the Arabic TT. Tis is illustrated
in example (15):
(15) . . .
yabd annahu qad tamma nisyn aqqah annan m nazl f fatrah
intiqlyah tarja` fh mansb aljald . . .
It seems to have been forgotten that we still live in a transitory period in
which the ice level has retreated.
Te remaining translations were inadequate as the predicates were not rearranged
in this way. As such, the scope of the modal expression in the translation covered
only the predicate immediately following the modal verb, and not the entire com-
plex sentence. Tis is illustrated in examples (16) and (17):
(16) . . .

. . .
. . . wa bad annan na`shu f maralah waayah aythu anna maw`
al`ar aljald qad nusiya . . .
. . . and it seems that we live in an intermediate period where the issue of
the ice age has been forgotten . . .
(17) . . .
wa yabd anna wujdan f maralah bad tarju` aththalj mans aln
. . .
. . . and it seems that our existence at the period at the beginning of the
ices return is forgotten now . . .
296 Domenyk Eades
One rendition was inaccurate due to misinterpretation of the ST modal expres-
sion. In this translation the phrase [wa mina lwi] It is clear was
employed, with the result that the prevaricating function of the modal in the ST is
misconstrued. Finally, in two translations no modal expression was given.
b. Is this really true, or could the rapidly accelerating warming that we are experi-
encing actually hasten the beginning of a new ice age?
Some adverbs can be considered modal as they express a strong commitment to
the factuality of the utterance (Hoye 1997: 60). In this respect, Palmer (1986: 92)
remarks: Emphatic afrmation may be treated either as a matter of discourse
or as a kind of strong epistemic modality expressing complete confdence in, or
knowledge of, what is being said. In this excerpt, modal adverbs are used to con-
vey added rhetorical force.
b-1 really
Seven participants successfully translated the adverb really into the adverbs
[aqqan], [bi lf`l], [f`lan] really, truly. However, four translations con-
tained no modal expressions, and thus the same degree of rhetorical force is not
conveyed. Consider example (18):
(18)


hal hdha huwa lwqi` am anna litibs alarr almutaa``id alladh
nashhaduhu sayu`ajjil min bidyah `ar jald jadd?
Is this true, or will the increased global warming we are witnessing speed
up the beginning of a new ice age?
b-2 actually
As with really, the adverb actually adds rhetorical force to the sentence. Only three
participants translated actually, rendering this with the adverbial phrases
[f lwqi`] and [f laqqah]. Eight participants provided no translation of
actually, and as such the rhetorical emphasis of the ST is not maintained in the
translations, as can be seen in example (18) above. Te fact that the adverb actu-
ally was more frequently missing in the translations than really, is most likely due
to the fact that actually occurs in an embedded clause. Tis corresponds with the
general tendency for modal expressions to be mistranslated or missing in embed-
ded clauses.
4.3. Modal nouns
Modal nouns are the least potentially ambiguous of the modal expressions, and
Translating English modal expressions 297
this meant that they caused few problems to the participants. Te problems that
did occur were mainly stylistic in nature.
a. In the late 1970s and early 80s, scientists debated the possibility that a new ice
age was imminent.
Te modal noun possibility in this excerpt was adequately translated by nine par-
ticipants, who employed the nouns [imknyah] and [itimlyah]
possibility (i.e. epistemic modality). Only two participants mistranslated the sen-
tence: one which in back translation conveyed the meaning . . . the fact that a
new ice age was imminent, and the other in which the scope of modifcation is
misconstrued:
(19) . . . .
. . . nqash al`ulam bi annahu mina lmutamal uhr `ar jald jadd
qariban.
. . . scientists argued that it is possible a new ice age [would] appear soon.
b. Te possibility exists that a disruption of the Atlantic currents might have impli-
cations far beyond a colder north-west Europe . . .
Tis sentence is introduced by a phrase containing a modal noun. Te excerpt
shows modal harmony, where modality can be expressed not simply at one point
in an utterance, by a modal auxiliary, but at diferent points right throughout the
clause (Downing & Locke 2006: 381). In this excerpt, the complement-taking
modal noun occurs within a phrase which modifes the expression which follows
it, and occurs in conjunction with the auxiliary might. Five participants produced
literal translations which were stylistically awkward in Arabic, one of which is
shown in example (20):
(20) . . .
wa hunka itiml bi anna irtim tayyrt almu alalas yumkin an
tuadd il . . .
. . . and there is a possibility that the collision of Atlantic Ocean currents
could lead to . . .
Another translation was problematic due to a misinterpretation of the scope of the
modal expression in the ST expression:
(21) . . . . . .
. . . wa bi rraghm min imknyah istimrr almiyh . . .
. . . and in spite of the ability of the water to continue . . .
Finally, the ST modal expression was missing in the translation of one participant.
298 Domenyk Eades
4.4. Summary of results
Te purpose of this study is to examine the translations of various English modal
expressions into Arabic by native Arabic-speaking translator trainees and to iden-
tify areas of difculty these structures pose to a group of translator trainees. Te
results showed that the two types of problems occurred in the translations: frstly,
the mistranslation of modal expressions (typically auxiliaries) due to the transla-
tors misconstrual of its intended sense in the ST; and secondly, the mistranslation
or overlooking of modal expressions in the ST due to difcult grammatical shifs
or complicated syntax, typically when the modal expression occurs in an embed-
ded clause.
Previous studies dealing with the translation of modality from English into
Arabic and vice-versa have focused primarily on the problems posed by English
modal auxiliaries stemming from their indeterminate semantics (e.g. Abdel-Fat-
tah 2005; Badran 2001; El-Hassan 1990). Te results of the present study show that
indeterminacy was indeed a major source of difculty for the participants, as in
many cases participants chose modal expressions which did not accurately refect
the sense conveyed by the modal in the ST. Tis suggests that the students ofen
failed to consider the context in which a given modal occurred when interpreting
its meaning. Tis was seen, for example, in section 4.1 above, where many partici-
pants employed modal expressions which broadly refected the dictionary mean-
ing of the ST modal, but did not accurately refect the sense intended in the par-
ticular context of its use.
In addition to problems in the interpretation of modal auxiliaries, other dif-
culties result from the formal diferences in the coding of modal meaning between
the source and target languages. Frequently the participants did not undertake a
required syntactic shif when rendering certain English modal expressions into
Arabic. Te efect of this was to skew the scope of modifcation of a given modal
expression in the translation, as was shown above in 4.2.a. In some cases this re-
sulted in stylistically unnatural forms in the TT, as was shown in 4.3b.
Another apparent factor contributing to the degree of difculty in transla-
tion was syntactic complexity. Modal expressions occurring in embedded clauses
in the ST were more frequently mistranslated or missing than those occurring in
main clauses. Modals are not syntactically prominent in embedded clauses due
to their more limited scope of modifcation than modals in main clauses, and so
participants tended to overlook modal expressions in environments. Te problem
of syntactic complexity in contributing to difculty in translation was previously
noted by Al-Jabr (2006: 216), who remarked: Syntactic complexity may render
inter-clausal relationships in lengthy sentences rather opaque, and hence a large
chunk of the text would be misconstrued. Tis is to some extent refected in the
Translating English modal expressions 299
fndings of this study as there was a higher rate of errors associated with modals in
embedded clauses than in main ones.
5. Discussion
5.1. Te translation strategies of the participants
Te results of this study show that while the participants possess a generally good
understanding of the dictionary meanings of the English modals and their equiv-
alents in Arabic, the characteristic ambiguity and indeterminacy of these expres-
sions were a major source of difculty for the students. Te precise sense of a spe-
cifc token of a modal expression in the ST was ofen misconstrued. In many cases
this seems to be due to participants failing to consider the broader context in in-
terpreting its meaning. Abdel-Fattah (2005: 45) remarks that three aspects of the
translation process beyond the level of the clause are crucial in the translation of
modals: text-type conventions, text dynamics (information in the text and audi-
ence prior knowledge), and the interpersonal factor (the relationship between the
writer and the reader). Te various problems evident in the students translations
suggest that the students did not pay adequate attention to the overall meaning of
the ST beyond the level of the clause.
Consideration of the meaning of the ST beyond the level of the clause is cru-
cial when analyzing the functions of modal expressions. Tis is for two reasons:
frstly, to accurately identify the intended sense of a potentially ambiguous modal
expression; and secondly, to determine pragmatic functions of the modal expres-
sion such as the ST authors attitudes toward the proposition expressed and to-
ward his or her audience. Te adequate rendering of modal expressions thus re-
quires careful consideration of macro-textual factors such as cohesion, text type,
and the authors intention. Te frequency and types of errors in the translations of
the participants show that these factors were not adequately considered when pro-
cessing the message of the ST.
Te shortcomings in the translation strategies of the participants refect simi-
lar problems described by Atari (2005), who examined the translation strategies
of translation students at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia. Employing the
think-aloud protocol technique, he found that students faced problems in transla-
tion due to the fact that they tended to analyze the ST at the word or sentence level,
while inference and reasoning were the least frequently used strategies. Similarly,
Kussmaul (1995) reported a tendency for German-speaking translator trainees to
focus on grammatical and lexical complexities at the expense of higher macro-
level issues such as coherence and authors intention. Te types of errors that oc-
300 Domenyk Eades
curred in the data analyzed in the present study suggest that similar problems oc-
curred among the Omani students.
However, in addition to problems stemming from inadequate text-processing
skills, another factor contributing to incidences of mistranslation may have re-
sulted from weaknesses in the students competence in written Standard Arabic.
Tis is evident by the fact that there was a tendency by some participants to em-
ploy forms used in spoken Arabic rather than more accurate equivalents that oc-
cur only in the written register of the language. Te expression of modality in spo-
ken Omani Arabic difers signifcantly from that of Modern Standard Arabic. For
example, the auxiliary can (section 4.1.b) can potentially be represented by three
separate modal expressions in Standard Arabic: [tamakkan], [ista`],
or [qadar]. All three of these forms convey notions of ability, although they dif-
fer in terms of slight semantic contrasts. In the vernacular Arabic of the students,
however, the equivalent meanings of all of these are represented by a single form
with a parallel Standard Arabic formal equivalent qadar. As such, interference
from the spoken language or inadequate competence in the subtleties of modal
meaning and use in Standard Arabic are potential factors hindering the successful
translation of modal expressions. Diferences between the spoken and written reg-
isters of Arabic thus represent an additional factor that can potentially complicate
the translation process.
5.2. Recommendations
Te fndings of this study show that two general strategies are needed to remedy
the problems described in the preceding sections. Firstly, trainees require familiar-
ization with the concept of modality and the diferent ways in which it is formally
coded in both the source and target languages. Abdel-Fattah (2005: 43) suggests
that a useful technique for dealing with this is for the translator to fnd out what
modal category is involved (epistemic or non-epistemic, i.e. deontic or dynamic)
when they encounter a modal expression. Tis would therefore require the famil-
iarization of the trainees with the diferent forms used to express modal meaning
in English and Arabic, and the diferent types of meanings they convey.
5
Te pau-
5. Abdel-Fattah suggests four techniques for resolving problems stemming from the indetermi-
nacy of the English modals. Tese are 1) Classifcation of modals: Determining the semantic
value of a given modal (i.e. epistemic or non-epistemic); 2) Modal rephrasing: Paraphrasing a
modal with its less ambiguous periphrastic counterpart in order to identify the intended mean-
ing; 3) Modal retranslation: Checking if the translated word would give the original when re-
translated back; 4) Utilizing ambiguity: Employing an Arabic modal expression which is equal-
ly as ambiguous as the English; the reader is referred to Abdel-Fattah (2005: 4344) for details.
Translating English modal expressions 301
city of studies dealing with modality in Arabic means there is a pressing need for
further research into this area.
In addition to familiarizing students with modal expressions and their mean-
ings, the results of this study also reveal that more attention is required on devel-
oping the macro-level text processing skills of the trainees. In order to successfully
interpret and use modal expressions, the role of modal expressions in the overall
cohesion of the text, the expression of the authors attitudes to the content of the
text and the target audience, and other macro-level factors is essential in dealing
with the translation of modal expressions. Building awareness of these aspects of
the text allows the trainee to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the
subtle meanings conveyed by the modals in the ST and to understand the diferent
layers of the text at which modality operates in both the ST and TT.
In general terms, this study reveals problems resulting from inadequacies in
the text processing strategies of the students. Accordingly, future research needs
to investigate other problems which may be symptomatic of these defciencies, as
well as efective pedagogical strategies to remedy them.
References
Abdel-Fattah, Mahmoud. 2005. On the translation of modals from English into Arabic and vice
versa, Babel, 51: 1,3148
Al-Mijrab, Ramadan. 2005. A Product-Based Approach to Translation Training, Meta, 50: 4,
110. http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/019860ar.
Anghelescu, Nadia. 1999. Modalities and grammaticalization in Arabic in Yasir Suleiman (ed.)
Arabic Grammar and Linguistics. Curzon: Surrey. 130141
Atari, Omar. 2005. Saudi Students Translation Strategies in an Undergraduate Translator Train-
ing Program, Meta, 50: 1, 180193
Badran, Dany. 2001. Modality and ideology in translated political texts. Nottingham Linguistic
Circular 16, University of Nottingham, UK
Baker, Mona. 1991. In Other Words: Coursebook on Translation. New York; London: Taylor &
Francis. xii + 304 pp.
Coates, Jennifer. 1983. Te Semantics of Modal Auxiliaries. London: Croom Helm. vii + 259 pp.
Downing, Angela and Phillip Locke. 2006. English Grammar: A University Course. 2nd ed.
Abingdon and New York: Routledge. xxii + 610 pp.
El-Hassan, S. 1990. Modality in English and Standard Arabic: paraphrase and equivalence.
Journal of King Saud University, 2. 149166
von Fintel, Kai. 2006. Modality and Language, in Donald Borchert (ed.) Encyclopedia of Phil-
osophy, 2nd edition, Detroit: Macmillan Reference. 115. URL: http://mit.edu/fntel/www/
modality.pdf.
Hoye, Leo. 1997. Adverbs and modality in English. London - New York: Longman. xii + 322 pp.
Kussmaul, Paul. 1995. Training the Translator. Amsterdam - Philadelphia: John Benjamins. x +
178 pp.
302 Domenyk Eades
Larson, Mildred. 1984. Meaning-based Translation. Boston: University Press of America. x +
537 pp.
Leech, G. N. and Jennifer Coates. 1980. Semantic Indeterminacy and the English Modals, in
Greenbaum, S. et al. (eds). in Studies in English Linguistics, for Randolph Quirk. London:
Longman. 7990
Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge: C. U. P. xiii + 372 pp.
Owens, Jonathan. 1988. Te foundations of grammar: an introduction to medieval Arabic gram-
matical theory. Amsterdam - Philadelphia: John Benjamins. xii + 371
Palmer, F. R. 1986. Mood and modality. Cambridge: C. U. P. 256 pp.
Palmer, F. R. 1990. Modality and the English modals, 2nd Edition. London: Longman. xii + 220
pp.
Palmer, F. R. 2001. Mood and modality, 2nd Edition. Cambridge: C. U. P. xxi + 236 pp.
Appendix: Te text
Will global warming trigger a new ice age?
By Bill McGuire, Te Guardian (UK)
November 13, 2003
In the late 1970s and early 80s, scientists debated the possibility that a new ice age was immi-
nent. However, more recently these warnings have been drowned out by the great global warm-
ing debate and by consideration of how society might cope in future with a sweltering planet
rather than a frozen one. Seemingly, the fact that we are still within an intermediate period dur-
ing which the ice has largely retreated has been forgotten - and replaced with the widespread
view that one good thing you can say about global warming is that it will at least stop the return
of the glaciers.
Is this really true, or could the rapidly accelerating warming that we are experiencing actu-
ally hasten the beginning of a new ice age? Agrowing body of evidence suggests that there is a
serious risk of this happening.
Te problem lies with the ocean current known as the Gulf Stream, which brings warm water
northwards from the Caribbean and keeps the temperatures from dropping too low. Scientists
are now predicting a future weakening of the Gulf Stream as a consequence of global warming.
So that the warm surface waters of the Gulf Stream can continue to push northwards, there
must be a comparable, deep return current of cold water from the Nordic seas. Te possibility ex-
ists that a disruption of the Atlantic currents might have implications far beyond a colder north-
west Europe, perhaps bringing dramatic climatic changes to the entire planet [edited for brevity].
Abstract
Modals are a source of difculty in translation due to the subtle and complex nature of the
meanings they convey, as well as the diversity of formal means by which modal meaning is cod-
ed from one language to another. Te present study sheds light on difculties associated with
Translating English modal expressions 303
the translation of modal expressions by exploring errors in the translations of a group of native
Arabic-speaking translator trainees, and identifes difculties they experienced in transferring
modal meaning from an English source text (ST) to an Arabic target text (TT). Shortcomings in
the skills and training of the participants are discussed in the light of these fndings, and sugges-
tions are given as to how these may be remedied.
Te results of the study show that while the students generally exhibit a sound knowledge of
the dictionary meanings of the modal expressions in the ST, the precise sense of a given modal
was ofen misconstrued and in many cases the modal meaning was missing entirely from the
translations. Tese problems suggest that the participants tended to process the meanings of the
ST at the word and sentence level while neglecting broader macro-level meanings conveyed in
the text (e.g. cohesion, text type, relationship between author and audience).
Te study reveals that in addition to the need for students to develop greater awareness of the
nature of modality and its expression in both English and Arabic, greater emphasis is needed in
the training of the students on the improvement of topdown text processing skills.
Keywords: English modal expressions, Arabic-speaking translator trainees, improvement of
text-providing skills
Rsum
Les verbes et adverbes modaux sont une source de difcult dans la traduction en raison de la
nature subtile et complexe des signifcations quils communiquent et de la diversit des moy-
ens formels par lesquels une signifcation modale est code dune langue lautre. Cette tude
claire les difcults associes la traduction dexpressions de modalit en examinant les er-
reurs dans les traductions dun groupe de traducteurs stagiaires de langue maternelle arabe et
identife les difcults quils ont rencontres en transposant une signifcation modale dun texte
source anglais vers un texte cible arabe. Des lacunes dans les comptences et la formation des
participants sont discutes la lumire de ces constatations, et des suggestions sont formules
quant la manire dy remdier.
Les rsultats de ltude montrent que bien que les tudiants fassent preuve en gnral dune
bonne connaissance du sens des expressions modales dans la langue source tel quon le trouve
dans les dictionnaires, la signifcation prcise dun auxiliaire modal donn tait souvent mal in-
terprte et, dans de nombreux cas, la signifcation de modalit tait totalement absente dans
les traductions. Ces problmes semblent indiquer que les participants avaient tendance traiter
les signifcations de la langue source au niveau du mot et de la phrase tout en ngligeant les sens
plus larges au niveau macro, communiqus dans le texte (par exemple, la cohsion, le type de
texte, la relation entre lauteur et le lecteur).
Ltude rvle quoutre la ncessit pour les tudiants de prendre davantage conscience de la
nature dune modalit et de son expression tant en anglais quen arabe, il faut sattacher davan-
tage amliorer les comptences de traitement hirarchis du texte pendant la formation des
tudiants.
Mots-cls: Expressions anglaises de modalit, traducteurs stagiaires arabophones, amliorer les
comptences de traitement du texte.
304 Domenyk Eades
About the author
Domenyk Eades is Senior Lecturer in Arabic, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sci-
ences, University of Salford, United Kingdom. He holds a PhD in linguistics from the University
of Melbourne, Australia. His research interests include Arabic linguistics, Arabic/English trans-
lation, and Arabic dialectology.
Address: School of Languages, University of Salford, Maxwell Building, Salford, Greater Man-
chester, M5 4WT, United Kingdom.
E-mail: d.eades@salford.ac.uk
TURJUMN
Revue de traduction et d interpretation
ISSN 1113-1292
Directeur: B. Idrissi-Bouyahyaoui
cole Suprieure Roi Fahd de Traduction
B.P. 410
Tanger, Maroc
Tlphone: (212) (9) 942813-940434
Tlcopieur: (212) (9) 940835
Abonnement annuel (port inclus):
Particuliers: 55DH (Maroc); 16 US$ (tranger)
Institutions: 100DH (Maroc); 30 US$ (tranger)
Numro simple: Maroc: 35DH (Particuliers); 65DH (Institutions)
tranger: 10 US$ (Particuliers); 18 US$ (Institutions)
Libeller les chques lordre de lcole Suprieure Roi Fahd de Traduction
Vierteljahresschrift fr die bersetzungspraxis
Bulletin trimestriel sur la pratique de la traduction
Rivista trimestrale par la traduzione pratica
ASTTI
H
i
e
r
o
n
y
m
o
u
s
Quarterly on the practice of translation
Te ocial journal of the
Swiss Association of Translators,
Terminilogists and Interpreters
Subscriptions and advertisements:
ASTTI, Postgasse 17, CH-3011 Bern
Telefax (+41 31) 313 88 99 www.astti.ch
Copyright of Babel is the property of John Benjamins Publishing Co. and its content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Anda mungkin juga menyukai