Mechanical System Fundamentals K.

Craig 1
Mechanical System Fundamentals
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 2
Mechanical Building Blocks
Motion and force are concepts used to describe the behavior of
engineering systems that employ mechanical components.
It is hard to imagine any engineering system that does not have
mechanical components.
Motion is a term used to describe the movement of a point
relative to another and it is described using the terms distance,
velocity, and acceleration. The three are related by
differentiation and integration. For rectilinear (straight-line)
motion we can use scalars and write:
2
1
2
1
t
2 1
t
t
2 1
t
dx
v x x v dt
dt
dv
a v v a dt
dt
= =
= =

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 3

Shown is a symbolic or circuit diagram of a mechanical
component whose ends are undergoing translational
movement.
Since velocity is a relative term, the above figure implies the
existence of a reference that is fixed. Shown below is the
same figure with a fixed reference.
21 2 1
21 2 1
21 2 1
x x x
v v v
a a a
=
=
=
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 4
Relative motion between the ends of a mechanical component
cant exist without a force being present. The force has both a
magnitude and a sign.
V
2
> V
1
V
2
< V
1
V
2
= V
1
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 5
If a force F is applied over an incremental distance ds in the
direction of the force, an amount of work dW is done equal to:
We can write an expression for dW in terms of velocity of a
point moving in the direction of the force. The amount of
work done in an interval from t
1
to t
2
can be obtained by
integration.
Power is the rate at which work is performed.
dW Fds =
ds
dW F dt Fvdt
dt
= =
2
1
t
t
W Fv dt =

dW
P Fv
dt
= =
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 6
The three basic mechanical building block elements are:
Spring (elastic) element
Damper (frictional) element
Mass (inertia) element
There are both translational and rotational versions of these
basic building blocks.
These are passive (non-energy producing) devices
Driving Inputs
force and motion sources which cause elements to respond
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 7
Each of the elements has one of two possible energy
behaviors:
stores all the energy supplied to it
dissipates all energy into heat by some kind of
frictional effect
Spring stores energy as potential energy
Mass stores energy as kinetic energy
Damper dissipates energy into heat
The Dynamic Response of each element is important.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 8
Spring Element
A spring is a fundamental mechanical component found
intentionally or unintentionally in almost every mechanical
system.
Real-world spring is neither pure nor ideal
Real-world spring has inertia and friction
Pure spring has only elasticity - it is a mathematical model,
not a real device
Some dynamic operation requires that spring inertia and/or
damping not be neglected
Ideal spring: linear
Nonlinear behavior may often be preferable and give
significant performance advantages
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 9
Device can be pure without being ideal (e.g., nonlinear
spring with no inertia or damping)
Device can be ideal without being pure (e.g., device which
exhibits both linear springiness and linear damping)
Pure and ideal spring element:
K
s
= spring stiffness (N/m or N-m/rad)
1/K
s
= C
s
= compliance (softness parameter)
( )
( )
s 1 2 s
s 1 2 s
f K x x K x
T K K
= =
= =
s
s
x C f
C T
=
=
K
s
x f
f
x
C
s
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 10
Energy stored in a spring
Dynamic Response: response to an input is
instantaneous.
Real springs will not behave exactly like the pure/ideal
element.
2 2
s s
s
C f K x
E
2 2
= =
21 21
21
F kx k v dt
1 dF
v
k dt
= =
=

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 11

Spring Element
( ) ( )
( )
0
s
2 2
x
s 0 s 0
s
0
Differential Work Done
f dx K x dx
Total Work Done
K x C f
K x dx
2 2
= =
= = =

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 12

Linearization
for a
Nonlinear Spring
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
2
2
0
0 0
2
x x
x x
0 0
x x
x x
df d f
y f (x ) x x
dx 2! dx
df
y y x x
dx
=
=
=

= + + +
+

( )
0
0 0
x x
df
y y x x
dx

y Kx
=
+
=
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 13
Real Springs
nonlinearity of the
force/deflection curve
noncoincidence of the
loading and unloading
curves (The 2
nd
Law of
Thermodynamics
guarantees that the area
under the loading f vs. x
curve must be greater
than that under the
unloading f vs. x curve.
It is impossible to recover
100% of the energy put
into any system.)
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 14
Several Types of Practical
Springs:
coil spring
hydraulic (oil) spring
cantilever beam spring
pneumatic (air) spring
clamped-end beam spring
ring spring
rubber spring (shock mount)
tension rod spring
torsion bar spring
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 15
Spring-like Effects in
Unfamiliar Forms
aerodynamic spring
gravity spring (pendulum)
gravity spring (liquid
column)
buoyancy spring
magnetic spring
electrostatic spring
centrifugal spring
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 16
Damper Element
A damper is a mechanical component often found in
engineering systems.
A pure damper dissipates all the energy supplied to it,
i.e., converts the mechanical energy to thermal energy.
Various physical mechanisms, usually associated with
some form of friction, can provide this dissipative
action, e.g.,
Coulomb (dry friction) damping
Material (solid) damping
Viscous damping
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 17
Shown is a typical mechanical viscous damper. If the mass
and springiness of the piston and cylinder are small, then the
force will be a function of the relative velocity between the
piston and the cylinder.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 18
Shown is a symbolic (circuit) diagram of a viscous damper
along with a graphical representation.
Pure / ideal damper element provides viscous friction.
All mechanical elements are defined in terms of their
force/motion relation. (Electrical elements are defined in
terms of their voltage/current relations.)
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 19
Pure / Ideal Damper
Damper force or torque is directly proportional to the
relative velocity of its two ends.
Forces on the two ends of the damper are exactly equal
and opposite at all times (just like a spring); pure
springs and dampers have no mass or inertia. This is
NOT true for real springs and dampers.
Units for B to preserve physical meaning:
N/(m/sec)
(N-m)/(rad/sec)
( )
2 1
2 1 21
dx dx
F B B v v Bv
dt dt

= = =


Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 20
Operational Transfer Function
We assume the initial conditions are zero.
( )
2
2
2
2
dx d x
Dx D x
dt dt
x x
(x)dt x dt dt
D D





Differential
Operator
Notation
f BDx
T BD
=
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f T
D BD D BD
x
x 1 1
D D
f BD T BD

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 21
Damper element dissipates into heat all mechanical
energy supplied to it.
Force applied to damper causes a velocity in same
direction.
Power input to the device is positive since the force
and velocity have the same sign.
It is impossible for the applied force and resulting
velocity to have opposite signs.
Thus, a damper can never supply power to another
device; Power is always positive.
( )( )
2
dx dx
Power force velocity f B
dt dt

= =

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 22

A spring absorbs power and stores energy as a force
is applied to it, but if the force is gradually relaxed
back to zero, the external force and the velocity now
have opposite signs, showing that the spring is
delivering power.
Total Energy Dissipated
( ) ( )
2
dx dx
P dt B dt B dx f dx
dt dt

= = =



Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 23
Damper Element
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 24
Real Dampers
A damper element is used to model a device designed
into a system (e.g., automotive shock absorbers) or for
unavoidable parasitic effects (e.g., air drag).
To be an energy-dissipating effect, a device must exert
a force opposite to the velocity; power is always
negative when the force and velocity have opposite
directions.
Lets consider examples of real intentional dampers.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 25
Viscous (Piston/Cylinder) Damper
A relative velocity between the
cylinder and piston forces the
viscous oil through the clearance
space h, shearing the fluid and
creating a damping force.
2
2 2
2
2 1
2 1
3
2
6 L h R R
B R R h
h
h 2
R
2





=







= fluid viscosity
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 26
Simple Shear Damper
And
Viscosity Definition
fluid viscosity
shearing stress F/ A
velocity gradient V/ t

2A
F V
t
F 2A
B
V t

= =
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 27
Examples
of
Rotary Dampers
3
D L
B
4t

=
4
0
D
B
16t

=
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 28
Commercial Air Damper
laminar flow
linear damping
turbulent flow
nonlinear damping
(Data taken with valve shut)
Air Damper
much lower viscosity
less temperature dependent
no leakage or sealing problem
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 29
Eddy-Current Damper
Motion of the conducting
cup in the magnetic field
generates a voltage in the
cup.
A current is generated in
the cups circular path.
A current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic
field experiences a force
proportional to the current.
The result is a force
proportional to and
opposing the velocity.
The dissipated energy
shows up as I
2
R heating of
the cup.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 30
Temperature Sensitivity
Of
Damping Methods
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 31
Other Examples
of
Damper Forms
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 32
The damper element can also be used to represent
unavoidable parasitic energy dissipation effects in mechanical
systems.
Frictional effects in moving parts of machines
Fluid drag on vehicles (cars, ships, aircraft, etc.)
Windage losses of rotors in machines
Hysteresis losses associated with cyclic stresses in
materials
Structural damping due to riveted joints, welds, etc.
Air damping of vibrating structural shapes
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 33
Hydraulic Motor Friction
and its Components
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 34
Mass or Inertia Element
All real mechanical components used in engineering
systems have mass. It is frequently possible to treat a
component as if all its mass were concentrated at a single
point called the center of gravity.
Point 1 is either fixed or has constant velocity.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 35
A designer rarely inserts a component for the purpose of
adding inertia; the mass or inertia element often represents an
undesirable effect which is unavoidable since all materials
have mass.
There are some applications in which mass itself serves a
useful function, e.g., accelerometers and flywheels.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 36
Useful Applications
of
Inertia
Flywheels are used as
energy-storage devices or as
a means of smoothing out
speed fluctuations in engines
or other machines.
Accelerometer
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 37
Newtons Law defines the behavior of mass elements
and refers basically to an idealized point mass:
The concept of rigid body is introduced to deal with
practical situations. For pure translatory motion, every
point in a rigid body has identical motion.
Real physical bodies never display ideal rigid behavior
when being accelerated.
The pure / ideal inertia element is a model, not a real
object.
( )( )
forces mass acceleration =

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 38

Rigid and Flexible
Bodies:
Definitions and Behavior
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 39
Inertia Element
Real inertias may be
impure (have some
springiness and friction)
but are very close to
ideal.
( ) ( )
2 2
x 1 1
D D
f MD T JD

= =
Inertia Element stores
energy as kinetic energy:
2 2
Mv J
or
2 2

Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 40

Force and Motion Sources
The ultimate driving agency of any mechanical
system is always a force not a motion; force causes
acceleration, acceleration does not cause force.
Motion does not occur without a force occurring
first.
At the input of a system, what is known, force or
motion? If motion is known, then this motion was
caused by some (perhaps unknown) force and
postulating a problem with a motion input is
acceptable.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 41
There are only two classes of forces:
Forces associated with physical contact between two
bodies
Action-at-a-distance forces, i.e., gravitational, magnetic,
and electrostatic forces.
There are no other kinds of forces! (Inertia force is a
fictitious force.)
The choice of an input form to be applied to a system
requires careful consideration, just as the choice of a
suitable model to represent a component or system.
Here is an example of a force source and a motion
sources.
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 42
Force and Motion Inputs
acting on a
Multistory Building
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 43
Summary
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 44
Summary
Mechanical System Fundamentals K. Craig 45
Summary