Chapter 2

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 General Requirements

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-1
2 GENERALREQUIREMENTS
2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
GENERAL
These Specifications correspond with the latest EUROCODE philosophy. The
Specifications are to be applied together with a suitable high class Quality System (see
Chapter 15: The Quality Control System ISO 9000) within the Contractor's organization.
The Contractors or Consultants who do not have such a Quality System are not pre-
qualified for design and construction of Structures.
The LRFD design method has been taught in Addis Ababa University since 1985, and it
has been used for bridges in Europe for over 10 years and in USA for over 4 years. The
method corresponds well with the idea that the Contractor provides a "function", which
could consist of a complete bridge across a certain waterway that should be able to carry
certain specified loads for a certain design working life period, usually 100 years. As long
as the required function will be achieved, the designer is allowed to use almost any
method of analysis, which satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and
utilizes stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials, including, but not limited to:
classical force and displacement methods
finite difference method
finite element method (FEM)
folded plate method
finite strip method
2.2 NOTATIONS
Q
i
= force effect
R
f
= factored resistance
R
n
= nominal resistance

D
= a factor relating to ductility

i
= load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance

I
= a factor relating to operational importance

R
= a factor relating to redundancy

i
= load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
= resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
= ductility factor

u
= deformation at ultimate

y
= deformation at the elastic limit
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2.3 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
Geometric requirements are the requirements of the process whereby the layout of the
bridge through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users. Appropriate
standards and combinations of geometric design elements should fulfill the following
objectives:
Topography, land use and physical features
Environmental considerations
Road safety considerations
Economic and financial considerations
2.3.1 DEFINITIONS
Free (clear) opening is the face-to-face distance between supported components.
It shall be measured perpendicular to the supports. If the supports are not parallel, the free
opening is the least distance between them, see Figure 2-1.
Total (overall) bridge length is the distance between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
It shall be measured parallel to the alignment between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
Figure 2-1 Definition of Bridge Dimensions
Freeopening
Overall lengthof bridge
Spanlength Alignment of Road
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Span length should be:
For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not exceed clear
span plus thickness of slab.
For members that are not built integrally with their supports: the clear span plus the
depth of the member but need not exceed the distance between centers of supports.
Span length should give the placing of the piers regardless of type or dimensions selected
at a later stage.
It is normally measured at the alignment and given as stations.
Theoretical span length is the distance between the center of bearings. At the abutments
or at special wide piers it will be better to give the dimension from face to face of the pier
or abutment front wall.
2.3.2 CHOICE OF A BRIDGE SITE
The choice of location of bridges shall be supported by analyses of alternatives with
consideration given to economic, engineering, social, and environmental concerns as well
as costs of maintenance and inspection associated with the structures and with the relative
of the above-noted concerns.
Attention, commensurate with the risk involved, shall be directed toward providing for
favorable bridge locations that:
Fit the conditions created by the obstacle being crossed
Facilitate practical cost effective design, construction, operation, inspection and
maintenance
Provide for the desires level of traffic service and safety
Minimize adverse highway impacts.
2.3.3 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS TO BE MADE FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be selected with due consideration of
projected cost. The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the
bridge should be considered. Regional factors, such as availability of material, fabrication,
location, shipping, and erection constraints, shall be considered.
If data for the trends in labor and material cost fluctuation are available, the effect of such
trends should be projected to the time the bridge will likely be constructed. Cost
comparisons of structural alternatives should be based on long-range considerations,
including inspection, maintenance, repair, and/or replacement. Lower first cost does not
necessarily lead to lowest total cost.
2.3.4 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
Consideration shall be given to safe passage of vehicles on or under a bridge. The hazard
to errant vehicles within the clear zone should be minimized by locating obstacles at a
safe distance from the travel lanes.
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2.4 MINIMUMDIMENSIONS
The minimum dimensions listed in Table 2-1 shall be used in bridge design and
construction.
Dimension
Footing depth 0.25 m
Stem and Head wall/ballast wall of abutment thickness 0.25 m
Bearing shelf of abutment or pier 0.40 m
Wingwall thickness 0.20 m
Pier columns in water, thickness 0.50 m
Pier walls thickness 0.30 m
Concrete deck depth, excluding any provision for grinding and sacrificial
surface
175 mm
Concrete deck for pedestrians bridge 150 mm
Table 2-1: Minimum Dimensions
In designing expansion joints in bridge decks, an additional 20-mm space shall be added
to the calculated expansion. If the total height of the substructure exceeds 8 m, then 30
mm shall be added for exceptional movements such as settlement. Edge beams of bridge
decks shall not be less than 0.35 m wide and 0.4 m deep.
Arch barrels of stone masonry shall have a thickness at the crown of not less than 0.5 m
unless otherwise shown in the detail design and after testing of the material.
2.4.1 WIDTH OF BRIDGE DECK
The width of the bridge should correspond with the roadway or carriageway width as
determined according to the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Summary
of Standards and Departures from Standards, Section 2.2: Design Standards. The width
is to be measured between the inside of the railings or the curbs.
Clear width of bridge is defined as the distance between the inside of the outer railings
including walkways, island/refuge and similar. If the width will vary along the bridge all
dimensions should be given.
If not otherwise stated in the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, a one-lane bridge
shall not be less than 4.2 m wide and a two-lane bridge not less than 7.0 m wide. The
dimensions for a one-lane bridge are based on the current ERA standard Bailey Bridge
width used for one-lane road.
The dimensions of 7.30m for a two-lane bridge are based on trucks with widths of 2.4m
meeting, providing 0.7m clearance between vehicles and at the sides, the greater clearance
allowing a higher average speed.
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At higher design speed, and/or in the vicinity of densely populated areas, a bridge
allowing for the shoulder width should be considered. Here the bridge width becomes
10.30 meters (7.30 meters plus 2 x 1.5 shoulders or side walks). This allows for opposing
trucks and pedestrians to meet safely. This width is recommended for bridges nearer than
5 km to a town/village of at least 10,000 inhabitants.
All dimensions are valid regardless of the length of the bridge, due to safety reasons.
For pedestrian overpasses, the minimum width is 3.0 m, which can accommodate three
pedestrians, or a bicycle and a pedestrian in width. See Table 2-2 for a listing of bridge
configurations and corresponding widths.
Application Width (m)
Two-lane in urban area 10.30
Two-lane in rural area 7.30
Single Lane 4.20
Pedestrian Overpass 3.0
Table 2-2 Table of Bridge Widths
2.4.2 PEDESTRIAN LANE WIDTHS
When pedestrians coexist with dense and high speed traffic, segregated pedestrian lane
(footway) protected by a barrier (railing) with end treatment having protection for both
pedestrians and vehicles is recommended. Such one pedestrian lane shall not be less than
1.5 m wide. A pedestrian walkway should permit two pedestrians to meet comfortably,
which translates to 2x0,6 m width plus 0.3m clearance equals 1.5m. For safety
considerations, the height of the pedestrian railings along the footways shall be 1m by
means of a top rail made of steel pipes and the height of the traffic railing shall be 0,8m
by means of a steelrail or concrete barrier. Traffic railing shall be as per ERA standard
detail drawing B34 and B35 or another approved railing. Pedestrian railing shall be
designed to resist a specified vertical and transversal load w. Minimum value for w shall
be 800 N/linear meter.
2.4.3 OVERALL LENGTH OF BRIDGE AND SPAN LENGTH
For smaller bridges, the ground slopes at the abutments will often affect the overall length
of the bridge. Therefore it could be more economical to use some sort of retaining wall at
the abutments such as stone masonry walls, gabions and reno mattresses, concrete block
wall, etc. This will make the bridge shorter and, most probably, more economic.
Underpasses require a certain width for safety reasons, unless guardrails are applied
alongside the underpass road. The distance from the roadway edge to the front wall of the
abutment or the pier shall be 1.5m (see ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 6:
Cross Section Elements, Section 6.7: Clear Zone).
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Bridges over rivers will normally require a certain opening of hydraulic reasons.
Regarding the calculation of water flow and water levels, see the ERA Drainage Design
Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section 8.7: Examples. Especially at high design water
velocity, the basic rule is: with more constriction due to numerous and thicker piers, the
backwater increases. Therefore, a longer span length could be preferable. It should be
remembered that in some cases a footpath for local residents or a trail for wildlife and/or
livestock exists along the waterline near the structure. Whether they should be elevated
above the high water level all the time of the year depends on the frequency of use.
Sometimes aesthetical reasons require a larger opening than necessary.
2.4.4 DESIGN DEPTH OF SUPERSTRUCTURE AND FREE BOARD HEIGHT
According to the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment,
Section 9.11: Vertical Clearances, the clear height of roads shall normally be 5.1 meters
for underpasses.
Design depth of superstructure is the thickness of the superstructure excluding the
pavement thickness. Normally it will be measured in middle of the span. The design depth
is a very important parameter for the construction work. A minimal depth is not always
the most economical solution, although it sometimes has an aesthetical value. If a thin
superstructure is selected, a deflection analysis should be made.
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the
floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of sedimentation
under or downstream of the bridge. Therefore, the freeboard above the design water level
should not be less than in Table 2-3 below, unless more reliable data are provided in the
calculations according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges,
Section 8.7: Examples.
Discharge Q (m
3
/s) Vertical clearance (m)
0 - 3.0
3.0 - 30.0
30 to 300
> 300
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
Table 2-3 Vertical Clearance at Design Flood Level (DFL)
These clearance measurements should be increased on rivers with a history of unusually
large floating debris or for navigational requirements. The backwater effect (afflux)
should be calculated for all bridges with a design water velocity exceeding 1.0 m/s.
2.4.5 MINIMUM CLEARANCE ABOVE WATER, ROADS AND RAILWAYS
Bridges above water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table
2-3 unless a refined hydraulic analysis have been made. For arched structures, the
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clearance shall be measured at the quarter points of the span. Above roadways, the
clearance shall be at least 5.1 m according to the Geometric Design Manual-2002,
Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment, Section 9.11: Vertical Clearances. Light superstructures
(i.e. timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc) above roadways shall have a clearance height
of at least 5.3 m.
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles should not be less than 2.4 m. For cattle and
wildlife underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal
plus 0.5 m and for horse-riding the clear height should not be less than 3.4 m. Bridges
above railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1 m - if not otherwise stated -
to facilitate future electrification.
2.4.6 CROSSFALL AND EMBANKMENT SLOPE
For adequate dewatering while minimizing the use of materials for the bridge deck, a
crossfall of 2% (1 to 50), as well as longitudinal slope/grade of 1% (1 to 100), should be
provided. Sometimes this is not achievable at transitions to skews. In these cases a close
cooperation with the road designer should be established in order to find an acceptable
solution. The bridge crossfall need not be related to the carriageway crossfall, unless high
speed comfort and safety make it necessary. The difference in crossfalls can be realized
in a transition before the bridge.
Drain outlets should be placed away from bearings, footpaths and other sensitive details.
A scour protection of at least 1.0 m
2
should be placed under each outlet.
Embankment slopes above the design water level (DWL) should be protected from
scour/erosion with at least 0.5 m of stones sized 0 - 100 mm (d
50
70 mm), if no
calculation of scour is made. The maximum allowable slope inclinations for some sorted
friction soil materials are shown in Table 2-4 below.
Slope material Max. slope H:V (angle) Design Water Velocity (m/s)
Gravel (d
50
70 mm)
Boulders (d
50
300 mm)
Boulders (d
50
300 mm)
1.7 : 1 (30)
1.4 : 1 (35)
1.7 : 1 (30)
2 m/s
2 m/s
> 2 m/s
Table 2-4 Maximum Allowable Slope Grade for Different Slope Materials
2.4.7 ACCESSIBILITY FOR INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Accessibility for inspection and maintenance should always be considered. All important
parts of the superstructure, as well as bearings and normally visible parts of the
substructure should be accessible for inspection and maintenance. In box girders and
similar structures, an interior height of at least 1.0-m should be provided. At bearings
1.0m from the ground to lower side of beams should also apply. Beams or girders with a
stem deeper than 1.6 m should normally be provided with a platform for maintenance and
inspection.
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2.4.8 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CRITERIA
All structures including bridges should be designed according to the principle of material
recycling. The impact on nature should be minimized during design by selecting material
with well known physical and chemical parameters, not only during the construction time,
but also during the whole lifetime of the bridge and later when replaced. Details of the
bridge should be designed in such a way that they could be reused or recycled. Research
has indicated that up to 30 % of the ballast in a new concrete mix may consist of crushed,
old concrete. A steel bridge girder could be reused again in another bridge or in an
industrial building.
Before an unknown material is used it should be environmentally checked, preferably
with the help of a LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) analysis, which means that the
environmental impact during the whole lifetime from quarrying and manufacturing to
transport and dismantling of the material is evaluated. Unknown material is to be
compared with well-known material before it is used.
2.5 LOAD ASSUMPTIONS
2.5.1 GENERAL
The load bearing capacity of an existing bridge is determined by a classification
calculation together with a field inspection to determine the condition of the bridge. Since
fully loaded lorries run on every road in Ethiopia, from minor feeder-roads to trunk roads
and highways, there should be only one traffic load applied throughout the country,
otherwise there is a great risk of failure for bridges and culverts on minor roads.
For existing bridges, the Design Vehicle load should be HS-25 (instead of HS-20)
according to results from several Axle Load Studies. Before a major repair or
reconstruction such as widening of a bridge starts, the actual load bearing capacity should
be determined before the design. Using the methodologies suggested in Chapter 14:
Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges, the decision can be made
whether any strengthening is necessary together with the major construction work.
In the case of replacement of the superstructure, the new superstructure should be
designed according to Chapter 7: Superstructure Design. The remaining parts of the
substructure should also be reclassified.
In the case of new bridge construction, the HL-93 load (Ref. 1), consisting of a Design
Truck" and a lane load at the same place, shall be specified. This load cannot be
compared with the "HS-25 design truck" without calculations, because the load factor
method is quite different from the earlier empirical methods.
2.5.2 TRAFFIC LOAD
In an Axle Load Control Survey in Ethiopia in 1998 (Ref 2), it was found that some 22 %
of the heavy trucks were overloaded. One vehicle had an axle load of 275 kN (27.5 tons),
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which is however still less than the ultimate limit load (145 kN + 4.3 * 9.3 kN/m lane
load) * 1.75 = 323 kN.
The maximum tandem axle load for one of the trucks was 215 kN/axle, which also is less
than the ultimate limit load (110 kN + 4.3 * 9.3 kN/m lane load) * 1.75 = 262 kN. The
axle load of the other trucks were below 201 kN (20 tons).
The maximum total tandem truck weight in the same report was 320 kN (32 000 kg) plus
a trailer of the same weight. This corresponds quite well with European results.
The design vehicle live load for Ethiopia is therefore the HL-93 load, which also
includes a lane load of 9.3 kN/m. This makes the total load (405 kN) some 25% greater
than the older AASHTO-based HS-20 design vehicle (72000 lbs. = 326.9 kN), which has
been used by ERA in the past.
The "design tandem" for Ethiopia represents exceptional loading and is recommended as
2 nos. of 110 kN axles, excluding Dynamic Load Allowance (according to Ref. 1). This
results in a "safety factor" of some 45% for overloaded vehicles, which is deemed
sufficient. This tandem load shall be applied for military vehicle loading, and for strategic
bridges. The Military Authorities should be contacted periodically as the loads may
change from time to time. Generally, strategic bridges are bridges across wide, flowing
rivers (Blue Nile, Awash, Omo) which cannot easily be replaced by a temporary bridge
such as a 40 m span double Bailey truss bridge. Strategic roads with strategic bridges are
important roads very far away from parallel, alternative roads (e.g.- the Addis-Gondar
road).
2.5.3 LOADS ON AREAS OTHER THAN TRAFFIC LANES
If bridge walkways and islands/refuges are not fully separated from the roadway, they
should be regarded as a part of the roadway and designed for the same load. This will
allow changing these to highway lanes in the future with a very limited cost. In such cases
where the walkways and islands/refuges are to be designed to full traffic loads, this should
be stated in the Preliminary Design Specifications (PDS) (see Chapter 5: Preliminary
Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts).
2.5.4 ACCIDENTAL LOADS
Collision loads are given in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
To prevent collisions at underpasses the piers should preferably be placed at least 10 m
away from the traffic lane or be protected by a protection wall. A railing is not sufficient
to prevent the risk of collision. If such a wall is not applied, the pier shall be designed for
collision loads.
Light superstructures such as timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc should be protected by
raising the vertical clearance height to 5.3 m.
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2.5.5 OTHER LOADS
The extreme daily temperature range varies between 20C and 40C, but is close to
30C for most places in the country, and this value is used in the EBCS (Ref. 3).
Regarding wind loads, the maximum wind speed is measured by the National
Meteorological Services Agency every 4 hours at certain scattered places. This does not
allow the development of a "Maximum Wind Chart" for the country. The total impact of
Wind load on a common bridge structure is limited to a few percent of all loads and 40
m/s (145 km/h) is selected as the design value.
2.6 DEFLECTION
The criteria in this section shall be considered mandatory. In applying these criteria, the
vehicular load shall include the dynamic load allowance and the following principles may
apply:
When investigating the maximum absolute deflection, all design lanes should be
loaded, and all supporting components should be assumed to deflect equally;
For composite design, the design cross-section should include the entire width of the
roadway and the structurally continuous portions of the railings and sidewalks;
When investigating maximum relative displacements, the number and position of
loaded lanes should be selected to provide the worst differential effect;
The live load portion of Load Combination Service I of Table 3-1 should be used,
including the dynamic load allowance, IM;
The live load shall be taken from Chapter 3: Load Requirements;
For skewed bridges, a right cross-section shall be used, and for curved and curved
skewed bridges, a radial cross-section shall be used.
In the absence of other criteria, the following deflection limits shall be considered for
concrete, and/or steel construction:
Vehicular load, general .................................................. ................. Span/500
Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads .................................. ................. Span/800
Vehicular load on cantilever arms.................................. ................. Span/300
Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads on cantilever arms.... ................. Span/400
Uplift of a free end of the bridge deck .. 5 mm.
(ex:. A span of 16.4m may not deflect more than 16400/500=32mm, due to vehicular
loads)
Excessive deformation can cause premature deterioration of the wearing surface and
affect the performance of fasteners, but limits on the latter have not yet been established.
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2.7 DESIGN WORKING LIFE
Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be designed for 100 years working life. Concrete
and Steel culverts with an opening or diameter less than 2.0 m and all timber bridges shall
be designed for 50 years working life.
2.8 LIMIT STATES
2.8.1 GENERAL
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructibility, safety, and serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectibility,
economy, and aesthetics, as specified in Chapters 3 11.
Regardless of the type of analysis used, Equation 2.1 shall be satisfied for all specified
force effects and combinations thereof. Equation 2.1 below is the basis of the LRFD
methodology. Each component and connection shall satisfy Equation 2.1 for each limit
state, unless otherwise specified. For service and extreme event limit states, resistance
factors shall be taken as 1.0, except for bolts, for which the provisions of Chapter 8:
Bridge Details apply. All limit states shall be considered of equal importance.

i

i
Q
i
R
n
= R
f
(2.1)
Where:
for loads for which a maximum value of
i
is appropriate:

i
=
D

R

I
0.95 (2.2)
for loads for which a minimum value of
i
is appropriate:

i
= 1 1.0 (2.3)

D

R

I
Where:
i
= load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance

i
= load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
Q
i
= force effect
= resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal
resistance (see chapters 5,6,7 8, 10 and 12).
R
n
= nominal resistance

D
= a factor relating to ductility, as specified below

R
= a factor relating to redundancy as specified below

I
= a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
R
f
= factored resistance: R
n
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Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the
margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the
last concerns the consequences of the bridge being out of service. The grouping of these
aspects on the load side of Equation 2.1 is, therefore, arbitrary. However, it constitutes a
first effort at codification. In the absence of more precise information, each effect, except
that for fatigue and fracture, is estimated as 5 percent, accumulated geometrically, a
clearly subjective approach. With time, improved quantification of ductility, redundancy,
and operational importance, and their interaction and system synergy, shall be attained,
possibly leading to a rearrangement of Equation 2.1, in which these effects may appear on
either side of the equation or on both sides.
2.8.2 SERVICE LIMIT STATE
The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress, deformation, and crack
width under regular service conditions. The service limit state provides certain experience
related provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical
considerations.
2.8.3 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress range as a result of a single
design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles.
The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent
fracture during the design life of the bridge.
The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of material toughness requirements of the
Technical Specifications.
2.8.4 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
The strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that strength and stability, both local and
global, are provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a
bridge is expected to experience in its design life.
Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit state, but overall
structural integrity is expected to be maintained.
2.8.5 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES
The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake or flood, possibly under scoured conditions.
Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period
shall be significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.
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2.9 DUCTILITY
The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure.
It shall be assumed that the requirements for ductility are satisfied for a concrete structure
in which the resistance of a connection is not less than 1.3 times the maximum force
effect imposed on the connection by the inelastic action of the adjacent components.
Energy-dissipating devices shall be accepted as means of providing ductility.
For the strength limit state:

D
1.05 for non-ductile components and connections

D
= 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these
Specifications

D
0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these
Specifications
For all other limit states:

D
= 1.00
The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be
characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Under repeated seismic loading, large
reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect on
structural survival.
If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection
made of brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of
load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile
performance shall be verified by testing.
In order to achieve adequate inelastic behavior the system should have a sufficient
number of ductile members and either:
Joints and connections that are also ductile and can provide energy dissipation without
loss of capacity, or
Joints and connections that have sufficient excess strength so as to assure that the
inelastic response occurs at the locations designed to provide ductile, energy
absorbing response.
Statically ductile, but dynamically non-ductile response characteristics should be avoided.
Examples of this behavior are shear and bond failures in concrete members and loss of
composite action in flexural components. Experience indicates that typical components
designed in accordance with these provisions generally exhibit adequate ductility.
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Connection and joints require special attention to detailing and the provision of load
paths.
The minimum ductibility factor as an assurance that ductile failure modes will be obtained
shall be defined as follows:
=
u
/
y
(2.4)
Where:
u
- deformation at ultimate

y
- deformation at the elastic limit
The ductility capacity of structural components or connections may either be established
by full- or large-scale testing or with analytical models based on documented material
behavior. The ductility capacity for a structural system shall be determined by integrating
local deformations over the entire structural system.
The special requirements for energy dissipating devices are imposed because of the
rigorous demands placed on these components.
2.10 REDUNDANCY
Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons not to
use them. Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse
of the bridge shall be designated as failure-critical and the associated structural system as
non-redundant. Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension shall be designated
fracture-critical.
Those elements and components whose failure is not expected to cause collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as nonfailure-critical and the associated structural system as
redundant.
For the strength limit state:

R
1.05 for nonredundant members
= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy
For all other limit states:

R
= 1.00
For each load combination and limit state under consideration, member redundancy
classification (redundant or non-redundant) should be based upon the member
contribution to the bridge safety.
OPERATIONAL IMPORTANCE
This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only. Some
bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.
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Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense
requirements. The commentary in Chapter 3: Load Requirements provides some guidance
on selecting importance categories as they relate to design for earthquakes. This
information can be generalized for other situations.
Three levels of importance are specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements with respect to
seismic design: "critical," "essential," and "other." For the purposes of this Chapter,
bridges classified as "critical" or "essential" in Chapter 3: Load Requirements should be
considered of "operational importance."
For the strength limit state:

l
1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
0.95 for relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:

l
= 1.00
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications: SI Units, 2
nd
Edition, 1998.
Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2. OSullivan and Graham, Axle Load Control Survey, 1998.
3. Building Code of Ethiopia (EBCS), Volume 1 Basis of Design and Actions on
Structures, 1995.