BHN Bacaan Diskrit

This page
intentionally left
blank
Copyright 2009, 2005 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved.
No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,
xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval
system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher.
All inquiries should be emailed to rights@newagepublishers.com
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2863-6
Dedicated to our Beloved Parents
D.P. Acharjya / Sreekumar
This page
intentionally left
blank
It is our great pleasure to put forth the second edition of our book Fundamental
Approach to Discrete Mathematics. This edition is an outcome of the numerous feedback
received from students and teachers who had welcomed the first edition. The major
change in the second edition of this book is the addition of a new chapter on Generating
Function and Recurrence Relation, Combinatorics, and Fuzzy Set Theory. These chapters
have been introduced because we think these areas are very interesting and application
oriented. The typographical errors and omissions, which were there in the first edition, are
taken care of in this edition.
We continued our effort to keep the book student-friendly. By a problem solving
approach, we mean that students learn the material through problem-type illustrative
examples that provide the motivation behind the concepts and its relation to the theorems
and definitions. At the same time, students must discover a solution for the non-trivial
aspect of the solution. In such an approach, homework exercises contribute to a major part
of the learning process. We have kept the same approach for the newly introduced
chapters. We trust and hope that the new edition of the book will help to further
illustrate the relevance of the discrete mathematics.
While writing we have referred to several books and journals, we take this opportunity
to thank all those authors and publishers. Besides those thanked in the preface of the first
edition, we are also thankful to S. Dehuri, B.D. Sahoo and A. Mitra for their constant
motivation and contributions in this edition. We are extremely thankful to the editorial
and production team of New Age International (P) Ltd. for encouraging us for the second
edition and extending their cooperation and help in timely completion of this book.
Constructive criticism and suggestions for further improvement of the book is warmly
welcomed. Feel free to mail us in dpacharjya@gmail.com; dpacharjya@vit.ac.in;
sreekumar42003@yahoo.com
D.P. Acharjya
Sreekumar
Preface to the Second Edition
This page
intentionally left
blank
Preface to the First Edition
Discrete Mathematics, the study of finite systems, remains at the heart of any
contemporary study of computer science, which is a need of every student to attain
mathematical maturity and ability to deal with abstraction, algorithms and graphs. Our
intention in writing this book is to offer fundamental concepts and methods of discrete
mathematics in a precise and clear manner. The objective of writing this book is to
provide the students of computer science and information technology the fundamental
mathematical basis required to achieve indepth knowledge in the field of computer science.
It will also help the students, who have interest in mathematics, to keep insight into
mathematical techniques and their importance in real life applications.
This book is intended for one semester introductory course in discrete mathematics.
The book is also useful for the students of BE (Computer Science/IT), B.Tech. (Computer
Science/IT), MCA and M.Sc. (Computer Science). The material in this book includes
fundamental concepts, figures, tables, exercises and solved examples to guide the reader
in mastering introductory discrete mathematics.
A discrete mathematics course has many objectives that students should learn the
essentials of mathematics and how to think mathematically. To achieve these objectives,
we emphasized on mathematical reasoning and problem solving techniques in this book.
Each chapter begins with a clear statement of definitions, principles and theorems with
illustrative and other descriptive materials. This is followed by sets of solved examples
and exercises. The solved examples help to illustrate and amplify the material. This has
been done to make the book more flexible and to stimulate further interest in topics.
Once basic mathematical concepts have been developed then more complex material and
applications are presented.
The mathematical topics to be discussed are mathematical logic, set theory, binary
relation, function, algebraic structure such as group theory and ring theory, boolean
algebra, graph theory and introduction to lattices. Although many excellent books exist in
this area, we introduce this topic still keeping in mind that the reader will use them in
practical applications related to computer science and information technology. It is hoped
that the theoretical concepts present in this book will permit a student to understand
most of the fundamental concepts. The text is designed that the students who do not have
a strong background in discrete mathematics will find it is very useful to begin with and
the students with an exposure to discrete mathematics will also find the book very useful
as some of exercises given are thought provoking and help them for application building.
We have the unique opportunity to express our deepest sense of gratitude to Prof.
S. Nanda, NIT, Rourkela; Prof. B.K. Tripathy, Berhampur University, Prof. G.N. Patel,
Sambalpur University and Dr. Md. N. Khan, IGIT, Sarang for their effective guidance,
sincere advise and valuable suggestions during the project work and thereby inspired us
to take up an interesting and challenging project like this. We acknowledge to Prof.
Sourya Pattnaik, Director, Rourkela Institute of Management Studies (RIMS), Rourkela
who motivated and guided us in this project. We would like to acknowledge the
contribution of many people, who have helped to bring this project successful.
In certainty, no technical book can be claimed as the product of its authors alone. We
are pleased to acknowledge here the contributions of several colleagues who have had a
major influence in this book and the course from which it arose. We shall be grateful to
the readers for pointing out errors and omissions that, in spite of all care, might have
crept in. We shall be delighted if this book is accepted and appreciated by the scholars of
today.
You can e-mail your comments to debi_69@rediffmail.com; debi_rims@yahoo.co.in
or sreekumar42003@yahoo.com .
At last but not the least we express our heartfelt thanks to M/s New Age International
(P) Ltd, Publishers, New Delhi, for the cooperation and publication with high accuracy.
D.P. Acharjya
Sreekumar
x Preface to the First Edition
Preface v
List of Symbols xvii
1. Mathematical Logic 117
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Statement (Proposition) 1
1.2 Logical Connectives 2
1.3 Conditional 3
1.4 Bi-Conditional 4
1.5 Converse 5
1.6 Inverse 5
1.7 Contra Positive 5
1.8 Exclusive OR 6
1.9 NAND 6
1.10 NOR 6
1.11 Tautology 7
1.12 Contradiction 7
1.13 Satisfiable 7
1.14 Duality Law 8
1.15 Algebra of Propositions 8
1.16 Mathematical Induction 8
Solved Examples 9
Exercises 15
2. Set Theory 1940
2.0 Introduction 19
2.1 Sets 19
Contents
xii Contents
2.2 Types of Sets 20
2.3 Cardinality of a Set 21
2.4 Subset and Superset 22
2.5 Comparability of Sets 23
2.6 Power Set 23
2.7 Operations on Sets 23
2.8 Disjoint Sets 28
2.9 Application of Set Theory 28
2.10 Product of Sets 29
2.11 Fundamental Products 30
Solved Examples 30
Exercises 39
3. Binary Relation 4168
3.0 Introduction 41
3.1 Binary Relation 41
3.2 Inverse Relation 42
3.3 Graph of Relation 43
3.4 Kinds of Relation 44
3.5 Arrow Diagram 45
3.6 Void Relation 45
3.7 Identity Relation 45
3.8 Universal Relation 46
3.9 Relation Matrix (Matrix of the Relation) 46
3.10 Composition of Relations 46
3.11 Types of Relations 48
3.12 Types of Relations and Relation Matrix 50
3.13 Equivalence Relation 52
3.14 Partial Order Relation 53
3.15 Total Order Relation 54
3.16 Closures of Relations 55
3.17 Equivalence Classes 56
3.18 Partitions 57
Solved Examples 58
Exercises 66
4. Function 6992
4.0 Introduction 69
4.1 Function 69
4.2 Equality of Functions 71
4.3 Types of Function 71
4.4 Graph of Function 72
Contents xiii
4.5 Composition of Functions 74
4.6 Inverse Function 76
4.7 Some Important Functions 77
4.8 Hash Function 79
Solved Examples 80
Exercises 89
5. Generating Function and Recurrence Relation 93140
5.0 Introduction 93
5.1 Generating Functions 93
5.2 Partitions of Integers 95
5.3 Recurrence Relations 97
5.4 Models of Recurrence Relation 97
5.5 Linear Recurrence Relation with Constant Coefficients 100
5.6 Different Methods of Solution 101
5.7 Homogeneous Solutions 102
5.8 Particular Solution 104
5.9 Total Solution 105
5.10 Solution by Generating Function 105
5.11 Analysis of the Algorithms 106
Solved Examples 112
Exercises 136
6. Combinatorics 141171
6.0 Introduction 141
6.1 Fundamental Principle of Counting 141
6.2 Factorial Notation 142
6.3 Permutation 142
6.4 Combination 144
6.5 The Binomial Theorem 147
6.6 Binomial Theorem for Rational Index 150
6.7 The Catalan Numbers 151
6.8 Ramsey Number 153
Solved Examples 155
Exercises 168
7. Group Theory 173197
7.1 Binary Operation on a Set 173
7.2 Algebraic Structure 173
7.3 Group 174
7.4 Subgroup 178
xiv Contents
7.5 Cyclic Group 181
7.6 Cosets 183
7.7 Homomorphism 183
Solved Examples 184
Exercises 197
8. Codes and Group Codes 199204
8.1 Terminologies 199
8.2 Error Correction 200
8.3 Group Codes 200
8.4 Weight of Code Word 200
8.5 Distance Between the Code Words 200
8.6 Error Correction for Block Code 201
8.7 Cosets 202
Solved Examples 202
Exercises 204
9. Ring Theory 205226
9.1 Ring 205
9.2 Special Types of Ring 207
9.3 Ring without Zero Divisor 209
9.4 Integral Domain 209
9.5 Division Ring 209
9.6 Field 209
9.7 The Pigeonhole Principle 211
9.8 Characteristics of a Ring 211
9.9 Sub Ring 213
9.10 Homomorphism 213
9.11 Kernel of Homomorphism of Ring 215
9.12 Isomorphism 215
Solved Examples 216
Exercises 225
10. Boolean Algebra 227253
10.1 Gates 227
10.2 More Logic Gates 229
10.3 Combinatorial Circuit 231
10.4 Boolean Expression 232
10.5 Equivalent Combinatorial Circuits 233
Contents xv
10.6 Boolean Algebra 234
10.7 Dual of a Statement 237
10.8 Boolean Function 238
10.9 Various Normal Forms 239
Solved Examples 240
Exercises 249
11. Introduction to Lattices 255267
11.1 Lattices 255
11.2 Hasse Diagram 256
11.3 Principle of Duality 257
11.4 Distributive Lattice 259
11.5 Bounded Lattice 261
11.6 Complemented Lattice 262
11.7 Some Special Lattices 263
Solved Examples 263
Exercises 266
12. Graph Theory 269308
12.1 Graph 270
12.2 Kinds of Graph 271
12.3 Digraph 272
12.4 Weighted Graph 272
12.5 Degree of a Vertex 273
12.6 Path 273
12.7 Complete Graph 274
12.8 Regular Graph 274
12.9 Cycle 274
12.10 Pendant Vertex 275
12.11 Acyclic Graph 275
12.12 Matrix Representation of Graphs 276
12.13 Connected Graph 279
12.14 Graph Isomorphism 280
12.15 Bipartite Graph 280
12.16 Subgraph 281
12.17 Walks 282
12.18 Operations on Graphs 283
12.19 Fusion of Graphs 285
Solved Examples 289
Exercises 303
xvi Contents
13. Tree 309347
13.1 Tree 309
13.2 Fundamental Terminologies 310
13.3 Binary Tree 311
13.4 Bridge 312
13.5 Distance and Eccentricity 313
13.6 Central Point and Centre 314
13.7 Spanning Tree 315
13.8 Searching Algorithms 317
13.9 Shortest Path Algorithms 321
13.10 Cut Vertices 323
13.11 Euler Graph 324
13.12 Hamiltonian Path 326
13.13 Closure of a Graph 326
13.14 Travelling Salesman Problem 327
Solved Examples 328
Exercises 343
14. Fuzzy Set Theory 349372
14.1 Fuzzy Versus Crisp 349
14.2 Fuzzy Sets 350
14.3 Basic Definitions 352
14.4 Basic Operations on Fuzzy Sets 355
14.5 Properties of Fuzzy Sets 357
14.6 Interval Valued Fuzzy Set 358
14.7 Operations on i-v Fuzzy Sets 359
14.8 Fuzzy Relations 360
14.9 Operations on Fuzzy Relations 362
14.10 Fuzzy Logic 364
Solved Examples 366
Exercises 371
References 373380
Index 381386
LisI oI Symbols
Mathematical Logic
tP Q) : P and Q
tP Q) : P or Q
P : nogafIon oI P
P Q : II P, fhon Q
P Q : P II and onIy II Q
P
Q : P oxcIusIvo or Q
P Q : P NAN Q
P Q : P NOR Q
P Q : P and Q aro IogIcaIIy
oquIvaIonf
Set Theory
a, b, c, J : sof confaInIng fho oIomonfs
a, b, c, J.
x A : x Is an oIomonf oI A
x A : x Is nof an oIomonf oI A
x Ptx) : Ptx) Is fho proporfy fhaf dos-
crIbos fho oIomonfs x oI a sof.
: nuII sof
A
: cardInaIIfy oI A
A : A sImIIar fo tA and confaIn-
Ing oquaI numbor oI oIomonfs)
A : A Is a subsof oI
A = : sof oquaIIfy tA and havo samo
oIomonfs)
A : A Is a propor subsof oI
A : A Is nof a subsof oI
A : A and aro nof oquaI
PtA) : powor sof oI A
A 7
: A unIon
A 1
: A InforsocfIon
A : sof dIIIoronco
A : sof symmofrIc dIIIoronco
A : sof symmofrIc dIIIoronco
A
c
: compIomonf oI A
A
: compIomonf oI A
A' : compIomonf oI A
ntA) : numbor oI dIsfIncf oIomonfs
oI A.
A : CarfosIan producf oI A and
tx, y) : Ordor paIr
tx
1
, x
2
, x
3
,
...
, x
n
) : n-fupIo oI x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,
...
, x
n
A
1
n
i
i =
7 : unIon oI A
1
, A
2
, A
3
,
...
, A
n
A
1
n
i
i=
1
: InforsocfIon oI A
1
, A
2
, A
3
,
...
, A
n
Binary Relation
x R y : tx, y) R i.e., x Is roIafod fo y
x
R/
y : tx, y) R i.e., x Is nof roIafod
fo y
tR) : domaIn oI fho roIafIon R
dom. R : domaIn oI fho roIafIon R
RtR) : rango oI fho roIafIon R
rng. R : rango oI fho roIafIon R
R
1
: Invorso oI fho roIafIon R
I
A
: IdonfIfy roIafIon
NLEEE LIsf oI SymboIs
MtR) : mafrIx oI fho roIafIon R.
R
1
R
2
: composIfIon oI roIafIons
R
1
and R
2
rtR) : roIIoxIvo cIosuro oI fho
roIafIon R
stR) : symmofrIc cIosuro oI fho
roIafIon R
ttR) : fransIfIvo cIosuro oI fho
roIafIon R
x : oquIvaIonco cIass confaInIng x.
Function
j : A : IuncfIon Irom A fo
Rtj) : rango oI a IuncfIon j
jtx) : vaIuo assIgnod fo x
g
j : composIfIon oI j and g
g j : composIfIon oI j and g
j
1
: Invorso IuncfIon
] ] x : absoIufo vaIuo IuncfIon
x : groafosf Infogor IuncfIon
x
: IIoor IuncfIon
x
: coIIIng IuncfIon
A
: characforIsfIc IuncfIon oI A
R
y
tx) : romaIndor IuncfIon
sgn tx) : sIgnum IuncfIon
Htn) : hash IuncfIon
Generating Function and Recurrence
Relation
Gtx) : gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho
soquonco oI roaI numbors
a
0
, a
1
, a
2
,
...
, a
n
,
...
tx) : oxpononfIaI gonorafIng IuncfIon
Ptn) : parfIfIon IuncfIon numbor oI
parfIfIons oI an Infogor n
h
n
s : homogonoous soIufIon fo fho
IInoar dIIIoronco oquafIon
p
n
s : parfIcuIar soIufIon fo fho IInoar
dIIIoronco oquafIon
+
h p
n n
s s : fofaI soIufIon fo fho IInoar
dIIIoronco oquafIon
tn
2
) : fhofa oI
2
n .
Ign : IogarIfhm fo fho baso 2 oI n
Ig2 : IogarIfhm fo fho baso 2 oI 2
Combinatorics
n! : IacforIaI oI a nafuraI numbor n
Ftn, r) : pormufafIon oI r oIomonfs ouf
oI n oIomonfs
Ctn, r) : combInafIon oI r oIomonfs ouf
oI n oIomonfs
ctx) : gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho
CafaIan numbors
T
r+1
: gonoraI form In fho bInomIaI
oxpansIon.
C
n
: n
th
CafaIan numbor
Ptn, n) : Ramsoy numbor
Group Theory
ta
b) : a bInary oporafIon b
tA,
) : aIgobraIc sfrucfuro
OtG) : ordor oI fho group G numbor oI
oIomonfs oI G
Ota) : ordor oI an oIomonf a
aH : IoIf cosof oI H In G
Ha : rIghf cosof oI H In G
Codes and Group Codes
tG, ) : group codo
tX) : woIghf oI fho codo word X
JtX, Y) : dIsfanco bofwoon fwo codo
words X and Y
PtX
i
|Y) : probabIIIfy fhaf
i
Is
fransmIffod whon fho rocoIvod
word Is Y
tG y) : cosof wIfh rospocf y whoro tG, )
Is a group codo and y Is a word
Ring Theory
Z
p
: commufafIvo rIng
ChtR) : characforIsfIc oI a rIng
It) : fho kornoI oI homomorphIsm
LIsf oI SymboIs NEN
Boolean Algebra
: NOT gafo tInvorfor)
: AN gafo
: OR gafo
: NAN gafo
: NOR gafo
: XOR gafo
: XNOR gafo
x' : nof x
x : nof x
tx
1
x
2
) : x
1
and x
2
tx
1
x
2
) : x
1
or x
2
tx
1
x
2
) : oxcIusIvo-OR oI x
1
and x
2
S, , , , 0, 1: ooIoan aIgobra
j :
n
: ooIoan IuncfIon II
j tx
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) = X tx
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)
Introduction to Lattices
L.!. : Ioasf uppor bound
G.L. : groafosf Iowor bound
ta b) : joIn oI a and b
ta b) : moof oI a and b
tn) : sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsors oI n
a]b : a dIvIdos b
Graph Theory
GtV, ) : graph wIfh IInIfo sof oI vorfIcos
V and a IInIfo sof oI odgos
]V] : ordor oI graph G
]] : sIzo oI graph G
dogroo to) : dogroo oI fho vorfox o
e = tu, o) : odgo oI a graph
ute) : woIghf oI fho odgo e
K
n
: compIofo graph wIfh n vorfIcos
Aa
ij
: adjaconcy mafrIx oI fho graph G
Ia
i j
: IncIdonco mafrIx oI fho graph G
Pp
i j
: pafh mafrIx oI fho graph G
tG
1
7 G
2
) : unIon oI fwo graphs and
G
1
and G
2
tG
1
1 G
2
) : InforsocfIon oI fwo graphs and
G
1
and G
2
G
: compIomonf oI fho graph G
tG
1
G
2
) : producf oI graphs and
G
1
and G
2
G
1
G
2
: composIfIon oI fwo graphs and
G
1
and G
2
Tree
Jtu, o) : dIsfanco bofwoon fwo vorfIcos
u and o
eto) : occonfrIcIfy oI fho vorfox o
rad tG) : radIus oI fho graph G
dIam tG) : dIamofor oI fho graph G
!S : roadfh !Irsf Soarch
!S : opfh !Irsf Soarch
CtG) : cIosuro oI graph G
Fuzzy Set Theory
A
: Iuzzy sof oI fho unIvorso oI
dIscourso X
A
tx) : X 0, 1 : momborshIp IuncfIon
oI
A
A =
: oquaIIfy oI Iuzzy sofs
A

: confaInmonf
Supporf
A : Supporf oI a Iuzzy sof

A
: -IovoI cuf
. A
h
: producf oI a Iuzzy sof by a
crIsp numbor
A
n
: n powor oI a Iuzzy sof
CON : conconfrafIon
IL : dIIafIon
A

7
: unIon oI Iuzzy sofs
NN LIsf oI SymboIs

1 A
: InforsocfIon oI Iuzzy sofs
A
c
: compIomonf oI A
.
A
: producf oI fwo Iuzzy sofs

A
: dIIIoronco oI fwo Iuzzy sofs

A
: dIsjuncfIvo sum
io Iuzzy : InforvaI vaIuod Iuzzy sof
sof
A
L : Iowor bound oI A
A
! : uppor bound oI A
0, 1 : IamIIy oI aII cIosod InforvaIs

confaInod In fho InforvaI 0, 1
A
t ) x : X D 0, 1: momborshIp
IuncfIon oI i o Iuzzy sof
=

A P
: Iuzzy CarfosIan producf
o

P 8

: composIfIon oI Iuzzy roIafIons
P
and 8
P
: Iuzzy proposIfIon
TtP) : frufh vaIuo oI fho Iuzzy

proposIfIon
Miscellaneous
: Ior aII
: such fhaf
: ImpIIos
0
n
n
s
=
: s
0
+ s
1
+ s
2
+
...
+ s
n
+
...
0
n
i
i
a
=
: a
0
. a
1
. a
2
. a
3
... a
n
: II and onIy II
1.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
MafhomafIcs Is consIdorod fo bo a doducfIvo scIonco. Wo InIor fhIngs Irom corfaIn promIsos
fhrough IogIcaI roasonIng. ConsIdor an oxampIo.
Three cups problem. A corfaIn Iafhor had fhroo sons: SmIfh, CIark and Jonos. Tho Iafhor
broughf fhroo caps oI dIIIoronf coIours; say Rod, BIuo and BIack. Ho showod fhom fho caps.
AIfor whIch fhoy aro IoIdod bIInd. Tho Iafhor puf fhroo caps on fho hoads oI fhroo sons. Thon
fho sons woro fakon away Irom hIs Iafhor fo anofhor room. !ow mInufos aIfor Iafhor caIIod
Jonos and romovod fho bIIndIoId oI Jonos and askod hIm fo foII fho coIour oI hIs cap. Jonos saId
ho couId nof InIor abouf fho coIour oI hIs own cap. Thon ho caIIod CIark and romovod fho
bIIndIoId oI CIark and askod hIm fo foII fho coIour oI hIs cap by IookIng af fho coIour oI fho cap
oI Jonos. Ho foo couId nof InIor. Thon ho caIIod SmIfh and askod hIm fo foII fho coIour oI hIs
cap wIfhouf romovIng fho bIIndIoId oI SmIfh. SmIfh ropIIod ho couId foII fho coIour oI fho cap
on hIs own hoad.
How SmIfh como fo fhaf concIusIon7 Lof us soo. SmIfh askod fwo quosfIons ono fo Jonos
and anofhor fo CIark. Ho askod fo Jonos abouf fho coIour oI CIark`s cap and askod fo CIark
abouf fho coIour oI Jonos`s cap. By fho way ho gof fwo coIours oI fho cap. As a rosuIf SmIfh gof
fho coIour oI hIs own cap.
In fho abovo roasonIng wo havo corfaIn promIsos and wo concIudo Irom fhom by a puro
doducfIvo roasonIng. In fho IoIIowIng passagos wo shaII IormaIIzo fho procoss oI doducfIon.
1.1 5TATEMENT lPk0P05lTl0Nl
A sfafomonf Is a docIarafIvo sonfonco whIch Is oIfhor fruo or IaIso buf nof bofh. Tho sfafomonf
Is aIso known as proposIfIon. Tho frufh vaIuo Truo and !aIso aro donofod by fho symboIs T
and F rospocfIvoIy. SomofImos If Is aIso donofod by 1 and 0, whoro 1 sfands Ior fruo and 0
sfands Ior IaIso. As If doponds on onIy fwo possIbIo frufh vaIuos, wo caII If as fwo-vaIuod IogIc
or bI-vaIuod IogIc.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng oxampIos
ta) Man Is morfaI.
HaIhemaIical Logic
undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
tb) Sun rIsos In fho oasf.
tc) Two Is Ioss fhan IIvo.
tJ) May God bIoss you!
te) x Is a og.
tj) Lopoz Is a nIco Caf.
tg) If Is foo coId foday.
th) 6 Is a composIfo numbor.
!rom fho abovo oxampIo, If Is vory cIoar fhaf ta), tb), tc) and th) aro sfafomonfs as fhoy
docIaro a doIInIfo frufh vaIuo T or !. Tho ofhor oxampIo tJ), te), tj), and tg) aro nof sfafomonfs
as fhoy do nof docIaro any frufh vaIuo T or !.
ConsIdor fho sonfonco 111011 + 11 = 111110
Tho abovo sonfonco Is a sfafomonf buf Ifs frufh vaIuo doponds on fho confoxf. II wo con-
sIdor fho bInary numbor sysfom, fho sfafomonf Is Truo tT) buf In docImaI numbor sysfom fho
sfafomonf Is !aIso t!).
1.2 L00lCAL C0NNECTlVE5
Anofhor Imporfanf aspocf Is fhaf IogIcaI connocfIvos. Wo uso somo IogIcaI connocfIvos fo con-
nocf sovoraI sfafomonfs Info a sIngIo sfafomonf. Tho mosf basIc and IundamonfaI connocfIvos
aro NogafIon, ConjuncfIon and IsjuncfIon.
1.2.1 Negatlon
If Is obsorvod fhaf fho nogafIon oI a sfafomonf Is aIso a sfafomonf. Wo uso fho connocfIvo Not
Ior nogafIon. !suaIIy fho sfafomonfs aro donofod by sIngIo Ioffors P, Q, R ofc. II P bo a
sfafomonf, fhon fho nogafIon oI P Is donofod as P.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo oI a sfafomonf.
P: Now York Is fho capIfaI oI !ranco.
P: Now York Is nof fho capIfaI oI !ranco.
As wo aII know fhaf ParIs Is fho capIfaI oI !ranco, fho frufh vaIuo Ior fho sfafomonfs P Is
IaIso t!) and P Is fruo tT). !rom fho abovo If Is cIoar fhaf P and P has opposIfo frufh vaIuos.
P can aIso bo wrIffon as
P: If Is nof fruo fhaf Now York Is fho capIfaI oI !ranco.
Rule: II P Is fruo, fhon P Is IaIso and II P Is IaIso, fhon P Is fruo.
Truth Tuble (Negutlon)
P P
T !
! T
1.2.2 Con]unctlon
Tho conjuncfIon oI fwo sfafomonfs P and Q Is aIso a sfafomonf donofod by tP r Q). Wo uso fho
connocfIvo And Ior conjuncfIon.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo whoro P and Q aro fwo sfafomonfs.
Mafhomafical Logic !
P : 2 + 3 = 5
Q : 5 Is a composIfo numbor.
So, tP r Q) : 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 Is a composIfo numbor.
As anofhor oxampIo II P: SmIfh wonf fo fho coIIogo and Q: Mary wonf fo fho coIIogo, fhon
tP r Q): SmIfh and Mary wonf fo fho coIIogo.
If Is cIoar fhaf tP r Q) sfand Ior P and Q. In ordor fo mako tP r Q) fruo, P and Q havo fo bo
sImuIfanoousIy fruo.
Rule: tP r Q) Is fruo II bofh P and Q aro fruo, ofhorwIso IaIso.
Truth Tuble (Conjunctlon)
P Q (P Q)
T T T
T ! !
! T !
! ! !
1.2.3 DlS]unctlon
Tho dIsjuncfIon oI fwo sfafomonfs P and Q Is aIso a sfafomonf donofod by tPv Q). Wo uso fho
connocfIvo Or Ior dIsjuncfIon. ConsIdor fho oxampIo whoro P and Q aro fwo sfafomonfs
P : 2 + 3 Is nof oquaI fo 5
Q : 5 Is a prImo numbor
So, tP v Q) : 2 + 3 Is nof oquaI fo 5 or 5 Is a prImo numbor.
If Is obsorvod fhaf tP v Q) Is fruo whon P may bo fruo or Q may bo fruo and fhIs aIso
IncIudos fho caso whon bofh aro fruo, fhaf Is fho frufh vaIuo oI ono sfafomonf Is nof assumod
In oxcIusIon oI fho frufh vaIuo oI fho ofhor sfafomonf. Wo caII If as aIso IncIusIvo or.
Rule: tP v Q) Is fruo, II oIfhor P or Q Is fruo and If Is IaIso whon bofh P and Q aro IaIso.
Truth Tuble (Dlsjunctlon)
P Q (P Q)
T T T
T ! T
! T T
! ! !
1.3 C0NDlTl0NAL
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Thon fho sfafomonf P Q Is caIIod a condIfIonaI sfafo-
monf. ThIs can bo puf In any ono oI fho IoIIowIng Iorms.
ta) II P, fhon Q tb) P onIy II Q
tc) P ImpIIos Q tJ) Q II P
In an ImpIIcafIon P Q, P Is caIIod fho anfocodonf thypofhosIs) and Q Is caIIod fho conso-
quonf tconcIusIon). To oxpIaIn fho condIfIonaI sfafomonf, consIdor fho oxampIo
" undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
A boy promIsos a gIrI, I wIII fako you boafIng on Sunday, II If Is nof raInIng.
Now II If Is raInIng, fhon fho boy wouId nof bo doomod fo havo brokon hIs promIso. Tho boy
wouId bo doomod fo havo brokon hIs promIso onIy whon If Is nof raInIng and fho boy dId nof
fako fho gIrI Ior boafIng on Sunday.
Lof us broak fho abovo condIfIonaI sfafomonf fo symboIIc Irom.
P: If Is nof raInIng.
Q: I wIII fako you boafIng on Sunday.
So, fho abovo sfafomonf roducos fo P Q.
!rom fho abovo dIscussIon If Is cIoar fhaf II P Is IaIso, fhon P Q Is fruo, whafovor bo fho
frufh vaIuo oI Q. Tho condIfIonaI P Q Is IaIso, II P Is fruo and Q Is IaIso.
Rule: An ImpIIcafIon tcondIfIonaI) P Q Is IaIso onIy whon fho hypofhosIs tP) Is fruo and
concIusIon tQ) Is IaIso, ofhorwIso fruo.
Truth Tuble (Condltlonul)
P Q (P Q)
T T T
T ! !
! T T
! ! T
1.4 8lC0NDlTl0NAL
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Thon fho sfafomonf P Q Is caIIod a bI-condIfIonaI
sfafomonf. ThIs P Q can bo puf In any ono oI fho IoIIowIng Iorms.
ta) P II and onIy II Q tb) P Is nocossary and suIIIcIonf oI Q
tc) P Is nocossary and suIIIcIonf Ior Q tJ) P Is ImpIIos and ImpIIod by Q
Tho bI-condIfIonaI tdoubIo ImpIIcafIon) P Q Is doIInod as
(P Q): (P Q) (Q P)
!rom fho frufh fabIo dIscussod boIow, If Is cIoar fhaf P Q has fho frufh vaIuo T whonovor
bofh P and Q havo IdonfIcaI frufh vaIuos.
Truth Tuble (Bl-Condltlonul)
P Q P Q Q P (P Q)
T T T T T
T ! ! T !
! T T ! !
! ! T T T
Rule: tP Q) Is fruo onIy whon bofh P and Q havo IdonfIcaI frufh vaIuos, ofhorwIso IaIso.
Mafhomafical Logic #
1.5 C0NVEk5E
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Tho convorso sfafomonf oI fho condIfIonaI P Q Is gIvon
as Q P.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo aII concurronf frIangIos aro sImIIar. Tho abovo sfafomonf can aIso
bo wrIffon as II frIangIos aro concurronf, fhon fhoy aro sImIIar.
Lof P: TrIangIos aro concurronf
Q: TrIangIos aro sImIIar
So, fho sfafomonf bocomos P Q. Tho convorso sfafomonf Is gIvon as II frIangIos aro
sImIIar, fhon fhoy aro concurronf or aII sImIIar frIangIos aro concurronf.
1.6 lNVEk5E
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Tho Invorso sfafomonf oI fho condIfIonaI tP Q) Is gIvon
as t P Q).
ConsIdor fho oxampIo aII concurronf frIangIos aro sImIIar. Tho abovo sfafomonf can aIso
bo wrIffon as II frIangIos aro concurronf, fhon fhoy aro sImIIar.
Lof P: TrIangIos aro concurronf
So, fho sfafomonf bocomos P Q. Tho Invorso sfafomonf Is gIvon as II frIangIos aro nof
concurronf, fhon fhoy aro nof sImIIar.
1.7 C0NTkA P05lTlVE
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Tho confra posIfIvo sfafomonf oI fho condIfIonaI
tP Q) Is gIvon as t Q P). ConsIdor fho xampIo aII concurronf frIangIos aro sImIIar.
Tho abovo sfafomonf can aIso bo wrIffon as II frIangIos aro concurronf, fhon fhoy aro sImI-
Iar.
Lof P: TrIangIos aro concurronf and
So, fho sfafomonf bocomos P Q. Tho confra posIfIvo sfafomonf Is gIvon as II frIangIos
aro nof sImIIar, fhon fhoy aro nof concurronf.
Truth Tuble (Contru Posltlve)
P Q P Q Q P ( Q P)
T T T ! ! T
T ! ! T ! !
! T T ! T T
! ! T T T T
!rom fho frufh fabIo If Is obsorvod fhaf bofh condIfIonaI tP Q) and confra posIfIvo
t Q P) havo samo frufh vaIuos.
$ undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
1.8 EXCLU5lVE 0k
Lof P and Q bo any fwo sfafomonfs. Tho oxcIusIvo OR oI fwo sfafomonfs P and Q Is donofod
by tP v Q). Wo uso fho connocfIvo XOR Ior oxcIusIvo OR. Tho oxcIusIvo OR tP v Q) Is fruo II
oIfhor P or Q Is fruo buf nof bofh. Tho oxcIusIvo OR Is aIso formod as oxcIusIvo dIsjuncfIon.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo whoro P and Q bo fwo sfafomonfs such fhaf P 2 + 3 = 5 and
Q 5 3 = 2. Horo bofh fho sfafomonfs aro fruo. ThoroIoro tP v Q) Is IaIso.
Rule: tP v Q) Is fruo II oIfhor P or Q Is fruo buf nof bofh, ofhorwIso IaIso.
Truth Tuble (Kxcluslve OR)
P Q (P v Q)
T T !
T ! T
! T T
! ! !
1.9 NAND
Tho word NAN sfands Ior NOT and AN. Tho connocfIvo NAN Is donofod by fho
symboI T. II P and Q bo fwo sfafomonfs, fhon NAN oI P and Q Is gIvon as tP T Q) doIInod by
tP T Q) tP r Q).
Rule: tP T Q) Is fruo II oIfhor P or Q Is IaIso, ofhorwIso IaIso.
Truth Tuble (NAND)
P Q (P Q)
T T !
T ! T
! T T
! ! T
1.10 N0k
Tho word NOR sfands Ior NOT and OR. Tho connocfIvo NOR Is donofod by fho symboI !. II P
and Q bo fwo sfafomonfs, fhon NOR oI P and Q Is gIvon as tP ! Q) doIInod by
tP ! Q) tP v Q)
Rule: tP ! Q) Is fruo onIy whon bofh P and Q aro IaIso, ofhorwIso IaIso.
Truth Tuble (NOR)
P Q (P Q)
T T !
T ! !
! T !
! ! T
Mafhomafical Logic %
1.11 TAUT0L00Y
II fho frufh vaIuos oI a composIfo sfafomonf aro aIways fruo IrrospocfIvo oI fho frufh vaIuos oI
fho afomIc tIndIvIduaI) sfafomonfs, fhon If Is caIIod a faufoIogy.
!or oxampIo fho composIfo sfafomonf tP r tP Q)) Q Is a faufoIogy. To vorIIy fhIs draw
fho frufh fabIo wIfh composIfo sfafomonf as tP r tP Q)) Q
Truth Tuble
P Q (P Q) P (P Q) (P (P Q)) Q
T T T T T
T ! ! ! T
! T T ! T
! ! T ! T
So, tP r tP Q)) Q Is a faufoIogy.
1.12 C0NTkADlCTl0N
II fho frufh vaIuos oI a composIfo sfafomonf aro aIways IaIso IrrospocfIvo oI fho frufh vaIuos
oI fho afomIc sfafomonfs, fhon If Is caIIod a confradIcfIon or unsafIsIIabIo.
!or oxampIo fho composIfo sfafomonf tP tQ tP r Q))) Is a confradIcfIon.
To vorIIy fhIs draw fho frufh fabIo oI tP tQ tP r Q))). Lof R P tQ tP r Q))
Truth Tuble
P Q (P Q) Q (P Q) (P (Q (P Q)) R
T T T T T !
T ! ! T T !
! T ! ! T !
! ! ! T T !
So, R tP tQ tP r Q))) Is a confradIcfIon.
1.13 5ATl5FlA8LE
II fho frufh vaIuos oI a composIfo sfafomonf aro somo fImos fruo and somo fImos IaIso
IrrospocfIvo oI fho frufh vaIuos oI fho afomIc sfafomonfs, fhon If Is caIIod a safIsIIabIo.
ConsIdor fho composIfo sfafomonf tP Q) tQ P). To vorIIy fhIs draw fho frufh fabIo oI
tP Q) tQ P).
Truth Tuble
P Q P Q Q P (P Q) (Q P)
T T T T T
T ! ! T T
! T T ! !
! ! T T T
So, fho composIfo sfafomonf tP Q) tQ P) Is safIsIIabIo.
& undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
1.14 DUALlTY LAW
Two IormuIao P and P` aro saId fo bo duaIs oI oach ofhor II oIfhor ono can bo obfaInod Irom fho
ofhor by InforchangIng r by v and v by r . Tho fwo connocfIvos r and v aro caIIod duaI fo oach
ofhor.
ConsIdor fho IormuIao P tP v Q) r R and P` tP r Q) v R whIch aro duaI fo oach ofhor.
1.15 AL0E8kA 0F Pk0P05lTl0N5
II P, Q and R bo fhroo sfafomonfs, fhon fho IoIIowIng Iaws hoId good.
ta) CommufafIvo Laws: P r Q Q r P and
P v Q Q v P
tb) AssocIafIvo Laws: P r tQ r R) tP r Q) r R and
P v tQ v R) tP v Q) v R
tc) IsfrIbufIvo Laws: P r tQ v R) tP r Q) v tP r R) and
P v tQ r R) tP v Q) r tP v R)
tJ) Idompofonf Laws: P r P P and
P v P P
te) AbsorpfIon Laws: P v tP r Q) P and
P r tP v Q) P
1.15.1 de Morgan'S LawS
II P and Q bo fwo sfafomonfs, fhon
ti) tP r Q) . t P) v t Q) and
tii) tP v Q) . t P) r t Q)
1.16 MATHEMATlCAL lNDUCTl0N
GonoraIIy dIrocf mofhods aro adopfod Ior provIng fhooroms and proposIfIons. SomofImos If Is
foo dIIIIcuIf and fodIous. As a rosuIf fho ofhor mofhods aro dovoIopod Ior provIng fhooroms
and proposIfIons. Thoso aro ti) mofhod oI confra posIfIvo, tii) mofhod oI confradIcfIon and
tiii) mofhod oI InducfIon. Horo, wo wIII dIscuss mofhod oI InducfIon. Tho mofhod oI InducfIon
Is ofhorwIso known as mafhomafIcaI InducfIon.
Supposo fhaf n bo a nafuraI numbor. Our aIm Is fo show fhaf somo sfafomonf Ptn) InvoIvIng
n Is fruo Ior any n. Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In mafhomafIcaI InducfIon.
1. Supposo fhaf Ptn) bo a sfafomonf.
2. Show fhaf Pt1) and Pt2) aro fruo. i.e., Ptn) Is fruo Ior n = 1 and n = 2.
3. Assumo fhaf Pth) Is fruo. i.e., Ptn) Is fruo Ior n = h.
4. Show fhaf Pth + 1) IoIIows Irom Pth).
ConsIdor an oxampIo 1+ 2 + 3 + . + n =
n n+ 1
2
> C
Supposo fhaf Ptn) 1+ 2 + 3 + . + n =
n n+ 1
2
> C
So, Pt1) 1 =
1 1 1
2
+ > C
Mathematical Logic 9
and P(2) 1+ 2 = 3 =
2 2 1
2
H b g
So, P(1) and P(2) are true.
Assume that P(k) is true. So,
1 + 2 + 3 + + k =
k kH1
2
b g
So, P(k + 1) 1 + 2 + 3 + + k + (k + 1)
=
k kH1
2
b g
+ (k + 1) [ P(k) is true.]
=
k
k
H F
H
G
I
K
J
H
1
2
2 b g =
k k H H 1 2
2
b g b g
which shows that P(k + 1) is also true. Hence, P(n) is true for all n.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 Find the negation of P Q.
Solution: P Q is equivalently written as ( P Q)
So, negation of P Q ( P Q)
( P) ( Q), (By de Morgans Law)
P ( Q)
Hence the negation of P Q is P ( Q).
Example 2 Construct the truth table for (P Q) ( P Q).
Solution: The given compound statement is (P Q) ( P Q) where P and Q are two
atomic statements.
P Q P P Q P Q (P Q) ( P Q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Example 3 Construct the truth table for P (Q P Q).
Solution: The given compound statement is P (Q P Q), where P and Q are two atomic
statements.
P Q P Q Q P Q P (Q P Q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F F T
F F F T T
10 Fundamental Approach to Discrete Mathematics
Example 4 Find the negation of the following statement. If Cows are Crows then Crows are
four legged.
Solution: Let P: Cows are Crows
Q: Crows are four legged
Given statement : If Cows are Crows then Crows are four legged.
P Q
So, the negation is given as P ( Q) i.e. Cows are Crows and Crows are not four legged.
Example 5 Find the negation of the following statement.
He is rich and unhappy.
Solution: Let P He is rich
Q He is unhappy
Given statement: He is rich and unhappy
P Q
By de Morgan's law (P Q) P Q
He is neither rich nor unhappy.
Example 6 Prove by constructing truth table
P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
Solution: Our aim to prove P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
Let P, Q and R be three atomic statements.
P Q R Q R P (Q R) P Q P R (P Q)
(P R)
T T T T T T T T
T F F F F F F F
F T F T T T T T
F F T T T T T T
F T T T T T T T
T F T T T F T T
T T F T T T F T
F F F F T T T T
From the truth table it is clear that P (Q R) (P Q) (P R).
Example 7 Find the negation of P Q.
Solution: P Q is equivalently written as (P Q) (Q P)
So, (P Q) ((P Q) (Q P))
(P Q) (Q P); (de Morgans Law)

( P Q) ( Q P)
(P Q) (Q P); (de Morgans Law)
Hence, (P Q) (P Q) (Q P).
Example 8 With the help of truth table prove that (P Q) P Q.
Solution: Our claim is (P Q) P Q.
Mafhomafical Logic
Lof P and Q bo fwo afomIc sfafomonfs.
P Q P Q (P Q) P Q P Q
T T T ! ! ! !
T ! ! T ! T T
! T ! T T ! T
! ! ! T T T T
!rom fho frufh fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf tP r Q) P v Q.
Example 9 8hou that (F Q) ( F . Q is a tauto/ogy.
Solution: Lof P and Q bo fwo afomIc sfafomonfs. Our aIm Is fo show tP Q) t P v Q) Is
a faufoIogy.
P Q P Q P P Q (P Q) ( P Q)
T T T ! T T
T ! ! ! ! T
! T T T T T
! ! T T T T
Honco tP Q) t P v Q) Is a faufoIogy.
Example 10 8hou that the jo//ouing statenents are equioa/ent.
8tatenent 1. OooJ jooJ is not cheap
8tatenent 2. Cheap jooJ is not gooJ.
Solution: Lof P !ood Is good and Q !ood Is choap
Sfafomonf 1: Good Iood Is nof choap
i.e., P Q
Sfafomonf 2: Choap Iood Is nof good
i.e., Q P
Truth Tuble
P Q P Q P Q Q P
T T ! ! ! !
T ! ! T T T
! T T ! T T
! ! T T T T
!rom frufh fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf bofh sfafomonfs aro oquIvaIonf.
Example 11 Express F Q using . anJ on/y.
Solution: P Q P v Q
P v t Q)
tP r Q) P T Q
P T t Q v Q)
P T tQ r Q) P T tQ T Q)
i.e., P Q P T tQ T Q)
undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
Example 12 Frooe that (F Q (F . Q is a contraJiction.
Solution: Trufh fabIo Ior tP r Q) r tP v Q)
P Q (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) (P Q)
T T T T ! !
T ! ! T ! !
! T ! T ! !
! ! ! ! T !
Honco, tP r Q) r tP v Q) Is a confradIcfIon.
Example 13 Express F Q using . anJ on/y.
Solution: P Q tP Q) r tQ P)
t P v Q) r tP v Q)
tt P v Q) r P) v tt P v Q) r Q)
t tt P v Q) r P) r tt P v Q) r Q))
tt P v Q) r P) T tt P v Q) r Q)
tt P v Q) T P) T tt P v Q) T Q)
t tP r Q) T P) T t tP r Q) T Q)
ttP T Q) T P) T ttP T Q) T Q)
ttP T t Q v Q) T P) T ttP T t Q v Q)) T t Q v Q))
ttP T tQ r Q) T P) T ttP T tQ r Q)) T tQ r Q))
ttP T tQ T Q) T P) T ttP T tQ T Q)) T tQ T Q))
Note: Thoso oxprossIons aro nof unIquo.
Alternutlve Solution: P Q tP Q) r tQ P)
t P v Q) r tP v Q)
tt P v Q) r P) v tt P v Q) r Q)
tt P r P) v tQ r P)) v tt P r Q) v tQ r Q))
tQ r P) v t P r Q)
t tQ r P)) v tP v Q)
t tQ r P) r tP v Q))
tQ r P) T tP v Q)
tQ T P) T t tP v Q))
tQ T P) T t P r Q))
tQ T P) T t P T Q)
tQ T P) T tt P v P) T t Q v Q))
tQ T P) T t tP r P) T tQ r Q))
tQ T P) T ttP T P) T tQ T Q))
Example 14 Frooe that n (n + 1 is an eoen natura/ nunber.
Solution: Supposo fhaf Ptn) n tn + 1) Is ovon.
So, Pt1) 1t1 + 1) = 2, whIch Is ovon and
Pt2) 2 t2 + 1) = 6, whIch Is aIso ovon.
Honco, Pt1) and Pt2) aro fruo.
Mafhomafical Logic !
Assumo fhaf Pth) h th + 1) Is ovon
i.e., h th + 1) = 2n; n e N
So, Pth + 1) th + 1) th + 2) = h th + 1) + 2 th + 1)
= 2n + 2 th + 1) . Pth) Is fruo.
= 2tn + h + 1), whIch Is ovon.
WhIch shows fhaf Pth + 1) Is aIso fruo.
So, Ptn) Is fruo Ior aII n.
Example 15 8hou by truth tab/e the jo//ouing statenents are equioa/ent.
8tatenent 1. Pich nen are unhappy.
8tatenent 2. Men are unhappy or poor.
Solution: Lof P Mon aro RIch and Q Mon aro unhappy.
Sfafomonf 1: RIch mon aro unhappy.
i.e., II mon aro rIch fhon fhoy aro unhappy.
i.e., P Q.
Sfafomonf 2: Mon aro unhappy or poor.
i.e., Q v P ; tHoro poor IndIcafos nof rIch)
Truth Tuble
P Q P Q P Q P
T T T ! T
T ! ! ! !
! T T T T
! ! T T T
So, If Is cIoar fhaf bofh sfafomonfs aro oquIvaIonf.
Example 16 A boy pronises a gir/ l ui// tahe you parh on MonJay ij it is not raining. When
the boy uou/J be JeeneJ to haoe brohen his pronise. Exp/ain uith the he/p oj truth tab/e.
Solution: Lof P: I wIII fako you park on Monday
Q: If Is raInIng.
GIvon sfafomonf: I wIII fako you park on Monday II If Is nof raInIng
i.e., P II Q
i.e., Q P
Truth Tuble
P Q Q Q P
T T ! T
T ! T T
! T ! T
! ! T !
If IndIcafos fhaf II Q Is fruo and P Is IaIso, fhon fho boy Is doomod fo havo brokon hIs
promIso. i.e. whon If Is nof raInIng and fho boy doos nof fako hor park on Monday, fhon fho
boy Is doomod fo havo brokon hIs promIso.
Example 17 Frooe by nethoJ oj inJuction
1
J
+ 2
J
+ J
J
+ . + n
J
=
n n 1
2
2
+ .
0
/
1
> C
Solution: Supposo fhaf Ptn) 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+. + n
3
=
n n + .
0
/
1
1
2
2
> C
So, Pt1) = 1
3
= 1 =
1 1 1
2
2
+ .
0
/
1
> C
and Pt2) = 1
3
+ 2
3
= 9 =
2 2 1
2
2
+ .
0
/
1
> C
Honco, Pt1) and Pt2) aro fruo.
Assumo fhaf Pth) Is fruo, so
Pth) 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+...+ h
3
=
h h + .
0
/
1
1
2
2
> C
Pth+1) 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+...+ h
3
+ th + 1)
3
=
h h + .
0
/
1
1
2
2
> C
+ th + 1)
3
3 Pth) Is fruo.
= th + 1)
2
th
2
+ 4 th + 1)) / 4
=
h h + + .
0
/
1
1 2
2
2
> C > C
WhIch shows fhaf Pth + 1) Is aIso fruo.
So, Ptn) Is fruo Ior aII n .
Example 18 8hou by nethoJ oj inJuction
1
1* 2
1
2* J
1
J * 4
...
1
n* n 1
+ + + +
+ > C
=
n
n 1 +
Solution: Supposo fhaf
Ptn)
1
1 2
1
2 3
1
3 4
1
1 ` ` `
...
`
+ + + +
+ n n > C
=
n
n + 1
So, Pt1)
1
1 2
1
2
1
1 1 `

+
and Pt2)
1
1 2
1
2 3
1
2
1
6
2
3
2
2 1 ` `
+ +
+
Mathematical Logic 15
Assume that P(k) is true. So,
P(k)
1
1 2
1
2 3
1
3 4
1
1 1 * * *
...
*
H H H H
H
Z
H k k
k
k b g
\ P(k + 1)
1
1 2
1
2 3
1
3 4
1
1
1
1 2 * * *
...
* *
H H H H
H
H
H H k k k k b g b g b g
=
k
k k k H
H
H H 1
1
1 2 b g b g *
; [ P(k) is true]
=
1
1
1
2 k
k
k H
H
H
F
H
G
I
K
J
b g b g
=
1
1
2 1
2
2
k
k k
k H
H H
H
F
H
G
I
K
J
b g b g
*
=
k
k k
H
H H
1
1 2
2
b g
b g b g
=
k
k
H
H
1
2
Which shows that P(k + 1) is also true.
So, P(n) is true for all n.

EXERCISES
1. Find the negation of the following statements.
(a) Today is Sunday or Monday.
(b) If I am tired and busy, then I cannot study.
(c) Either it is raining or some one left the shower on.
(d) The moon rises in the west.
(e) The triangles are equilateral is necessary and sufficient for three equal sides.
(f) 2 + 3 18.
2. Prove the following by using truth table.
(a) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R) (b) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
(c) (P Q) P Q (d) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
(e) (P Q) R P (Q R) (f) P Q ( P Q)
(g) P Q (P Q) (P Q) (h) (P Q) (P Q) P Q
(i) P Q (P P) (Q Q) (j) (P Q) ( P Q) P
3. For each of the following formulas tell whether it is (i) tautology, (ii) satisfiable, or
(iii) contradiction.
(a) (P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R)) (b) (P (Q R)) ((P Q) R)
(c) P Q (d) (P Q) P
(e) (P Q) (P Q) (f) (P Q) (Q P)
(g) ((P Q) Q) P (h) P (P Q) P
(i) P (P Q) (j) P (Q (P Q))
(k) (P Q) (Q P) (l) (P (Q (P Q))) P
$ undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
4. Provo by usIng dIIIoronf Iaws.
ta) tP v Q) v t P r Q) P tb) P v tP r Q) P
tc) tP v Q) r P P r Q
5. WrIfo oach oI fho IoIIowIng In symboIIc Iorm by IndIcafIng sfafomonfs.
ta) Brown Is rIch and unhappy.
tb) Jackson spoaks ngIIsh or !ronch.
tc) I am hungry and I can sfudy.
tJ) I am fIrod II and onIy II I work hard.
te) II Now York Is a cIfy, fhon If Is fho capIfaI oI !S.
tj) 5 + 2 = ? II ? 2 = 5.
6. WrIfo fho frufh vaIuo oI oach oI fho IoIIowIng sfafomonfs.
ta) Sun rIsos In fho soufh.
tb) Man Is morfaI.
tc) London Is fho capIfaI oI !K.
tJ) II fhroo sIdos oI a frIangIo aro oquaI, fhon If Is an oquIIaforaI frIangIo.
te) t11101)
2
+ t1)
2
= t11110)
2
tj) t11101)
10
+ t1)
10
= t11110)
10
tg) t11111)
2
+ t1)
2
= t100000)
2
and t111)
2
= t?)
10
th) t2?0)
8
+ t5)
8
= t184)
10
or t11101)
2
+ t111)
2
= t100101)
2
ti) 2
2
= 9 II and onIy II 2 = 3
tj) t111)
2
+ t010)
2
= t1001)
2
II and onIy II t1001)
2
t010)
2
= t111)
2
.
?. WrIfo fho convorso, Invorso and confra posIfIvo oI fho IoIIowIng sfafomonf by IndIcafIng
fho condIfIonaI sfafomonf.
ta) In bInary numbor sysfom 1 + 1 = 10.
tb) Good Iood aro nof choap.
tc) II 9x + 36 = 9, fhon x = 1?.
tJ) II costx) = 1, fhon x = 0.
te) Two sofs aro sImIIar, II fhoy confaIns oquaI numbor oI oIomonfs.
8. Provo by usIng mofhod oI InducfIon.
ta) 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+.+ n
2
=
n n n + + 1 2 1
6
> C > C
tb) 1 + r + r
2
+ .+ r
n1
=
1
1
r
r
n
; r = 1
tc) 1 + r + r
2
+ ...+ r
n
=
1
1
1
+
r
r
n
; r = 1
tJ) a + ar + ar
2
+ .+ ar
n
=
a r
r
n
1
1
1
+
@ E
; r = 1
te) a + ta + J) + ta + 2J) + .+ ta + tn 1)J) =
n a n J 2 1
2
+ > C ? D
Mafhomafical Logic %
t j ) 3 +? + 11+ . + t4n 1) = n t2n + 1)
tg) 2 + 4 + 6 + . + 2n = n tn + 1)
th) 1
2
+ 4
2
+ ?
2
+ . + t3n 2)
2
=
n n n 6 3 1
2
2

@ E
ti) 3 ` 6 + 6 ` 9 + . + 3n t3n + 3) = 3n tn + 1) tn + 2)
t j) 1 ` 2 + 2 ` 3 + 3 ` 4 + . + ntn + 1) =
n n n + + 1 2
3
> C > C
th) 1 ` 2 ` 3 + 2 ` 3 ` 4 + . + ntn + 1) tn + 2) =
n n n n + + + 1 2 3
4
> C > C > C
t/) 1 + 2 ` 3 + 3 ` 5 + . + nt2n 1) =
n n n + 1 4 1
6
> C > C
tn) 1 ` 3 ` 5 + 3 ` 5 ` ? + . + t2n 1) t2n + 1)t2n + 3) = n tn + 2) t2n
2
+ 4n 1).
tn) 1
2
+ t1
2
+ 2
2
) + t1
2
+ 2
2
+3
2
) + . + t1
2
+ 2
2
+ . + n
2
) =
n n n + + 1 2
12
2
> C > C
to) 1 ` 2
2
+ 2 ` 3
2
+ . + n tn + 1)
2
=
n n n n + + + 1 2 3 5
12
> C > C > C
t p) 3 ` 8 + 6 ` 11 + . + 3n t3n + 5) = 3n tn + 1) tn + 3)
tq) 1 + t1 + 4) + t1 + 4 + ?) + . + t1 + 4 + ? +.+ t3n 2)) =
n n
2
1
2
+ > C
tr) 2 + 6 + 12 + 20 + . +
n n n n n 2 2
2
1 2
3
+
+ + > C > C > C

ts) 1 +

+ + + =
1 1
2 1 1 1 1
...
2 4 2 2
n
n n
tt) 1 ` 4 + 2 ` ? + 3 ` 10 + .+ n t3n + 1) = n tn + 1)
2
.
This page
intentionally left
blank
5AJ 6DAHO
2.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
An ordInary undorsfandIng oI a sof Is a coIIocfIon oI objocfs. In our day-fo-day IIIo wo uso
phrasos IIko a sof oI ufonsIIs, a bunch oI IIowors, a sof oI books, a hord oI caffIo, a sof oI bIrds
and ofc., whIch aro aII oxampIos oI sofs.
In fho 19fh confury fho Gorman MafhomafIcIan Goorgo Canfor dovoIopod fho fhoory oI sofs
fo doIIno numbors and fo baso mafhomafIcs on a soIId IogIcaI IoundafIon. In Iafo 19fh confury,
!rogo dovoIopod fhoso Idoas Iurfhor, buf hIs work dId nof affracf much affonfIon. In 20fh
confury Borfrand RussoII rodIscovorod hIs anaIysIs IndopondonfIy. HIs works In 1903 Iod fo
fho monumonfaI work wIfh Norfh WhIfohoad fho prIncIpIa MafhomafIca a Iandmark In fho
IoundafIons oI mafhomafIcs. If was obsorvod In 1940s fhaf aII mafhomafIcs couId dovoIop Irom
fho Idoa oI sofs and mafhomafIcs was sysfomafIzod.
In fhIs chapfor wo fry fo Imparf IundamonfaI concopfs and approach fo fho probIom, fhaf Is
how fo procood Ior fho oxpocfod soIufIon as Ior as sof fhoory Is concornod. By fho way, wo wIII
sfudy and Ioarn abouf fho basIc concopfs oI sofs, somo oI fho oporafIons on sofs, Vonn dIa-
grams, CarfosIan producf oI sofs and Ifs appIIcafIons.
2.1 5ET5
CoIIocfIon oI woII doIInod objocfs Is caIIod a sof. WoII doIInod moans dIsfIncf and dIsfInguIsh-
abIo. Tho objocfs aro caIIod as oIomonfs oI fho sof. Tho ordorIng oI oIomonfs In a sof doos nof
chango fho sof, i.e., fho ordorIng oI oIomonfs can nof pIay a vIfaI roIo In fho sof fhoory. !or
oxampIo
A = a, b, c, J and B = b, a, J, c aro oquaI sofs.
Tho symboI e sfands Ior 'boIongs fo`. x e A moans x Is an oIomonf oI fho sof A. If Is obsorvod
fhaf II A bo a sof and x Is any objocf, fhon oIfhor x e A or x e A buf nof bofh. GonoraIIy sofs aro
donofod by capIfaI Ioffors A, B, C and ofc.
ConsIdor fho oxampIos oI sof:
A= 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18
20 !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs
B = x, y, :, u, o, u
N = 1, 2, 3, ..
I = ., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
In gonoraI fho sof can bo oxprossod In fwo ways, TabuIar mofhod tRosfor mofhod) and Sof-
buIIdor mofhod tSpocIIIcafIon mofhod).
2.1.1 Tabular Method
xprossIng fho oIomonfs oI a sof wIfhIn a paronfhosIs whoro fho oIomonfs aro soparafod by
commas Is known as fabuIar mofhod, rosfor mofhod or mofhod oI oxfonsIon.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo
A = 1, 3, 5, ?, 9, 11, 13, 15
2.1.2 5et 8ullder Method
xprossIng fho oIomonfs oI a sof by a ruIo or IormuIa Is known as sof-buIIdor mofhod, spocIII-
cafIon mofhod or mofhod oI InfonsIon. MafhomafIcaIIy
S = x | P tx)
whoro Ptx) Is fho proporfy fhaf doscrIbos fho oIomonfs oI fho sof. Tho symboI | sfands Ior
'such fhaf`. If Is nof possIbIo fo wrIfo ovory sof In fabuIar Iorm. ConsIdor an oxampIo
S = x | x Is an IfaIIan
Tho abovo sof S can nof bo oxprossod In fabuIar Iorm as If Is ImpossIbIo fo IIsf aII IfaIIans.
ConsIdor fho oxampIos
A = x | x = 2n + 1; 0 s n s ?; n e I
= 1, 3, 5, ?, 9, 11, 13, 15
and B = x | x =1, x = a, x = Book, x = Pon
= 1, a, Book, Pon
!rom fho socond oxampIo gIvon abovo If Is cIoar fhaf fho oIomonfs oI a sof do nof havo any
common proporfy aIso.
2.2 TYPE5 0F 5ET5
On consIdorIng roaI IIIo probIoms, If Is obsorvod fhaf fho sofs aro oI dIIIoronf fypos. KoopIng In
vIow fo fhoso probIoms, wo dIscuss dIIIoronf fypos oI sofs In fhIs socfIon.
2.2.1 Flnlte 5et
A sof whIch confaIns IInIfo numbor oI oIomonfs Is known as IInIfo sof. ConsIdor fho oxampIo oI
IInIfo sof as
A = a, b, c, J, e
2.2.2 lnflnlte 5et
A sof whIch confaIns InIInIfo numbor oI oIomonfs Is known as InIInIfo sof. ConsIdor fho oxam-
pIo oI InIInIfo sof as
N = 1, 2, 3, 4, .
I = ., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
Sof Thoory 21
2.2.3 5lngleton 5et
A sof whIch confaIns onIy ono oIomonf Is known as a sIngIofon sof. ConsIdor fho oxampIo
S = 9
2.2.4 Palr 5et
A sof whIch confaIns onIy fwo oIomonfs Is known as a paIr sof. ConsIdor fho oxampIos
S = e, j
S = a, 1, 3, 5
2.2.5 Empty 5et
A sof whIch confaIns no oIomonf Is known as ompfy sof. Tho ompfy sof Is aIso known as voId
sof or nuII sof. GonoraIIy donofod by o. ConsIdor fho oxampIos
ti) o = x . x = x
tii) o = x : x Is a monfh oI fho yoar confaInIng 368 days
2.2.6 5et of 5etS
A sof whIch confaIns sofs Is known as sof oI sofs. ConsIdor fho oxampIo
A = a, b, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, u, o, Book, Pon
2.2.7 UnlverSal 5et
A sof whIch Is suporsof oI aII fho sofs undor consIdorafIon or parfIcuIar dIscussIon Is known as
unIvorsaI sof. GonoraIIy donofod by ! or or O. GonoraIIy, fho unIvorsaI sof can bo choson
arbIfrarIIy Ior dIscussIon, buf onco choson If Is IIxod Ior dIscussIon. ConsIdor fho oxampIo:
Lof A = a, b, c
B = a, e, i, o, u
C = p, q, r, s
So, wo can fako fho unIvorsaI sof ! as a, b, c, .., :
i.e., ! = a, b, c, J, e, .., :
2.3 CAkDlNALlTY 0F A 5ET
II S bo a sof, fhon fho numbor oI oIomonfs prosonf In fho sof S Is known as cardInaIIfy oI S and
Is donofod by |S|. MafhomafIcaIIy II S = s
1
, s
2
, s
3
, ..., s
h
, fhon |S| = h; h e N.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo
Lof A = 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256
So, |A| = 8
2.3.1 Equlvalent 5etS
Two sofs A and B aro saId fo bo oquIvaIonf II fhoy confaIns oquaI numbor oI oIomonfs. In ofhor
words A and B aro saId fo bo oquIvaIonf II fhoy havo samo cardInaIIfy, i.e.|A| = |B|. Tho
oquIvaIonf sofs aro aIso known as sImIIar sofs and Is donofod as A - B.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo oI fwo sofs.
A = a, e, i, o, u
B = ?, 9, 11, 13, 15
Horo, |A| = 5 = |B|. Thus A and B aro sImIIar.
2.4 5U85ET AND 5UPEk5ET
Sof A Is saId fo bo a subsof oI B or sof B Is saId fo bo fho suporsof oI A II oach oIomonf oI A Is
aIso an oIomonf oI fho sof B. Wo wrIfo A _ B.
i.e., A _ B x e A x e B; V x e A
ConsIdor fho oxampIos
ti) Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
B = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, 8
So A _ B.
tii) Lof A = a, b, c
B = b, c, a
so, A _ B and B _ A.
tiii) Lof A = and B = 1, 2, 3
So, A _ B.
2.4.1 Equal 5etS
Two sofs A and B aro saId fo bo oquaI II and onIy II ovory oIomonf oI A Is In B and ovory
oIomonf oI B Is In A, i.e. A _ B and B _ A. MafhomafIcaIIy
A = B A _ B and B _ A
i.e., A = B x e A x e B
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = x, y, :, p, q, r
B = p, q, r, x, y, :
So, B _ A and A _ B. Thus A = B.
2.4.2 Proper 5ubSet
Sof A Is saId fo bo a propor subsof oI B II oach oIomonf oI A Is aIso an oIomonf oI B and sof B
has af Ioasf ono oIomonf whIch Is nof an oIomonf oI sof A. Wo wrIfo A c B.
MafhomafIcaIIy
A c B x e A x e B and Ior af Ioasf ono y e B y e A.
ConsIdor an oxampIo
Lof A = a, b, c, J
B = a, b, c, J, e, j, g
Horo Ior x e A wo havo x e B and y = e e B such fhaf y = e e A. Thus A c B.
Note: 1. vory sof Is a subsof oI IfsoII, i.e. A _ A.
2. mpfy sof Is a subsof oI ovory sof, i.e. o _ A.
Set Theory 23
2.5 COMPARABILITY OF SETS
Two sets A and B are said to be comparable if any one of the following relation holds.
i.e., (i) A B or (ii) B A or (iii) A = B.
Consider the following sets
A = {a, b, c, d, e}; B = {2, 3, 5} and C = {c, d, e}.
It is clear that A B, B A and A B. So, A and B are not comparable. Similarly B C,
C B or C B. So, B and C are also not comparable. At the same time it is clear that, C A,
thus A and C are comparable.
2.6 POWER SET
Power set is of great importance while studying finite state systems such as non-deterministic
finite automation. Here, we present the concept of power set that will be useful while studying
finite state systems.
If A be a set, then the set of all subsets of A is known as power set of A and is denoted
as P(A).
Mathematically, P(A) = {X : X A}
Consider the example:
Let A = {a}
P(A) = { F, {a}}
Let A = {a, b}
P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {a, b}, F}
Let A = {a, b, c}
P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}, F}
From the above examples it is clear that if a set A contains n elements, then the power set
of A, i.e. P(A) contains 2
n
elements.
i.e., |A| = n |P(A)| = 2
n
.
2.7 OPERATIONS ON SETS
It is observed that set theory is a tool to solve many real life problems. In order to solve these
problems, it is essential to study different set operations. Here we discuss certain operations
such as union, intersection and difference in order to develop an algebra of sets.
2.7.1 Union
If A and B be two sets, then the union (A B) is defined as a set of all those elements which
are either in A or in B or in both.
Symbolically,
A B = {x : x A or x B}
Vonn dIagram
ConsIdor fho oxampIo:
Lof A = a, b, c, J, e
B = a, e, i, o, u
ThoroIoro, tA . B) = a, b, c, J, e, i, o, u
2.7.2 lnterSectlon
II A and B bo fwo sofs, fhon fho InforsocfIon tA B) Is doIInod as a sof oI aII fhoso oIomonfs
whIch aro common fo bofh fho sofs. SymboIIcaIIy
tA B) = x : x e A and x e B
Vonn dIagram
Lof A = a, b, c, J, e
B = a, e, i, o, u
ThoroIoro, tA B) = a, e
2.7.3 Dlfference
II A and B bo fwo sofs, fhon fho dIIIoronco tA B) Is doIInod as a sof oI aII fhoso oIomonfs oI A
whIch aro nof In B. SymboIIcaIIy, tA B) = x | x e A and x e B
Vonn dIagram
Sof Thoory 25
Lof A = a, b, c, J, e, j
B = a, c, i, o, u, h
ThoroIoro, tA B) = b, J, e, j
2.7.4 5ymmetrlc Dlfference
II A and B bo fwo sofs, fhon fho symmofrIc dIIIoronco tA A B) or tA B) Is doIInod as a sof oI aII
fhoso oIomonfs whIch aro oIfhor In A or In B buf nof In bofh.
SymboIIcaIIy,
tA B) = tA B) . tB A)
Vonn dIagram
Lof A = a, b, c, h, p, q, r, s
B = b, h, q, n, n, o, t
So, tA B) = a, c, p, r, s
and tB A) = n, n, o, t
ThoroIoro, tA B) = tA B) . tB A)
= a, c, p, r, s, n, n, o, t
2.7.5 Complement of a 5et
II A bo a sof, fhon fho compIomonf oI A Is gIvon as A
c
, A or A and Is doIInod as a sof oI aII fhoso
oIomonfs oI fho unIvorsaI sof ! whIch aro nof In A. SymboIIcaIIy,
A
c
= x | x e ! and x e A
Vonn dIagram
Lof A = b, c, h, J, i, p, q, r, s, t
So, wo can fako fho unIvorsaI sof ! = a, b, c, ., x, y, :.
ThoroIoro, A
c
= ! A
= a, e, j, g, h, j, /, n, n, o, u, o, u, x, y, :
2.7.6 Theorem
Lof A, B and C bo subsofs oI fho unIvorsaI sof !. Thon fho IoIIowIng Imporfanf Iaws hoId.
ta) CommufafIvo Iaws:
tA . B) = tB . A) ; tA B) = tB A)
tb) AssocIafIvo Iaws:
A . tB . C) = tA . B) . C ; A tB C) = tA B) C
tc) Idompofonf Iaws:
tA . A) = A ; tA A) = A
tJ) IdonfIfy Iaws:
tA . o) = A ; tA !) = A
te) Bound Iaws:
tA . !) = ! ; tA o) = o
tj) AbsorpfIon Iaws:
A . tA B) = A ; A tA . B) = A
tg) CompIomonf Iaws:
tA . A
c
) = ! ; tA A
c
) = o
th) InvoIufIon Iaw:
tA
c
)
c
= A
ti) IsfrIbufIvo Iaws :
ti) A . tB C) = tA . B) tA . C)
tii) A tB . C) = tA B) . tA C)
ProoI: ProoIs oI ta), tb), tc), tJ), te), tj ), tg) and th) aro ImmodIafo consoquoncos oI fho doIInI-
fIons. Wo provo onIy fho dIsfrIbufIvo Iaws.
ti) x e A . tB C)
. x e A or x e tB C)
. x e A or tx e B and x e C)
. tx e A or x e B) and tx e A or x e C)
. x e tA . B) and x e tA . C)
. x e tA . B) tA . C)
So, A . tB C) = tA . B) tA . C)
tii) x e A tB . C)
. x e A and x e tB . C)
. x e A and tx e B or x e C)
. tx e A and x e B) or tx e A and x e C)
. x e tA B) or x e tA C)
. x e tA B) . tA C)
So, A tB . C) = tA B) . tA C)
2.7.7 Theorem
Lof A, B and C bo subsofs oI fho unIvorsaI sof !. Thon fho IoIIowIng proporfIos hoId.
ta) tA A A) = o tb) tA A B) = tB A A)
tc) A tB A C) = tA B) A tA C) tJ) tA A B) = tA . B) tA B)
ProoI: ProoIs oI ta) and tb) aro ImmodIafo consoquoncos oI doIInIfIons. Horo, wo provo
tc) and tJ).
Sof Thoory 2?
tc) x e A tB A C)
. x e A and x e tB A C)
. x e A and x e ttB C) . tC B))
. x e A and tx e tB

C) or x e tC B))
. tx e A and x e tB C)) or tx e A and x e tC B))
. tx e A and tx e B and x e C))
or tx e A and tx e C and x e B))
. ttx e A and x e B) and tx e A and x e C))
or ttx e A and x e C) and tx e A and x e B))
. tx e tA B) and x e tA C)) or
tx e tA C) and x e tA B))
. x e ttA B) tA C)) or x e ttA C) tA B))
. x e ttA B) tA C)) . ttA C) tA B))
. x e tA B) A tA C)
So, A tB A C) = tA B) A tA C).
tJ) x e tA . B) tA B)
. x e tA . B) and x e tA B)
. x e tA . B) and tx e A or x e B)
. tx e tA . B) and x e A) or tx e tA . B) and x e B)
. ttx e A or x e B) and x e A)
or ttx e A or x e B) and x e B)
. ttx e A and x e A) or tx e B and x e A))
or ttx e A and x e B) or tx e B and x e B))
. tx e o or x e tB A)) or tx e tA B) or x e o)
. x e to . tB A)) or x e ttA B) . o)
. x e tB A) . tA B) By IdonfIfy Iaw
. x e tB A A)
. x e tA A B) By commufafIvo Iaw
So, tA A B) = tA . B) tA B)
2.7.8 de Morgan'S Law
Lof A and B bo subsofs oI fho unIvorsaI sof !. Thon
ta) tA . B)
c
= tA
c
B
c
)
tb) tA B)
c
= tA
c
. B
c
)
ProoI: ta) x e tA . B)
c
. x e tA . B)
. x e A and x e B
. x e A
c
and x e B
c
. x e A
c
B
c
So, tA . B)
c
= tA
c
B
c
)
tb) x e tA B)
c
. x e tA B)
. x e A or x e B
. x e A
c
or x e B
c
. x e A
c
. B
c
So, tA B)
c
= tA
c
. B
c
)
2.8 Dl5J0lNT 5ET5
Two sofs A and B aro caIIod dIsjoInf or non-ovorIappIng II bofh sofs havo no common oIomonf.
MafhomafIcaIIy, tA B) = o.
Vonn dIagram
2.9 APPLlCATl0N 0F 5ET THE0kY
Lof A and B bo IInIfo sofs. Lof ntA) bo fho numbor oI dIsfIncf oIomonfs oI fho sof A. Thon
ntA . B) = n tA) + ntB) ntA B).
!urfhor II A and B aro dIsjoInf, fhon
ntA . B) = n tA) + ntB)
ProoI: A and B bo IInIfo sofs and ntA) roprosonf fho numbor oI dIsfIncf oIomonfs oI fho sof A.
!
!rom fho abovo Vonn dIagram If Is cIoar fhaf
ntA) = ntA B) + ntA B)
and ntB) = ntB A) + ntA B)
and ntA . B) = ntA B) + ntA B) + ntB A)
= ntA) ntA B) + ntA B) + ntB) ntA B)
= ntA) + ntB) ntA B)
i.e., ntA . B) = ntA) + ntB) ntA B)
A B
A B
B A
Sof Thoory 29
II A and B aro dIsjoInf, fhon tA B) = o i.e., ntA B) = 0
ThoroIoro, ntA . B) = ntA) + ntB).
2.10 Pk0DUCT 0F 5ET5
Tho producf oI sofs Is doIInod wIfh fho hoIp oI an ordor paIr. An ordor paIr Is usuaIIy donofod
by tx, y) such fhaf tx, y) = ty, x) whonovor x = y. Tho producf oI fwo sofs A and B Is fho sof oI aII
fhoso ordor paIrs whoso IIrsf coordInafo Is an oIomonf oI A and fho socond coordInafo Is an
oIomonf oI B. Tho sof Is donofod by tA B). MafhomafIcaIIy,
tA B) = tx, y) | x e A and x e B
Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 5, ?
B = 4, 9, 25
So, tA B) = t1,4), t1, 9), t1, 25), t2, 4), t2, 9), t2, 25), t3, 4), t3, 9), t3, 25), t5, 4), t5, 9), t5, 25),
t?, 4), t?, 9), t?, 25)
Note: Tho producf oI sofs can bo oxfondabIo Ior n sofs A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, ......., A
n
.
Thus, A
1
A
2
A
3
. A
n
can bo doIInod as
A
1
A
2
A
3
. A
n
= tx
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
) | x
1
e A
1
and x
2
e A
2
and x
3
e A
3
and . and x
n
e
A
n
whoro tx
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
) Is caIIod as n-fupIo oI x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
. To oxpIaIn fhIs consIdor fho
oxampIo In whIch A = a, b, c; B = 1, 2 and C = o, .
ThoroIoro, A B C = ta, 1, o), ta, 1, ), ta, 2, o), ta, 2, ), tb, 1, o), tb, 1, ), tb, 2, o), tb, 2, ),
tc, 1, o), tc, 1, ), tc, 2, o), tc, 2, ).
!rom fho abovo oxampIo, If Is vory cIoar fhaf |A B C| = |A | |B | C|.
In gonoraI, |A
1
A
2
A
3
. A
n
|= |A
1
| |A
2
| |A
3
| ... |A
n
|.
2.10.1 Theorem
Lof A, B and C bo fhroo subsofs oI fho unIvorsaI sof !. Thon
ta) A tB . C) = tA B) . tA C)
tb) A (B C) = tA B) tA C)
ProoI: ta) tx, y) e A tB . C)
. x e A and y e tB . C)
. x e A and ty e B or y e C)
. tx e A and y e B) or tx e A and y e C)
.tx, y) e tA B) or tx, y) e tA C)
.tx, y) e tA B) . tA C)
ThoroIoro, A tB . C) = tA B) . tA C).
tb) tx, y) e A tB C)
. x e A and y e tB C)
. x e A and ty e B and y e C)
. tx e A and y e B) and tx e A and y e C)
.tx, y) e tA B) and tx, y) e tA C)
.tx, y) e tA B) tA C)
ThoroIoro, A tB C) = tA B) tA C).
2.11 FUNDAMENTAL Pk0DUCT5
Lof A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, .., A
n
bo n sofs. A IundamonfaI producf oI fhoso n sofs Is an oxprossIon oI fho
Iorm tB
1
B
2
B
3
... B
n
) whoro B
i
Is oIfhor A
i
or A
i
c
.
ConsIdor an oxampIo wIfh fhroo sofs A, B and C. Tho IundamonfaI producfs oI fhoso fhroo
sofs aro as IoIIows, whIch aro 2
3
In numbor.
i.e., A B C; A
c
B C; A B
c
C; A B C
c
;
A
c
B
c
C; A B
c
C
c
; A
c
B C
c
; A
c
B
c
C
c
.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 Let A, B anJ C be any three subsets oj the unioersa/ set U. Then prooe that
(a A (B . C = (A B . (A C
(b A (B . C = (A B C
(c (A . B C = A . (B C
Solution: ta) x e A tB . C)
. x e A and tx e B and x e C)
. tx e A and x e B) and tx e A and x e C)
. x e tA B) and x e tA C)
. x e tA B) tA C)
ThoroIoro, A tB . C) = tA B) tA C)
tb) x e A tB . C)
. tx e A and x e B) and x e C
. x e tA B) and x e C
. x e tA B) C
ThoroIoro, A tB . C) = tA B) C
tc) x e tA B) C
. tx e A and x e B) and x e C
. x e A and x e tB C)
. x e A tB C)
ThoroIoro, tA B) C = A tB C)
Example 2 8hou that A
B
i
i 1
n
7
= A B
i
i 1
n
> C
1
Solution: x e A B
i
i
n
1
7
. x e A and x e B
i
i
n
1
7
. x e A and x e tB
1
. B
2
. B
3
. . . B
n
)
. x e A and tx e B
1
and x e B
2
and x e B
3
and . and x e B
n
)
Sof Thoory 31
. tx e A and x e B
1
) and tx e A and x e B
2
) and .. and tx e A and x e B
n
)
. x e tA B
1
) and x e tA B
2
) and . and x e tA B
n
)
. x e tA B
1
) tA B
2
) . x e tA B
n
)
. x e A B
i
i
n
> C
1
1
ThoroIoro, A B
i
i
n
1
7
= A B
i
i
n
> C
1
1
Example 3 lj A anJ B subsets oj the unioersa/ set U, then shou that
(a (A
c
c
= A
(b A B = A . B
c
(c (A B . B = o
Solution: ta) xe tA
c
)
c
. x e A
c
. x e A
So, tA
c
)
c
= A
tb) x e tA B)
. x e A and x eB
. x e A and x e B
c
. x e tA B
c
)
So, tA B) = tA B
c
)
tc) x e tA B) B
. x e tA B) and x e B
. tx e A and x e B) and x e B
. x e A and tx e B and x e B)
. x e A and x e o
. x e

tA o)
. x e o
So, tA B) B = o
Example 4 Let A, B be the subsets oj the unioersa/ set U, then prooe that
(a A (A . B = A . B
c
(b (A . B
c
c
= A
c
. B
Solution: ta) x e A tA B)
. x e A and x e tA B)
. x e A and tx e A or x e B)
. tx e A and x e A) or tx e A and x e B)
. x e o or tx e A and x e B
c
)
. x e o or x e tA B
c
)
. x e o . tA B
c
)
. x e tA B
c
)
So, A tA B) = A B
c
tb) x e tA B
c
)
c
. x e tA B
c
)
. x e A or x e B
c
. x e A
c
or x e B
. x e tA
c
. B)
So, tA B
c
)
c
= tA
c
. B)
Example 5 Let A, B anJ C be three subsets oj the unioersa/ set U. Then shou that
n(A . B . C = n(A + n(B + n(C n(A . B n(B . C n(C . A + n(A . B . C
Solution: Lof tB . C) = . So, wo havo
ntA . B . C) = ntA . )
= ntA) + nt) ntA )
= ntA) + ntB . C) ntA tB . C))
= ntA) + ntB) + ntC) ntB C) nttA B) . tA C))
= ntA) + ntB) + ntC) ntB C) ntA B) ntA C) + ntA B C)
ThoroIoro, ntA . B . C) = ntA) + ntB) + ntC) ntA B) ntB C) ntC A) + ntA B C).
Example 6 ln the lEEE conjerence he/J at Neu Yorh, 600 Je/egates attenJeJ. 200 oj then
cou/J tahe tea, J60 cou/J tahe cojjee anJ 10 JiJ not tahe either cojjee or tea. Then ansuer the
jo//ouing questions.
(a Hou nany can tahe both tea anJ cojjee.
(b Hou nany can tahe tea on/y anJ
(c Hou nany can tahe cojjee on/y.
Solution: Lof T: Sof oI porsons who fako foa.
C: Sof oI porsons who fako coIIoo.
!: TofaI numbor oI doIogafos.
Honco wo havo nt!) = 500; ntT) = 200; ntC) = 350
Numbor oI doIogafos dId nof fako oIfhor coIIoo or foa = 10
ThoroIoro numbor oI doIogafos who fako oIfhor coIIoo or foa = 500 10 = 490
i.e., n tT . C) = 490
i.e., ntT) + ntC) ntT C) = 490
i.e., ntT C) = ntT) + ntC) 490 = 200 + 350 490 = 60
So, fho numbor oI porsons who fako bofh coIIoo and foa = ntT C) = 60
Numbor oI porsons fako foa onIy = ntT) ntT C) = 140
Numbor oI porsons fako coIIoo onIy = ntC) ntT C) = 290.
Example 7 lj 66% oj stuJents /ihe app/es uhere 76% /ihe grapes, then uhat percentage oj
stuJents /ihes both app/es anJ grapes:
Solution: Lof ntS) : TofaI numbor oI sfudonfs = 100
ntA) : TofaI numbor oI sfudonfs who IIko appIos = 65
ntB) : TofaI numbor oI sfudonfs who IIko grapos = ?5
ThoroIoro, ntS) = ntA . B) = ntA) + ntB) ntA B)
i.e., 100 = 65 + ?5 ntA B)
i.e., ntA B) = 40
So, 40% oI sfudonfs IIko bofh appIos and grapos.
Sof Thoory 33
Example 8 lj A = /2, J, 4, 6, 6/, B = /J, 4, 6, 6, 7/ anJ C = /4, 6, 6, 7, S/ then jinJ the jo//ouings.
(i (A . B . (A . C (ii (A . B . (A . C
(iii A (B C (io (A A B.
Solution: GIvon A = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, B = 3, 4, 5, 6, ? and C = 4, 5, 6, ?, 8
ti) tA . B) = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?
tA . C) = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, 8
ThoroIoro, tA . B) tA . C) = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?
tii) tA B) = 3, 4, 5, 6
tA C) = 4, 5, 6
ThoroIoro, tA B) . tA C) = 3, 4, 5, 6
tiii) tB C) = 3
ThoroIoro, A tB C) = 2, 4, 5, 6
tio) tA . B) = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?
tA B) = 3, 4, 5, 6
ThoroIoro, tA A B) = tA . B) tA B) = 2, ?
Example 9 FinJ the pouer sets oj the jo//ouing sets.
(i /0/
(ii /1, /1, 2// anJ
(iii /4, 1, S/.
Solution: ti) Lof A = 0
ThoroIoro, PtA) = 0, o
tii) Lof A = 1, 1, 2
So, PtA) = 1, 1, 2, A, o
tiii) Lof A = 4, 1, 8
So, PtA) = 4, 1, 8, 4, 1, 4, 8, 1, 8, A, o.
Example 10 lj A = /4, 6/, B = /7, S/ anJ C = /0, 10/, then jinJ the jo//ouings.
(a (A B . (B C anJ (b A (B . C.
Solution: GIvon A = 4, 5, B = ?, 8 and C = 9, 10
ta) tA B) = t4, ?), t4, 8), t5, ?), t5,8)
tB C) = t?, 9), t?, 10), t8, 9), t8, 10)
So, tA B) . tB C) =t4, ?), t4, 8), t5, ?), t5,8), t?, 9), t?, 10), t8, 9), t8, 10)
tb) tB . C) = ?, 8, 9, 10
So, A tB . C) = t4, ?), t4, 8), t4, 9), t4,10), t5,?), t5, 8), t5, 9), t5, 10).
Example 11 lj A = /1, 2, J/, B = /2, J, 4/ anJ C = /J, 4, 6/, then oerijy the proJuct /aus.
Solution: GIvon A = 1, 2, 3, B = 2, 3, 4 and C = 3, 4, 5
ThoroIoro, tB . C) = 2, 3, 4, 5 and
A tB . C) = t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4), t3, 5)
tA B) = t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4)
tA C) = t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 3), t3, 4), t3, 5)
Thus, tA B) . tA C) = t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4), t3, 5)
= A tB . C)
SImIIarIy, fho socond producf Iaw A tB C) = tA B) tA C) can bo vorIIIod.
Example 12 lj F = /a, c, e/, Q =/100, 101, 102/ anJ P = /n, c, e, 101/. Conpute ((Q . F (F . Q
P, uhere , ., anJ are ue// hnoun set theoretic binary operations.
Solution: GIvon P = a, c, e; Q = 100, 101, 102 and R = n, c, e, 101.
So, tQ . P) = 100, 101, 102, a, c, e and tP Q) = o
ThoroIoro, ttQ . P) tP Q)) = 100, 101, 102, a, c, e
Thus, ttQ . P) tP Q)) R = t100, n), t100, c), t100, e), t100, 101), t101, n), t101, c),
t101, e), t101, 101), t102, n), t102, c), t102, e), t102, 101), ta, n), ta, c), ta, e), ta, 101), tc, n), tc, c),
tc, e), tc, 101), te, n), te, c), te, e), te, 101).
Example 13 8hou the jo//ouing sets by Venn Jiagran.
(a) (A B)
c
(b) A
c
. B (c) A . B . C
Solution:
ta)
tb) tA
c
B)
tc) A B C
Example 14 ln a group oj 64 stuJents 26 can speah French on/y, 14 can speah Eng/ish on/y.
Hou nany can speah both French anJ Eng/ish:
Solution: Lof !: Sof oI sfudonfs who can spoak !ronch.
tA B)
c
A B
(A B)
C
A B
Sof Thoory 35
: Sof oI sfudonfs who can spoak ngIIsh.
Lof ntS): TofaI numbor oI sfudonfs = 64
i.e., ntS) = nt! . ) = 64
GIvon: nt! ): Numbor oI sfudonfs spoak !ronch onIy = 26
and nt !): Numbor oI sfudonfs spoak ngIIsh onIy = 14
ThoroIoro, nt! . ) = nt! ) + nt !) + nt! )
i.e., nt! ) = 64 26 14 = 24
So, 24 sfudonfs can spoak bofh !ronch and ngIIsh.
Example 15 Drau a Venn Jiagran to represent the jo//ouing jacts jor the sets F, Q, P anJ 8.
(F . Q = o, 8 _ Q _ P anJ (F . 8 = o.
Solution: GIvon condIfIons aro tP Q) = o, S _ Q _ R and tP S) = o. Tho Vonn dIagram Ior
fho abovo Iacfs Is gIvon boIow.
Example 16 lj in a city 60% oj the resiJents can speah Oernan anJ 60% can speah French.
What percentage oj resiJents can speah both the /anguages, ij 20% resiJents can not speah any
oj these tuo /anguages:
Solution: Lof ntS) : TofaI numbor oI rosIdonfs = 100
ntG) : TofaI numbor oI rosIdonfs who spoak Gorman = 60
nt!) : TofaI numbor oI rosIdonfs who spoak !ronch = 50
ntG . !)
c
: TofaI numbor oI rosIdonfs who cannof spoak any oI fhoso
fwo Ianguagos = 20
So, ntG . !) = ntS) ntG . !)
c
= 100 20 = 80
i.e., ntG) + nt!) ntG !) = 80
i.e., ntG !) = 60 + 50 80 = 30
ThoroIoro, 30% oI fho rosIdonfs can spoak bofh fho Ianguagos Gorman and !ronch.
Example 17 ln a suroey about /ihing jor co/ours, it uas jounJ that eoeryone uho uas
suroeyeJ haJ a /ihing jor at /east one oj the three co/ours nane/y PeJ, Oreen anJ B/ue. Further
J0% /iheJ PeJ, 40% /iheJ Oreen anJ 60% /iheJ B/ue. Further 10% peop/e /iheJ both PeJ anJ
Oreen, 6% /iheJ both Oreen anJ B/ue anJ 10% /iheJ both PeJ anJ B/ue. FinJ the percentage oj
the suroeyeJ peop/e uho /ihe a// the co/ours.
Solution: Lof R: Sof oI poopIo who IIko Rod coIour
G: Sof oI poopIo who IIko Groon coIour
B: Sof oI poopIo who IIko BIuo coIour
and S: Sof oI aII poopIo who was survoyod.
ThoroIoro, ntS) = 100; ntR) = 30; ntG) = 40; ntB) = 50; ntR G) = 10; ntG B) = 5;
ntR B) = 10.
Thus ntS) = ntR . G . B) = 100
i.e., ntR) + ntG) + ntB) ntR G) ntG B) ntR B) + ntR G B)
= 100
i.e., ntR G B) = 100 30 40 50 + 10 + 5 + 10 = 5
So, 5% oI fho survoyod poopIo IIko aII fho coIours, I.o. Rod, Groon and BIuo.
Example 18 lj A c B anJ B c C, then shou that A c C.
Solution: GIvon B c C, i.e. x e B = x e C
AgaIn A c B, i.e. xe A = x e B V x e A
i.e., x e A = x e B = x e C
i.e., x e A = x e C
ThoroIoro, A c C.
Example 19 For a// sets A anJ B prooe that A B A B .
Solution: tx, y) e A B
. tx, y) e

A B
. x e A and y e B
. x e A and y e B
. tx, y) e A B
So, tx, y) e A B . tx, y) e A B
ThoroIoro, A B = A B
Example 20 For a// sets A, B anJ C prooe that A (B C = (A B (A C.
Solution: tx, y) e A tB C)
. x e A and y e tB C)
. x e

A and ty e B and y e C)
. tx e A and y e B) and tx e A and y e C)
. tx, y) e tA B) and tx, y) e tA C)
. tx, y) e tA B) tA C)
ThoroIoro, A tB C) = tA B) tA C).
Example 21 ln a group oj 101 stuJents, 10 are tahing Eng/ish, Conputer 8cience anJ Music,
J6 are tahing Eng/ish anJ Conputer 8cience, 20 are tahing Eng/ish anJ Music, 1S are tahing
Conputer 8cience anJ Music, 66 are tahing Eng/ish, 76 are tahing Conputer 8cience anJ 6J
are tahing Music. Then ansuer the jo//ouings
(a Hou nany are tahing Eng/ish anJ Music but not Conputer 8cience.
(b Hou nany are tahing Conputer 8cience anJ Music but not Eng/ish.
(c Hou nany are tahing Conputer 8cience anJ neither Eng/ish nor Music.
(J Hou nany are tahing none oj the three subjects.
Solution: Lof S: Sof oI sfudonfs
: Sof oI sfudonfs fakIng ngIIsh
C: Sof oI sfudonfs fakIng Compufor ScIonco
M: Sof oI sfudonfs fakIng MusIc.
Sof Thoory 3?
GIvon fhaf ntS) = 191; nt) = 65; ntC) = ?6; ntM) = 63; nt C M) = 10; nt C) = 36;
nt M) = 20; ntC M) = 18
ta) Numbor oI sfudonfs fakIng ngIIsh and MusIc buf nof Compufor ScIonco
= nt M) nt C M) = 20 10 = 10
tb) Numbor oI sfudonfs fakIng Compufor ScIonco and MusIc buf nof ngIIsh
= ntC M) nt C M) = 18 10 = 8
tc) Numbor oI sfudonfs fakIng Compufor ScIonco and noIfhor ngIIsh nor MusIc
= ntC) nt C) ntC M) + nt C M) = ?6 36 18 + 10 = 32
tJ) Numbor oI sfudonfs fakIng nono oI fho fhroo subjocfs
= nt . C . M)
c
= ntS) nt . C . M)
= ntS) nt) + ntC) + ntM) nt C) ntC M) nt M) + nt C M)
= 191 t65 + 63 + ?6 20 36 18 + 10)
= 51.
Example 22 Exanine uhether the jo//ouing sets are equioa/ent or not.
(a A = / x | x
2
7x + 12 = 0, x c N/ (b B = /x | x = a anJ x = b/
(c C = /a, b, c, J, e/ (J D = /x | x
2
4 = 0, x c l/
Solution: GIvon fhaf A = x | x
2
?x + 12 = 0; x e N
ThoroIoro A = 3, 4
i.e., |A| = 2
SImIIarIy B = x|x = a and x = b
= a, b
i.e., |B| = 2
AIso C = a, b, c, J, e
i.e., |C| = 5
AgaIn = x|x
2
4 = 0; x e I = 2, 2
i.e., || = 2
ThoroIoro, |A| = |B| = || = 2 = |C| = 5; So A, B and aro oquIvaIonf.
Example 23 For a// 8ets A anJ B prooe that (A . B . (B A = B.
Solution: tA B) . tB A) = tA B) . tB A
c
)
= ttA B) . B) ttA B) . A
c
) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= B ttA B) . A
c
) AbsorpfIon Iaw
= B ttA . A
c
) tB . A
c
)) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= B t! tB . A
c
)) CompIomonf Iaw
= B tB . A
c
)
= B AbsorpfIon Iaw
Example 24 By app/ying properties oj sets prooe that (A B . (B A = o jor a// sets A anJ B.
Solution: tA B) tB A) = tA B
c
) tB A
c
)
= A tB
c
tB A
c
)) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= A ttB
c
B) A
c
) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= A to A
c
) CompIomonf Iaw
= tA o) Bound Iaw
= o Bound Iaw
Example 25 For a// sets X, Y anJ Z prooe that X . (Y Z = (X . Y (X . Z.
Solution: x e X tY Z)
. x e X and x e tY Z)
. x e X and tx e Y and x e Z)
. tx e X and x e Y) and tx e X and x e Z)
. x e tX Y) and x e tX Z)
. x e tX Y) tX Z)
ThoroIoro, X tY Z) = tX Y) tX Z)
Example 26 For a// sets X, Y anJ Z prooe that X (Y . Z = (X Y . Z
c
.
Solution: x e X tY . Z)
. x e X and x e tY . Z)
. x e X and tx e Y and x e Z)
. tx e X and x e Y) and x e Z
. x e tX Y) and x e Z
c
. x e tX Y) Z
c
ThoroIoro, X tY . Z) = tX Y) Z
c
.
Example 27 Deternine the equa/ity jor the jo//ouing pair oj sets.
A = /1, 2, J/ anJ B = /x|x c N, x
J
6 x
2
+ 11 x 6 = 0/
Solution: GIvon A = 1, 2, 3 and
B = x|x e N; x
3
6 x
2
+ 11 x 6 = 0
= x|x e N; tx 1)tx 2)tx 3) =0
= 1, 2, 3
ThoroIoro, sofs A and B aro oquaI as A _ B and B _ A.
Example 28 Express A . (B C as the union oj junJanenta/ proJucts.
Solution: Tho IIguro gIvon boIow roprosonfs fho Vonn dIagram Ior A . tB C). !rom fhIs If
Is cIoar fhaf A . tB C) consIsfs oI fho IIvo aroas oI fho Vonn dIagram corrospondIng fo fho
IundamonfaI producfs tA B C), tA B C
c
), tA B
c
C), tA
c
B C
c
) and tA B
c
C
c
).
A . tB C) Is shadod
Thus, A . tB C) = tA B C) . tA B C
c
) . tA B
c
C) . tA
c
B C
c
) . tA B
c
C
c
).
Sof Thoory 39
EXEkCl5E5
1. xpross fho IoIIowIng sofs In fabuIar Iorm.
ta) A = x| x Is a Ioffor In fho word MATHMATICS
tb) B = x| x = 2n + 1; 1 s n < 5; n e N
tc) C = x| x = Book and x = 1 and x = a and x = Pon
tJ) = x| x Is an ovon Infogor and 1 s x s 15
te) = x| x e I and x
2
+ x 20 = 0
2. xpross fho IoIIowIng sofs In sof buIIdor Iorm.
ta) A = 1, 8, 2?, 64, 125 tb) B = a, e, i, o, u
tc) C = 2, 9, 28, 65, 126 tJ) = a, b, 2, 4, 6, Book
te) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, .. tj) ! = 1, 3
3. !Ind fho powor sofs oI fho IoIIowIng sofs.
ta) o tb) h, /, n, n
tc) x| x e N and x
2
4x + 3 = 0 tJ) 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3
te) x| x Is a Ioffor oI fho word woII
4. Lof fho unIvorsaI sof ! = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, 8, 9, 10, Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, B = 2, 4, 6, 8
and C = 1, 4, ?, 10, fhon IInd fho IoIIowIngs.
ti) tA . B) tii) tA . B) C
tiii) tA . B) tA . C) tio) tA B) . tA C)
to) A tB . C) toi) tA B) C
toii) B
c
tC A) toiii) A
c
B
c
tix) AB tx) A
c
txi) C B txii) tA . B) tC B)
5. raw fho Vonn dIagram and IndIcafo fho rogIon Ior fho gIvon sofs.
ta) A . tB C) tb) A tB . C)
tc) A
c
B tJ) tA . B) B
te) tA
c
. B) tC
c
A) tj) B tC . A)
c
tg) tB . C) A th) tA . B . C)
c
6. In a group oI 1000 poopIo, fhoro aro 800 poopIo who can spoak ngIIsh and 500 poopIo
who can spoak Gorman. xcopf 100 poopIo In fho group, oach porson spoaks af Ioasf ono
oI ngIIsh and Gorman. !Ind how many poopIo can spoak bofh ngIIsh and Gorman.
?. II P = a, c, e, Q = 100, 101, 102 and R = n, c, e, 101, fhon compufo ttP . R) tP R)) Q.
8. II G = p, q, r, H = 20, ?0, 90 and K = r, ?0, s, fhon compufo tG K) tK H).
9. Lof X = a, b, c and Y = 1, 2, fhon compufo fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) X Y tb) Y X
tc) Y Y tJ) X X
te) tX A Y) Y
10. II B
1
, B
2
, ..., B
n
and A aro sofs, fhon provo fhaf A B A B

i
i
n
i
i
n
1 1
1 7
(
11. II B
1
, B
2
, ..., B
n
aro sofs, fhon provo fho IoIIowIng do Morgan's Iaws.
ta)
1 1
B
n n
i
i i = =

=

7 1
tb)
1 1
B B
n n
i i
i i = =

=

1 7
12. Let X, Y and Z be three sets. Show that X (Y Z) = (X Y) (X Z).
13. In a class of 120 students, 80 students study Mathematics, 45 study History and
20 students neither study History nor study Mathematics. What is the number of
students who study both Mathematics and History?
14. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a} and C = {a, b}, then compute the followings.
(a) A B C (b) A B B
(c) B A C (d) A A A
(e) (A B) C.
15. Examine the comparability with the following sets.
(i) A = {a, b, c} (ii) B = {a, e, i, o, u}
(iii) C = {b, c, o, u} (iv) D = {b, c, i, o, u, k}.
16. In a class containing 100 students, 30 play tennis; 40 play cricket; 40 do athletics;
6 play tennis and cricket; 12 play cricket and do athletics; and 10 play tennis and do
athletics; while 14 play no game or do athletics at all. How many play cricket, tennis
and do athletics?
17. If in a city 70% of the residents can speak French and 50% can speak English, what
percentage of residents can speak both the languages, if 10% residents cannot speak
any of these two languages?
18. Let X, Y, Z and T be four sets. Then prove that (X Z) (Y T) = (X Y) (Z T).
19. Write the following sets as the union of fundamental products.
(a) A (B C) (b) A
c
(B C)
(c) A (B C) (d) A (B C).
20. Identify the smallest set X containing the sets.
{Book, Pen}; {Pen, Pencil, Box}; {Book, Box, Ball}.
21. One hundred students were asked whether they had taken courses in any of the three
subjects, Mathematics, Computer Science and Information Technology. The results
were given below. 45 had taken Mathematics; 18 had taken Mathematics and Computer
Science; 38 had taken Computer Science; 21 had taken Information Technology; 9 had
taken Mathematics and Information Technology; 4 had taken Computer Science and
Information Technology and 23 had taken no courses in any of the subjects. Draw a
Venn diagram that will show the results of the survey.
Binary Relation
3
3.0 INTRODUCTION
After the development of set theory we shall try to develop another concept based on it. In this
chapter we will introduce an important modeling in mathematics known as relation. This has
tremendous application in Computer Science. The relations which are used in Mathematics and
Computer Science are less than, is a subset of, is perpendicular to, is equal to, and so on.
Table
Student Names Subjects Taken
Mary Computer Science
Smith Mathematics
Loreena Computer Science
Finzi Human Resource
Adams Marketing
Brown Mathematics
Mary Mathematics
A relation can be thought of as a table. Consider the Table given above in which the first
column represent the student names and the second column represent the subject taken by
the students. From the table it is clear that Mary is taking Computer Science and Mathemat-
ics, Loreena is taking Computer Science whereas Smith is taking Mathematics. This is
nothing but a set of ordered pairs. We define a relation to be a set of ordered pairs.
Mostly the relations we come across are defined with two entities. We call such relation as
binary relation or simply relation.
3.1 BINARY RELATION
Let A and B be two sets. Then any subset R of the Cartesian product (A B) is a relation
(binary relation) from the set A to the set B. Symbolically R (A B).
i.e., R = {(x, y) | x A and y B}
II tx, y) e R, fhon wo wrIfo x R y and say fhaf x Is roIafod fo y. II tx, y) e R, fhon wo wrIfo
x 4 y and say fhaf x Is nof roIafod fo y. II A = B, fhon R Is a roIafIon tbInary roIafIon) on A.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and B = 5, 6, ?, 8, 9 and Iof fho roIafIon R Irom fho
sof A fo fho sof B as
R = tx, y) | x e A and y = 2x + 3 e B
i.e., R = t1, 5), t2, ?), t3, 9), t4, 11), t5, 13)
i.e., R _ A B
3.1.1 Domaln of a kelatlon
Lof R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. Thon fho sof oI aII IIrsf consfIfuonfs oI fho
ordorod paIrs prosonf In fho roIafIon R Is known as domaIn oI R . onofod by dom. R or tR).
MafhomafIcaIIy,
tR) = x| tx, y) e R, Ior x e A
i.e., tR) _ A
3.1.2 kange of a kelatlon
Lof R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. Thon fho sof oI aII socond consfIfuonfs oI fho
ordorod paIrs prosonf In fho roIafIon R Is known as rango oI R. onofod by rng.R or RtR).
MafhomafIcaIIy,
RtR) = y| tx, y) e R, Ior y e B
i.e., R tR) _ B
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = a, b, c, J and B = 5, 6, ?. Lof us doIIno a roIafIon R Irom fho
sof A fo fho sof B as boIow.
R = ta, 5), ta, 6), tc, 6), tJ, 6)
So, tR) = a, c, J and RtR) = 5, 6
3.2 lNVEk5E kELATl0N
Lof R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. Thon fho Invorso oI fho roIafIon R Is a roIafIon
Irom fho sof B fo fho sof A. If Is donofod by R
1
and Is doIInod as
R
1
= ty, x) | tx, y) e R
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and B = 4, 9, 16, 1?, 25
Lof us consIdor fho roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B as R = t2, 4), t3, 9), t4, 16), t3, 1?)
ThoroIoro, R
1
= t4, 2), t9, 3), t16, 4), t1?, 3).
3.2.1 Theorem
II R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B, fhon ti) tR) = RtR
1
) and tii) RtR) = tR
1
).
ProoI: GIvon fhaf R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. i.e., R _ tA B). Thus
R = tx, y) | x e A and y e B
Lof x e tR). Thon fhoro oxIsfs x e A and y e B such fhaf
BInary RoIafIon 43
tx, y) e R
ThIs ImpIIos ty, x) e R
1
i.e., x e R tR
1
)
So, x e tR) = x e R tR
1
)
Thus, tR) _ RtR
1
) . t1)
AgaIn Iof x e R tR
1
). Thon fhoro oxIsfs x e A and y e B such fhaf ty, x) e R
1
.
ThIs ImpIIos tx, y) e R
i.e., x e tR)
So, x e RtR
1
) = x e tR)
Thus, R tR
1
) _ tR) . t2)
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons t1) and t2) If Is cIoar fhaf tR) = R tR
1
)
SImIIarIy, Iof y e RtR), Thon fhoro oxIsfs x e A and y e B such fhaf tx, y) e R
ThIs ImpIIos ty, x) e R
1
i.e., y e tR
1
)
So, y e RtR) = y e tR
1
)
Thus, RtR) _ tR
1
) . t3)
AgaIn Iof y e tR
1
), Thon fhoro oxIsfs x e A and y e B such fhaf ty, x) e R
1
ThIs ImpIIos tx, y) e R
i.e., y e RtR)
So, y e tR
1
) = y e RtR)
Thus, tR
1
) _ RtR) . t4)
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons t3) and t4) If Is cIoar fhaf RtR) = tR
1
)
Note: Lof R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B . Thon tR
1
)
1
= R.
ProoI: GIvon fhaf R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. i.e. R _ tA B)
Lof tx, y) e tR
1
)
1
. ty, x) e R
1
. tx, y) e R
So, tx, y) e tR
1
)
1
. tx, y) e R
ThoroIoro, tR
1
)
1
= R
3.3 0kAPH 0F kELATl0N
Lof R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B; fhaf Is R Is a subsof oI tA B). SInco tA B) can
bo roprosonfod by fho sof oI poInfs on fho coordInafo dIagram oI tA B), wo can pIcfuro R by
omphasIzIng fhoso poInfs In fho pIano whIch boIong fo R. Tho pIcforIaI roprosonfafIon oI fho
roIafIon R on fho coordInafo dIagram oI tA B) Is known as graph oI fho roIafIon.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 3, 2, 1, 1, 2, 3 and B = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, 8, 9 and
x R y such fhaf y = x
2
. Thus wo havo
R = t 1, 1), t1, 1), t 2, 4), t2, 4), t 3, 9), t3,9)
So, fho graph oI R Is roprosonfod on fho coordInafo dIagram oI tA B) as shown In fho
IoIIowIng !Ig. 1.
Figure - 1
B
A
8
6
4
2
0
10
4 2 2 4
ConsIdor anofhor oxampIo: Lof A = x| x Is a roaI numbor and x R y such fhaf 2x + 3y s 6.
Thus, wo havo R = tx, y) | 2x + 3y s 6 and x, y e A .
So, fho graph oI R Is roprosonfod on fho coordInafo dIagram oI tA A) as shown In fho
IoIIowIng !Ig. 2.
A
A
2
Figure - 2
3
2
0
0
1 2 4 2 6 4 8
1
4
2
3
5
3, 0
0, 2
3, 4
3.4 KlND5 0F kELATl0N
In fho sfudy oI dafabaso sysfoms, kInds oI roIafIon pIay a vIfaI roIo. In ordor fo gof a cIoar Idoa
on dafabaso sysfoms, horo wo dIscuss dIIIoronf kInds oI roIafIon. A roIafIon R Irom a sof A fo
a sof B may bo oI Iour kInds.
ta) Ono-Ono tb) Ono-Many
tc) Many-Ono tJ) Many-Many
Tho roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo Ono-Ono roIafIon II tx
1
, y
1
) e R,
tx
2
, y
2
) e R, fhon y
1
= y
2
= x
1
= x
2
Tho roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo Ono-Many roIafIon II tx
1
, y
1
) e R,
tx
1
, y
2
) e R Ior somo x
1
e A and y
1
, y
2
e B wIfh y
1
= y
2
Tho roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo Many-Ono roIafIon II tx
1
, y
1
) e R, tx
2
,
y
1
) e R Ior somo y
1
e B and x
1
, x
2
e A wIfh x
1
= x
2
Tho roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo Many-Many roIafIon II tx
1
, y
1
) e R,
tx
1
, y
2
) e R, tx
2
,

y
1
) e R, and tx
2
, y
2
) e R Ior somo x
1
, x
2
e A and y
1
,

y
2
e B wIfh x
1
= x
2
and y
1
= y
2
BInary RoIafIon 45
3.5 Akk0W DlA0kAM
Wo uso arrow dIagrams fo roprosonf roIafIons. WrIfo down fho oIomonfs oI fho sof A and fho
oIomonfs oI fho sof B In fwo dIsjoInf sofs, and fhon draw an arrow Irom x e A fo y e B
whonovor xRy.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and B = 2, 4, 6, 8. Lof us doIIno fho roIafIons
Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B as
R
1
= t1, 2), t3, 6), t4, 8)
R
2
= t2, 4), t2, 6), t2, 8), t1, 2)
R
3
= t1, 4), t2, 4), t3,4), t5, 8)
and R
4
= t1, 4), t2, 4), t1, 8), t2, 8), t5, 2)
Tho arrow dIagrams Ior fho abovo roIafIons aro gIvon abovo. !rom fho abovo dIagrams If Is
cIoar fhaf R
1
, R
2
, R
3
and R
4
aro Ono-Ono, Ono-Many, Many-Ono and Many-Many roIafIons
rospocfIvoIy.
3.6 V0lD kELATl0N
A roIafIon R Irom a sof A fo a sof B Is saId fo bo a voId roIafIon or ompfy roIafIon II R = o.
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 3, 5, ?; B = 2, 4, 8; R _ A B and x R y | x dIvIdos y; x e A,
y e B. Honco, wo obsorvo fhaf R = o _ A B Is a voId roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B.
3.7 lDENTlTY kELATl0N
Lof R bo a roIafIon on a sof A; fhaf Is R Is a subsof oI tA A). Thon fho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo
an IdonfIfy roIafIon II tx, x) e R. GonoraIIy donofod by I
A
. MafhomafIcaIIy,
I
A
= tx, x) | x e A
4
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = a, b, c and I
A
bo a roIafIon on A such fhaf I
A
= ta, a), tb, b),
tc, c). ThIs Is an IdonfIfy roIafIon on A.
3.8 UNlVEk5AL kELATl0N
A roIafIon R Irom a sof A fo a sof B Is saId fo bo an unIvorsaI roIafIon II R Is oquaI fo tA B).
Thaf Is R = tA B).
Lof A = 1, 2, 3 and B = a, b. ThoroIoro fho unIvorsaI roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof
B Is gIvon as
R = t1, a), t1, b), t2, a), t2, b), t3, a), t3, b).
3.9 kELATl0N MATklX lMATklX 0F THE kELATl0Nl
A mafrIx Is a convonIonf way fo roprosonf a roIafIon R. Such a roprosonfafIon can bo usod by
a compufor fo anaIyzo fho roIafIon.
Lof A = a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, .. , a
i
, ... , a
h

and B = b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, .. , b
j
, .. , b
/

bo fwo IInIfo sofs and R bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. Thon fho mafrIx oI fho
roIafIon R, i.e., MtR) Is doIInod as
MtR) = n
ij
oI ordor th /)
whoro n
ij
=
1
0
;
;
II R
II R
a b
a b
i j
i j
/
In ofhor words IaboI fho rows oI rocfanguIar array by fho oIomonfs oI A and fho coIumns by
fho oIomonfs oI B. ach posIfIon oI fho array Is fo bo IIIIod wIfh a 1 tono) or 0 tzoro) accordIng
as a e A Is roIafod or nof roIafod fo b e B. ConsIdor fho oxampIo:
Lof A = 1, 2, 3; B = a, b, c, J, e and R _ tA B) such fhaf R = t1, a), t1, J), t2, b), t3, c), t3, J).
So fho mafrIx oI fho abovo roIafIon R Is gIvon as
MtR) =
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
1 1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 1 0
a b c J e
3.10 C0MP05lTl0N 0F kELATl0N5
Lof R
1
bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B and R
2
bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof B fo fho sof
C. Thaf Is R
1
Is a subsof oI tA B) and R
2
Is a subsof oI tB C). Thon fho composIfIon oI R
1
and
R
2
Is gIvon by R
1
R
2
and Is doIInod by
R
1
R
2
= tx, :) e tA C) | Ior somo y e B, tx, y) e R
1
and ty, :) e R
2
ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 1, 2, 4, 5, ?;

B = a, b, c, J, e
and C = 1, 4, 16, 25
ConsIdor fho roIafIons R
1
: A B and R
2
: B C as
BInary RoIafIon 4?
R
1
= t1, a), t1, c), t2, J), t2, e), t5, J) and R
2
= tc, 1), tJ, 4), te, 25). Tho arrow dIagram Is
gIvon as
1
2
4
5
7
a
b
c
d
e
1
4
16
25
A B C
R
2
R
2
So, R
1
R
2
= t1, 1), t2, 4), t2, 25), t5, 4)
3.10.1 CompoSltlon of kelatlonS and kelatlon Matrlx
Lof R
1
2
bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof B fo fho sof
C. Thaf Is R
1
Is a subsof oI tA B) and R
2
Is a subsof oI tB C). Thon fho composIfIon oI R
1
and
R
2
Is gIvon by R
1
R
2
and fho mafrIx oI fho composIfIon R
1
R
2
Is doIInod as
M tR
1
R
2
) = M tR
1
) M tR
2
)
and ropIaco aII nonzoro onfrIos by 1 In M tR
1
R
2
), whoro M tR
1
) Is fho mafrIx oI fho roIafIon
R
1
and M tR
2
) Is fho mafrIx oI fho roIafIon R
2
.
ConsIdor fho samo oxampIo sfafod abovo; wo havo
M tR
1
) =
1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
and M tR
2
) =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
So, M tR
1
R
2
) = M tR
1
) M tR
2
)
=
1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
ThoroIoro, R
1
R
2
= t1, 1), t2, 4), t2, 25), t5, 4).
3.10.2 Theorem
Lof R
1
and R
2
aro roIafIons Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. Lof R
3
and R
4
aro roIafIons Irom fho sof
B fo fho sof C. II R
1
_ R
2
and R
3
_ R
4
fhon R
1
R
3
_ R
2
R
4
.
ProoI: GIvon R
1
and R
2
aro roIafIons Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. R
3
and R
4
aro roIafIons Irom
fho sof B fo fho sof C.
Supposo fhaf R
1
_ R
2
and R
3
_ R
4
.
Lof tx, :) e R
1
R
3
Thon Ior somo y e B, wo havo tx, y) e R
1
and ty, :) e R
3
. ThoroIoro wo havo tx, y) e R
1
_ R
2
and ty, :) e R
3
_ R
4
.
R
2
R
1
i.e., tx, y) e R
2
and ty, :) e R
4
.
ThIs ImpIIos tx, :) e R
2
R
4
.
Honco tx, :) e R
1
R
3
= tx, :) e R
2
R
4
i.e., R
1
R
3
_ R
2
R
4
.
3.10.3 Theorem
Lof R
1
bo roIafIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B and R
2
bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof B fo fho sof C.
Thon,
R R
1 2
1

= R
2
1
R
1
1
.
ProoI: Lof R
1
2
bo a roIafIon Irom fho sof B fo
fho sof C.
Our cIaIm: R R
1 2
1

= R
2
1
R
1
1
.
i.e., R R
1 2
1

_ R
2
1
R
1
1
and R
2
1
R
1
1
_ R R
1 2
1

Lof tx, :) e R R
1 2
1

ThIs ImpIIos t:, x) e R

1
R
2
. Thon Ior somo y e B wo havo
t:, y) e R
1

and ty, x) e R
2
= ty, :) e R
1
1
and tx, y) e R
2
1
i.e., tx, y) e R
2
1
and ty, :) e R
1
1
2
1
R
1
1
ThoroIoro, tx, :) e R R
1 2
1

= tx, :) e R
2
1
R
1
1
i.e., R R
1 2
1

_ R
2
1
R
1
1
.ti)
AgaIn Iof tx, :) e R
2
1
R
1
1
. Thon Ior somo y e B wo havo
tx, y) e R
2
1
and ty, :) e R
1
1
= ty, x) e R
2
and t:, y) e R
1
i.e., t:, y) e R
1
and ty, x) e R
2
ThIs ImpIIos t:, x) e R
1
R
2
i.e., tx, :) e tR
1
R
2
)
1
ThoroIoro, tx, :) e R
2
1
R
1
1
= tx, :) e R R
1 2
1

i.e., R
2
1
R
1
1
_ R R
1 2
1

.tii)
Thus Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof R R
1 2
1

= R
2
1
R
1
1
.
3.11 TYPE5 0F kELATl0N5
ThIs socfIon dIscussos a numbor oI dIIIoronf Imporfanf fypos oI roIafIons on a sof A fhaf aro
Imporfanf Ior fho sfudy oI IInIfo sfafo sysfoms.
3.11.1 keflexlve kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo roIIoxIvo II tx, x) e R Ior ovory oIomonf x e A.
i.e., x R x V x e A
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng roIafIons on fho sof A = 1, 3, 5, ?
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t5, 5), t5, ?)
BInary RoIafIon 49
R
2
= t1, 3), t1, 5), t5, ?), t3, ?)
R
3
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t3, 3), t5, 5), t5, ?), t1, ?), t?, ?)
!rom fho abovo roIafIons If Is cIoar fhaf R
3
Is a roIIoxIvo roIafIon. R
1
Is nof a roIIoxIvo
roIafIon as t3, 3) e R
1
and t?, ?) e R
1
. SImIIarIy, R
2
Is aIso nof roIIoxIvo.
3.11.2 5ymmetrlc kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo symmofrIc II tx, y) e R fhon ty, x) e R.
i.e., x R y = y R x.
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t3, 5), t3, 1), t5, 3), t5, 5)
R
2
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t3, 1), t3, 5), t5, 3), t5, ?), t?, ?)
1
Is a symmofrIc roIafIon, buf R
2
Is nof a symmof-
rIc roIafIon as t5, ?) e R
2
= t?, 5) e R
2
.
3.11.3 TranSltlve kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo fransIfIvo II tx, y) e R and ty, :) e R fhon tx, :) e R.
i.e., x R y and y R : = x R :
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng roIafIons on fho sof A = 1, 3, 5, ?.
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t1, ?), t3, 3), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, 3), t5, 5), t5, ?)
R
2
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t3, 5), t5, 5), t?, ?)
1
Is a fransIfIvo roIafIon. Tho roIafIon R
2
Is nof
fransIfIvo as t1, 3) e R
2
, t3, 5) e R
2
= t1, 5) e R
2
.
3.11.4 Antlkeflexlve kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo anfI-roIIoxIvo or IrroIIoxIvo II tx, x) e R Ior ovory
oIomonf x e A.
i.e., x / R x V x e A
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, ?), t3, 3), t5, 5), t5, ?), t?, ?)
R
2
= t1, 3), t1, 5), t5, ?), t3, ?)
R
3
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t?, ?)
2
Is an anfI-roIIoxIvo roIafIon. R
3
Is nof an anfI-
roIIoxIvo roIafIon as t1, 1) e R
3
and t?, ?) e R
3
. SImIIarIy, R
1
Is nof an anfI-roIIoxIvo roIafIon.
3.11.5 ASymmetrlc kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo asymmofrIc II tx, y) e R fhon ty, x) e R.
i.e., x R y = y / R x
R
1
= t1, 3), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, ?)
R
2
= t1, 3), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, 3), t5, ?)
1
Is an asymmofrIc roIafIon. R
2
Is nof an asymmof-
rIc roIafIon as t3, 5) e R
2
= t5, 3) e R
2
.
3.11.6 Antl5ymmetrlc kelatlonS
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo anfI-symmofrIc roIafIon II tx, y) e R and ty, x) e R,
fhon x = y.
i.e., x R y and y R x = x = y.
R
1
= t1,1), t1, 3), t3, 5), t5, 5), t5, ?)
R
2
= t1, 1), t3, 3), t?, ?)
R
3
= t3, 3), t3, 5), t5, 3), t5, ?), t?, 5), t?, ?)
1
and R
2
aro anfI-symmofrIc. R
3
Is nof an anfI-
symmofrIc roIafIon as t3, 5) e R and t5, 3) e R, buf 3 = 5. SImIIarIy t5, ?) e R and t?, 5) e R, buf
5 = ?.
3.12 TYPE5 0F kELATl0N5 AND kELATl0N MATklX
Lof A = a
1
, a
2
, . , a
i
, .. , a
j
, .. , a
n
bo a non-ompfy sof and R bo a roIafIon doIInod on fho
sof A. Honco fho mafrIx oI fho roIafIon R roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng a
1
, a
2
, . , a
i
, .. , a
j
, .. ,
a
n
Is doIInod as
MtR) = n
ij

n n
whoro n
ij
=
1 II R
0 II R
i j
i j
a a
a a
3.12.1 keflexlve kelatlonS

Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo roIIoxIvo II n
ii
= 1 V 1 s i s n
i.e., aII oIomonfs oI fho maIn dIagonaI In fho roIafIon mafrIx MtR) aro 1.
3.12.2 5ymmetrlc kelatlonS
Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo symmofrIc II n
ij
= n
ji
V 1 s i s n and 1 s j s n.
In ofhor words fho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo symmofrIc II MtR) = MtR)
T
, whoro MtR)
T
roprosonfs fho fransposo oI fho roIafIon mafrIx MtR).
3.12.3 TranSltlve kelatlon
Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo fransIfIvo II n
ij
= 1 and n
jh
= 1, fhon n
ih
= 1 Ior 1 s i s n; 1 s j s n
and 1 s h s n.
In ofhor words fho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo fransIfIvo II and onIy II R
2

_ R. i.e. Whonovor
onfry i, j In

MtR)
2
Is non-zoro, onfry i, j In MtR) Is aIso non-zoro.
Lof R bo a roIafIon on fho sof A and R Is fransIfIvo.
Lof tx, :) e R
2
= R
.
R.
So, fhoro oxIsfs y e A such fhaf tx, y) e R and ty, :) e R
Thus tx, :) e R 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., tx, :) e R
2
= tx, :) e R
ThoroIoro, R
2
_ R.
BInary RoIafIon 51
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf R
2
_ R.
Lof tx, y) e R and ty, :) e R
.
R = R
2
i.e., tx, :) e R
2
_ R
i.e., tx, :) e R
ThoroIoro, R Is fransIfIvo.
3.12.4 Antlkeflexlve kelatlonS
Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo anfI-roIIoxIvo II n
ii
= 0 V 1 s i s n
i.e., aII oIomonfs oI fho maIn dIagonaI In roIafIon mafrIx MtR) aro 0 tzoro).
3.12.5 ASymmetrlc kelatlonS
Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo asymmofrIc II n
ij
= 1, fhon n
ji
= 0 and n
ii
= 0.
3.12.6 Antl5ymmetrlc kelatlonS
Tho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo anfI-symmofrIc II a
i
= a
j
fhon oIfhor n
ij
= 0 or n
ji
= 0 and
n
ij
= 1 = n
ji
ImpIIos a
i
= a
j
.
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, ?), t3, 3), t3, ?), t5, 5), t5, ?), t?, ?)
R
2
= t1, 1), t1, 5), t1, ?), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, 1), t5, 3), t?, 1), t?, 3)
R
3
= t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t1, ?), t3, 1), t3, 3), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, ?)
R
4
= t1, 3), t1, ?), t3, ?), t5, ?), t?, 1)
R
5
= t1, 3), t3, 5), t5, ?), t?, 1), t?, 3)
R
6
= t1,1), t1, ?), t?, 5), t?, 3), t5, 3)
RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng 1, 3, 5, ?, wo gof
MtR
1
) =
1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
; MtR
2
) =
1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
;
MtR
3
) =
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
; MtR
4
) =
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
;
MtR
5
) =
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
; MtR
6
) =
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
;
!rom fho abovo mafrIcos If Is cIoar fhaf n
ii
= 1 In MtR
1
) and n
ii
= 0 In MtR
4
) and MtR
5
). Thus
fho roIafIon R
1
Is roIIoxIvo whoroas fho roIafIons R
4
and R
5
aro anfI-roIIoxIvo. AgaIn
MtR
2
)
T
=
1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
= MtR
2
)
So, fho roIafIon R
2
Is symmofrIc. AIso MtR
1
)
T
= MtR
1
), and honco fho roIafIon R
1
Is nof
symmofrIc. SImIIarIy If can bo shown fhaf fho roIafIons R
3
, R
4
, R
5
and R
6
aro nof symmofrIc.
Now In MtR
1
), MtR
2
), MtR
3
) and MtR
6
), wo soo fhaf n
ii
= 0, so fho roIafIons R
1
, R
2
, R
3
and R
6
aro nof asymmofrIc. In MtR
4
) wo soo fhaf n
ii
= 0, buf n
14
= 1 = n
41
. ThIs vIoIafo fho condIfIons
oI asymmofrIc roIafIon honco nof asymmofrIc. If Is aIso obsorvod fhaf In MtR
5
), n
ii
= 0;
n
12
= 1, n
21
= 0; n
23
= 1, n
32
= 0; n
34
= 1, n
43
= 0; n
41
= 1, n
14
= 0 and n
42
= 1, n
24
= 0. Thus
fho roIafIon R
5
Is asymmofrIc. AgaIn
MtR
3
)
2
=
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
=
2 2 2 3
2 2 2 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Wo soo fhaf whonovor i, j In MtR

3
)
2
Is non-zoro, onfry i, j In MtR
3
) Is aIso non-zoro. So fho
roIafIon R
3
Is fransIfIvo. If Is aIso cIoarod fhaf MtR
i
)
2
/ c MtR
i
) Ior i = 1, 2, 4, 5, 6. Thus fho
roIafIons R
1
, R
2
, R
4
, R
5
and R
6
aro nof fransIfIvo. AIso If can bo shown fhaf fho roIafIon R
6
Is
anfI-symmofrIc.
3.13 EUlVALENCE kELATl0N
Tho concopf oI oquIvaIonco roIafIon Is oI groaf Imporfanco In knowIodgo roprosonfafIon and
arfIIIcIaI InfoIIIgonco. Horo, In fhIs socfIon wo dIscuss fho concopf oI oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
A roIafIon R doIInod on a sof A Is saId fo bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In A II and onIy II R Is
roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc and fransIfIvo.
ConsIdor fho roIafIon R In fho roaI numbors doIInod by x = y i.e., x R y:x = y
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e R
x = x
i.e., x R x
i.e., R Is roIIoxIvo.
SymmofrIc: Supposo x R y
i.e., x = y
i.e., y = x
i.e., y R x
i.e., R Is symmofrIc.
TransIfIvo: Supposo x R y and y R :
i.e., x = y and y = :
ThIs ImpIIos x = :
i.e., x R :
i.e., R Is fransIfIvo.
So, fho roIafIon R In fho roaI numbors doIInod by x = y Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
3.13.1 Theorem
II R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod In a sof A, fhon R
1
Is aIso an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In
fho sof A.
BInary RoIafIon 53
ProoI: Lof R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod In a sof A. Thus R Is roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc and
fransIfIvo.
Our cIaIm: R
1
Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In fho sof A.
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e A
tx, x) e R 3 R Is roIIoxIvo
= tx, x) e R
1
So, tx, x) e R
1
V x e A
SymmofrIc: Supposo tx, y) e R
1
= ty, x) e R
= tx, y) e R 3 R Is symmofrIc
= ty, x) e R
1
i.e., R
1
Is symmofrIc.
TransIfIvo: Supposo tx, y) e R
1
and ty, :) e R
1
= ty, x) e R and t:, y) e R
i.e., t:, y) e R and ty, x) e R
= t:, x) e R 3 R Is fransIfIvo
= tx, :) e R
1
i.e., R
1
Is fransIfIvo.
ThoroIoro, R
1
Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In fho sof A.
3.14 PAkTlAL 0kDEk kELATl0N
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on a sof A. Thon fho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo a parfIaI ordor roIafIon
In A II R Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo and anfI-symmofrIc. If Is oI groaf uso whIIo sfudyIng IaffIcos.
ConsIdor fho roIafIon R In fho roaI numbors doIInod by x s y. i.e., x R y : x s y.
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e R, x s x
i.e., x R x
TransIfIvo: Supposo fhaf x R y and y R :
i.e., x s y and y s :
ThIs ImpIIos x s :
i.e., x R :
AnfI-symmofrIc: Supposo fhaf x R y and y R x
i.e., x s y and y s x
ThIs ImpIIos x = y
i.e., R Is anfI-symmofrIc.
So, fho roIafIon R In fho roaI numbors doIInod by x s y Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon.
3.14.1 Theorem
Lof A bo a sof and R bo a parfIaI ordor roIafIon on A. Thon R
1
Is aIso a parfIaI ordor roIafIon
on A.
ProoI : Lof R bo a parfIaI ordor roIafIon doIInod In a sof A. ThoroIoro R Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo
and anfI-symmofrIc.
Our cIaIm: R
1
Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon.
tx, x) e R 3 R Is roIIoxIvo
ThIs ImpIIos tx, x) e R
1
i.e., R
1
Is roIIoxIvo.
TransIfIvo: Supposo fhaf tx, y) e R
1
and t y, :) e R
1
ThIs ImpIIosty, x) e R and t:, y) e R
i.e., t:, y) e R and ty, x) e R
ThIs ImpIIos t:, x) e R 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., tx, :) e R
1
i.e., R
1
Is fransIfIvo.
AnfI-symmofrIc: Supposo fhaf tx, y) e R
1
and ty, x) e R
1
ThIs ImpIIosty, x) e R and tx, y) e R
ThIs ImpIIos x = y 3 R Is anfI-symmofrIc
i.e., R
1
Is anfI-symmofrIc.
ThoroIoro, R
1
Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon In fho sof A.
3.15 T0TAL 0kDEk kELATl0N
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on a sof A. Thon fho roIafIon R Is saId fo bo a fofaI ordor roIafIon In
A II R Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon and Ior any fwo oIomonfs x, y In A oIfhor x < y, x = y or x > y
hoIds.
ConsIdor fho roIafIon R In t6) doIInod by x s y, whoro t6) Is fho sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsors
oI 6.
ThoroIoro, t6) = 1, 2, 3, 6 and x R y : x s y
i.e., R = t1, 1), t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 6), t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 6), t3, 3), t3, 6), t6, 6)
So, R Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo and anfI-symmofrIc. i.e. R Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon In t6).
BosIdos fhIs Ior any fwo oIomonfs x, y boIongs t6), ono oI fho roIafIons x s y or y s x hoIds.
Thus fho roIafIon R In t6) doIInod by x s y Is a fofaI ordor roIafIon.
ConsIdor anofhor roIafIon R In A = 1, 2, 3, .. , 10 doIInod by x Is a muIfIpIo oI y.
i.e., x R y: x Is a muIfIpIo oI y
x Is a muIfIpIo oI x
i.e., x R x
TransIfIvo:Supposo x R y and y R :
i.e., x Is a muIfIpIo oI y and y Is a muIfIpIo oI :
= x = K
1
y and y = K
2
: Ior K
1
, K
2
e I; K
1
, K
2
= 0
= x = K
1
K
2
:; K
1
, K
2
e I; K
1
K
2
= 0
BInary RoIafIon 55
i.e., x Is a muIfIpIo oI :
i.e., x R :
AnfI-symmofrIc: Supposo x R y and y R x
i.e., x Is a muIfIpIo oI y and y Is a muIfIpIo oI x
= x = K
1
y and y = K
2
x Ior K
1
, K
2
e I; K
1
, K
2
= 0
= x = K
1
K
2
x
= K
1
K
2
= 1
= K
1
= K
2
= 1 3 K
1
, K
2
= 0 and K
1
, K
2
e I
So, x = y, i.e., R Is anfI-symmofrIc. ThoroIoro, fho roIafIon In A doIInod by x Is a muIfIpIo oI
y Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon.
Now R = t1, 1), t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t1, 6), t1, ?), t1, 8), t1, 9), t1, 10), t2, 2), t2, 4), t2, 6),
t2, 8), t2, 10), t3, 3), t3, 6), t3, 9), t4, 8), t5, 10)
AgaIn Ior 2 and 5 boIongs fo A oIfhor oI fho roIafIons 2 s 5 or 2 > 5 do nof hoId bocauso 2 Is
nof a muIfIpIo oI 5. ThoroIoro, R Is nof a fofaI ordor roIafIon.
3.16 CL05UkE5 0F kELATl0N5
II R bo a roIafIon doIInod on A, fhon fho cIosuro oI fho roIafIon R Is fho smaIIosf roIafIon R fhaf
IncIudos aII fho paIrs oI R and possossos fho roquIrod proporfIos oI fho cIosuro.
3.16.1 keflexlve CloSure
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on fho sof A. Thon, fho roIIoxIvo cIosuro rtR) Is doIInod by
ti) II tx, y) e R fhon tx, y) e rtR)
tii) II x e A, fhon tx, x) e rtR)
tiii) NofhIng Is In rtR) unIoss If Is so IoIIows Irom ti) and tii).
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng roIafIon on fho sof A = 2, 4, 6, 8
R = t2, 2), t2, 4), t6, 8), t6, 6), t6, 4)
ThoroIoro, rtR) = t2, 2), t2, 4), t6, 8), t6, 6), t6, 4), t4, 4), t8, 8)
3.16.2 5ymmetrlc CloSure
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on fho sof A. Thon, fho symmofrIc cIosuro stR) Is doIInod by
ti) II tx, y) e R fhon tx, y) e stR)
tii) II tx, y) e R, fhon ty, x) e stR)
tiii) NofhIng Is In stR) unIoss If Is so IoIIows Irom ti) and tii).
R = t2, 2), t2, 4), t2, 6), t4, 2), t4, 6), t6, 4), t6, 8), t8, 2)
ThoroIoro, stR) = t2, 2), t2, 4), t2, 6), t4, 2), t4, 6), t6, 4), t6, 8), t8, 2), t6, 2), t8, 6), t2, 8)
3.16.3 TranSltlve CloSure
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on fho sof A. Thon fho fransIfIvo cIosuro ttR) Is doIInod by
ti) II tx, y) e R, fhon tx, y) e ttR)
tii) II tx, y) e R, ty, :) e R fhon tx, :) e ttR)
tiii) NofhIng Is In ttR) unIoss If Is so IoIIows Irom ti) and tii).
R = t2, 2), t2, 4), t4, 6), t4, 8), t2, 8)
ThoroIoro, ttR) = t2, 2), t2, 4), t4, 6), t4, 8), t2, 8), t2, 6)
3.17 EUlVALENCE CLA55E5
Tho sfudy oI oquIvaIonco cIassos aro usod In knowIodgo roprosonfafIon and IInIfo sfafo
sysfoms. Aparf Irom fhoso fwo, If has many appIIcafIons In compufor scIonco. Horo, wo dIscuss
fho basIc Idoa oI an oquIvaIonco cIass.
Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof. R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In A. !or oach x e A, fho sofs x aro
caIIod oquIvaIonco cIassos oI A gIvon by fho roIafIon R doIInod as
x = y e A | y R x
ConsIdor fho oquIvaIonco roIafIon R doIInod on fho sof A = 1, 3, 5, ?, 9 as
R = t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t3, 1), t3, 3), t3, 5), t5, 1), t5, 3), t5, 5), t?, ?), t?, 9), t9, ?), t9, 9)
So, fho oquIvaIonco cIassos aro gIvon as
1 = 3 = 5 = 1, 3, 5
? = 9 = ?, 9
3.17.1 Theorem
Lof R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod on a non-ompfy sof A and x, y bo arbIfrary oIomonfs
In A. Thon
ti) x e x and tii) II y e x, fhon x = y
ProoI: Lof R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod on a non-ompfy sof A.
ti) Lof x e A. ThoroIoro, x = y e A | y R x
As R Is roIIoxIvo In A, wo havo x R x. i.e., x e x
tii) Supposo fhaf y e x
= y R x By doIInIfIon
= x R y 3 R Is symmofrIc
Lof a e x; fhIs ImpIIos a R x
So, a R x and x R y
ThIs ImpIIos a R y 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., a e y
ThoroIoro, a e x = a e y i.e., x _ y .ti)
SImIIarIy, Lof b e y
ThIs ImpIIos b R y By doIInIfIon
So, b R y and y R x.
= b R x 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., b e x.
ThoroIoro, b e y = b e x i.e., y _ x .tii)
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons ti) and tii), wo havo x = y.
BInary RoIafIon 5?
3.17.2 Theorem
Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof and R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod In A. Lof x, y bo fwo
arbIfrary oIomonfs oI A. Thon x = y II and onIy II x R y.
ProoI: Lof R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod In A, and Iof x, y e A. Assumo fhaf x = y.
Our cIaIm Is x R y.
As R Is roIIoxIvo, wo havo x R x
i.e., x e x
= x e x = y
= x e y
i.e., x R y
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf x R y,
i.e., y R x 3 R Is symmofrIc
Our cIaIm Is x = y
Lof a e x fhIs ImpIIos a R x
i.e., a R x and x R y
ThIs ImpIIos a R y 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., a e y
ThoroIoro, a e x ImpIIos a e y, i.e., x _ y .ti)
AgaIn a e y fhIs ImpIIos a R y
i.e., a R y and y R x
ThIs ImpIIos a R x 3 R Is fransIfIvo
i.e., a e x
ThoroIoro, a e y ImpIIos a e x, i.e., y _ x .tii)
Thus, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof x = y.
3.17.3 Theorem
Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof and R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon In A. Lof x, y e A. Thon fho
oquIvaIonco cIassos x and y aro oIfhor oquaI or dIsjoInf.
ProoI: Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof and R bo an oquIvaIonco roIafIon doIInod In A. Lof x, y e A.
Assumo fhaf fho oquIvaIonco cIassos x and y aro nof dIsjoInf, i.e., x y = o
Thus, fhoro oxIsfs af Ioasf ono oIomonf a In x y .
i.e., a e x y
i.e., a R x and a R y
i.e., x R a and a R y 3 R Is symmofrIc
ThIs ImpIIos x R y 3 R Is fransIfIvo
Honco by provIous fhoorom 3.1?.2, If Is cIoar fhaf x = y. ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf II fwo
oquIvaIonco cIassos x and y aro oIfhor dIsjoInf or oquaI.
3.18 PAkTlTl0N5
In roaI IIIo, changIng dafa Info knowIodgo Is nof a sfraIghf Iorward fask. A sof oI dafa Is
gonoraIIy dIsorganIzod whoroas knowIodgo Is jusf fho opposIfo, buf oxprossod by moans oI a
propor Ianguago. In ordor fo gof boffor knowIodgo, ono shouId havo boffor cIassIIyIng powor.
ThoroIoro, parfIfIon pIays a vIfaI roIo In knowIodgo roprosonfafIon.
Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof. A parfIfIon P oI A Is a coIIocfIon A
i
oI non-ompfy subsofs oI A wIfh
fho IoIIowIng fwo proporfIos.
ti) A
i
i
7
= A and
tii) A
i
A
j
= o Ior A
i
= A
j
In ofhor words a parfIfIon oI A Is a coIIocfIon oI non-ompfy dIsjoInf subsof oI A whoso
unIon Is A.
ConsIdor fho roIafIon x y tmod 3) doIInod on fho sof oI Infogors I. Tho abovo roIafIon Is an
oquIvaIonco roIafIon In I. Tho sof oI fhroo oquIvaIonco cIassos aro 0, 1 and 2. Whoro
0 = . , 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, ..
1 = .. , 5, 2, 1, 4, ?, 10, .
2 = .. , 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, ...
If Is cIoar fhaf 0, 1 and 2 aro non-ompfy subsofs oI I wIfh 0 . 1 . 2 = I, and 0, 1 and
2 aro paIr-wIso dIsjoInf. Thus 0, 1, 2 Is a parfIfIon oI I.

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 8hou that the re/ation x y (noJ 6 JejineJ on the set oj integers l is an equioa-
/ence re/ation.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho roIafIon Is x y tmod 5)
i.e., tx y) Is dIvIsIbIo by 5
i.e., tx y) = 5h; h e I
i.e., x R y : tx y) = 5h; h e I
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e I wo havo tx x) = 0
i.e., tx x) = 5h; h = 0 e I
i.e., x R x
SymmofrIc: Supposo fhaf x R y
i.e., tx y) = 5h
= ty x) = 5h
i.e., ty x) = 5t h)
i.e., y R x
So, x R y ImpIIos y R x.
i.e., tx y) = 5h
1
and ty :) = 5h
2
; h
1
, h
2
e I
= tx y) + ty :) = 5 th
1
+ h
2
); th
1
+ h
2
) e I
= tx :) = 5 th
1
+ h
2
)
i.e., x R :
So, fho roIafIon R on I doIInod by x y tmod 5) Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
BInary RoIafIon 59
Example 2 ls eoery re/ation uhich is synnetric anJ transitioe on a set A, a/uays rej/exioe:
Why or uhy not:
Solution: Lof R bo a symmofrIc and fransIfIvo roIafIon on A.
Lof x, ye R and x R y
As R Is symmofrIc, x R y = y R x
AgaIn x R y and y R x = x R x 3 R Is fransIfIvo
ThoroIoro R Is roIIoxIvo, buf fho argumonf Is nof fruo.
ConsIdor an oxampIo: A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on A such fhaf
R = t2, 3), t3, 4), t2, 4), t3, 2), t4, 3), t4, 2), t2, 2), t3, 3), t4, 4)
WhIch Is symmofrIc and fransIfIvo buf nof roIIoxIvo. ThoroIoro ovory roIafIon whIch Is
symmofrIc and fransIfIvo on a sof A Is nof aIways roIIoxIvo.
Example 3 Let P be the re/ation in A = /1, 2, J, 4, 6, 6/ JejineJ by 'x anJ y are re/atioe prine`.
FinJ the re/ation P anJ Jrau P on a coorJinate Jiagran oj (A A.
Solution: GIvon A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and R _ tA A) doIInod by x R y : x and y aro roIafIvo
prImo.
i.e., R = t1, 1), t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t1, 6), t2, 1), t2, 3), t2, 5), t3, 1), t3, 2), t3, 4), t3, 5),
t4, 1), t4, 3), t4, 5), t5, 1), t5, 2), t5, 3), t5, 4), t5, 6), t6, 1), t6, 5)
Tho coordInafo dIagram oI P Is gIvon boIow.
Example 4 Frooe that a re/ation P on a set A is synnetric ij anJ on/y ij P
1
= P.
Solution: Supposo fhaf a roIafIon R on a sof A Is symmofrIc. Our cIaIm Is R
1
= R.
Lof tx, y) e R
1
= ty, x) e R
= tx, y) e R 3 R Is symmofrIc
i.e., tx, y) e R
1
= tx, y) e R
i.e., R
1
_ R ti)
AgaIn, Iof tx, y) e R
= ty, x) e R 3 R Is symmofrIc
= tx, y) e R
1
i.e., tx, y) e R = tx, y) e R
1
i.e., R _ R
1
tii)
Honco, wo havo R = R
1
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf R = R
1
.
Our cIaIm Is R on A Is symmofrIc.
Lof tx, y) e R = ty, x) e R
1
= R
Example 5 Let N be the set oj a// natura/ nunbers. P be a re/ation in N JejineJ by x P y ij anJ
on/y ij x + Jy = 12. Exanine the re/ation jor (i rej/exioe, (ii synnetric anJ (iii transitioe.
Solution: Lof R bo a roIafIon In N doIInod by
x R y: x + 3y = 12
RoIIoxIvo: Assumo fhaf x + 3y = 12 Ior y = x.
ThIs ImpIIos 4x = 12
i.e., x = 3
i.e., x R x Ior x = 3 onIy.
i.e., x / R x V x e N
Honco R Is nof roIIoxIvo.
SymmofrIc: Assumo fhaf x R y
i.e., x + 3y = 12
i.e., y + 3x may or may nof oquaI fo 12.
i.e., y / R x.
Honco R Is nof symmofrIc.
TransIfIvo: Assumo fhaf x R y and y R :.
i.e., x + 3y = 12 and y + 3: = 12
ThIs hoIds onIy whon x = y = : = 3 e N
i.e., x + 3: = 12
i.e., x R :
So, R Is fransIfIvo.
Example 6 For a re/ation P on a set A = /1, 2, J, 4, 6/ gioen by P = /(1, J, (1, 2, (2, 2, (J, 4/,
jinJ rej/exioe c/osure, synnetric c/osure anJ transitioe c/osure oj P on the gioen set A.
Solution: GIvon A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and fho roIafIon
R = t1, 3), t1, 2), t2, 2), t3, 4).
ThoroIoro, rtR) = t1, 3),t1, 2), t1, 1), t2, 2), t3, 3),t3, 4), t4, 4),t5, 5)
stR) = t1, 3),t1, 2), t2, 2),t3, 4), t3, 1), t2, 1),t4, 3)
ttR) = t1, 3),t1, 2), t2, 2), t3, 4), t1, 4)
Example 7 Let N be the set oj a// natura/ nunbers. P be a re/ation in N JejineJ by x P y

ij anJ
on/y ij x + y = 1S. 8hou that P is synnetric but neither rej/exioe nor transitioe.
Solution: Lof R bo a roIafIon In N doIInod by
x R y: x + y = 18
RoIIoxIvo: Assumo fhaf x + y = 18 Ior y = x
= 2x = 18
= x = 9
i.e., x R x Ior x = 9 onIy. So, R Is nof roIIoxIvo.
BInary RoIafIon 61
i.e., x + y = 18
= y + x = 18
i.e., y R x, i.e. R, Is symmofrIc.
TransIfIvo: Assumo fhaf x R y and y R :
i.e., x + y = 18 and y + : = 18
i.e., tx + :) may or may nof oquaI fo 18.
!or oxampIo Iof x = 4, y = 14 and : = 4. Honco, wo havo tx + y) = 18 and ty + :) = 18, buf
tx + :) = 8 = 18
ThoroIoro, x / R :, i.e. R Is nof fransIfIvo.
Example 8 A re/ation P JejineJ on the set oj natura/ nunbers N by x P y ij anJ on/y ij
(x
.
y > 0 jor x, y N is an equioa/ence re/ation.
Solution: GIvon R bo a roIafIon In N doIInod by
x R y : tx
.
y) > 0 Ior x, y e N
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e N wo havo
tx
.
x) = x
2
> 0
i.e., x R x. Thus R Is roIIoxIvo.
= tx
.
y) > 0
= ty
.
x) > 0
i.e., y R x
Thus, R Is symmofrIc.
i.e., tx
.
y) > 0 and ty
.
:) > 0
ThIs ImpIIos tx
.
y) ty
.
:) > 0
i.e., tx
.
:) y
2
> 0
As y
2
> 0 Ior aII y e N wo havo tx
.
:) > 0.
i.e., x R :
Honco, x R y and y R : = x R :
Thus, R Is fransIfIvo.
ThoroIoro, fho roIafIon R In N doIInod by tx
.
y) > 0 Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
Example 9 Let A = /2, 4, 6, S/, B = /1, 6, 7, 0/ anJ Let P be a re/ation jron A to B JejineJ as
x P y ij anJ on/y ij x y. FinJ the Jonain, range anJ inoerse oj the re/ation P.
Solution: GIvon fhaf A = 2, 4, 6, 8; B = 1, 5, ?, 9 and R bo a roIafIon Irom A fo B doIInod as
x R y II and onIy II x s y.
ThoroIoro, R = t2, 5), t2, ?), t2, 9), t4, 5), t4, ?), t4, 9), t6, ?), t6, 9), t8, 9)
Thus, tR) = 2, 4, 6, 8; RtR) = 5, ?, 9 and R
1
= t5, 2), t?, 2), t9, 2), t5, 4), t?, 4), t9, 4),
t?, 6), t9, 6), t9, 8)
Example 10 Let l be the set oj a// integers anJ P be a re/ation JejineJ on l such that x P y ij
anJ on/y ij x y. 8hou that P is rej/exioe, transitioe but not synnetric.
Solution: GIvon R bo a roIafIon In I doIInod by
x R y: x > y Ior x, y e I
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e I wo havo
x > x
i.e., x R x.
Thus R Is roIIoxIvo.
TransIfIvo:Supposo fhaf x R y and y R :
i.e., x > y and y > :
ThIs ImpIIos x > :
i.e., x R :
Thus R Is fransIfIvo.
i.e., x > y
ThIs ImpIIos y / > x
i.e., y / R x
Thus R Is nof symmofrIc.
ThoroIoro fho roIafIon x > y doIInod In I Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo buf nof symmofrIc.
Example 11 8hou that the re/ation x y JejineJ on the set oj integers is a partia/ orJer
re/ation.
Solution: Lof R bo a roIafIon In I doIInod by
x R y: x s y Ior x, y e I
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e I wo havo
x s x
i.e., x R x.
Thus R Is roIIoxIvo.
i.e. x s y and y s :
ThIs ImpIIos x s :
i.e., x R :
AnfI-symmofrIc: Supposo fhaf x R y and y R x
i.e., x s y and y s x
ThIs ImpIIos x = y
Thus, R Is anfI-symmofrIc.
ThoroIoro, fho roIafIon x s y doIInod In I Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo and anfI-symmofrIc. So,
x s y Is a parfIaI ordor roIafIon.
Example 12 Let P be the re/ation on the set /1, 2, J, 4, 6/ JejineJ by the ru/e (x, y P ij
x + y 6. FinJ the jo//ouings.
ta) LIsf fho oIomonfs oI R tb) LIsf fho oIomonfs oI R
1
tc) omaIn oI R tJ) Rango oI R
te) Rango oI R
1
tj) omaIn oI R
1
Chock fhaf domaIn oI R Is oquaI fo rango oI R
1
and rango oI R Is oquaI fo domaIn oI R
1
.
BInary RoIafIon 63
Solution: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and R = tx, y) e R | x + y s 6 ; x, y e A
ta) R = t1, 1), t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 5), t2, 1), t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t3, 1), t3, 2), t3, 3), t4, 1),
t4, 2), t5, 1)
tb) R
1
= t1, 1), t2, 1), t3, 1), t4, 1), t5, 1), t1, 2), t2, 2), t3, 2), t4, 2), t1, 3), t2, 3), t3, 3), t1, 4),
t2, 4), t1, 5)
tc) omaIn oI R i.e., tR) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
tJ) Rango oI R i.e., RtR) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
te) Rango oI R
1
i.e., RtR
1
) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
tj) omaIn oI R
1
i.e., tR
1
) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
!rom fhIs If Is cIoar fhaf tR ) = RtR
1
) and RtR) = tR
1
).
Example 13 ConsiJer a re/ation P on /1, 2, J, 4/ as P = /(1, J, (1, 4, (2, 2, (J, J, (4, 1/.
Exanine the re/ation jor rej/exioe, synnetric anJ transitioe uith the he/p oj re/ation natrix.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho roIafIon R = t1, 3), t1, 4), t2, 2), t3, 3), t4, 1). RoIafIvo fo fho
ordorIng 1, 2, 3, 4 wo gof
MtR) =
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
!rom fho abovo mafrIx If Is cIoar fhaf n

11
= 1 and n
44
= 1. So, fho roIafIon R Is nof roIIoxIvo.
AgaIn R Is nof symmofrIc bocauso
MtR)
T
=
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
= MtR)
AIso wo havo
MtR)
2
=
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
=
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
!rom fhIs If Is cIoar fhaf fho 1sf row and 1sf coIumn onfry In MtR)
2
Is non-zoro whoroas
fho 1sf row and 1sf coIumn onfry In MtR) Is zoro. ThoroIoro fho roIafIon R Is nof fransIfIvo.
Honco fho roIafIon R Is noIfhor roIIoxIvo nor symmofrIc and fransIfIvo.
Example 14 Let A = /1, 2, J, 4, 6/, B = /a, b, c, J/ anJ C = /1, 4, 0, 16, 26/. ConsiJer the
re/ations P
1
jron A to B anJ P
2
jron B to C as P
1
= /(1, a, (1, b, (2, c, (2, J, (J, b, (6, J/ anJ
P
2
= /(a, 1, (J, 4, (b, 0, (J, 26/. FinJ the conposition P
1
P
2
uith the he/p oj re/ation natrix.
Solution: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; B = a, b, c, J and C = 1, 4, 9, 16, 25. GIvon R
1
_ tA B) and
R
2
_ tB C) wIfh
R
1
= t1, a), t1, b), t2, c), t2, J), t3, b), t5, J)
and R
2
= ta, 1), tJ, 4), tb, 9), tJ, 25).
ThoroIoro, wo gof
MtR
1
) =
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
and MtR
2
) =
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
So, MtR
1
R
2
) = MtR
1
)MtR
2
)
=
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
=
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
Thus, R
1
R
2
= t1, 1), t1, 9), t2, 4), t2, 25), t3, 9), t5, 4), t5, 25).
Example 15 Let P
1
anJ P
2
be the re/ations on /1, 2, J, 4/ gioen by P
1
=/(1, 1, (1, 2, (J, 4,
(4, 2/anJ P
2
= /(1, 1, (2, 1, (J, 1, (4, 4, (2, 2/ List the e/enents oj P
1
P
2
anJ P
2
P
1
. 8hou that
P
1
P
2
P
2
P
1
.
Solution: GIvon R
1
and R
2
bo roIafIons on 1, 2, 3, 4 as
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 2), t3, 4), t4, 2) and R
2
=t1, 1), t2, 1), t3, 1), t4, 4), t2, 2) RoIafIvo fo fho
ordorIng 1, 2, 3, 4 wo havo
MtR
1
) =
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
and MtR
2
) =
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
ThoroIoro, MtR
1
R
2
) = MtR
1
) MtR
2
)
=
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
=
2 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
RopIacIng aII non-zoro onfrIos by 1 In MtR

1
R
2
) wo havo MtR
1
R
2
) =
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
i.e., R
1
R
2
= t1, 1), t1, 2), t3, 4), t4, 1), t4, 2)
SImIIarIy, MtR
2
R
1
) = MtR
2
) MtR
1
)
=
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1

1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
=
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
i.e., R
2
R
1
= t1, 1), t1, 2), t2, 1), t2, 2), t3, 1), t3, 2), t4, 2)
ThoroIoro, R
1
R
2
= R
2
R
1
Example 16 Let P be the re/ation on the set /1, 2, J, 4, 6/ JejineJ by the ru/e (x, y P ij
x = y 1. FinJ P in terns oj re/ation natrix. Chech the re/ation P jor synnetric anJ irrej/exioe.
Solution: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and R = tx, y): x = y 1 x, y e A
i.e., R = t1, 2), t2, 3), t3, 4), t4, 5)
RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, wo havo
MtR) =
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
BInary RoIafIon 65
Now, M tR)
T
=
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
= MtR)
So, R Is nof symmofrIc. If Is cIoar fhaf R Is IrroIIoxIvo as n
ii
= 0 Ior aII 1 s i = 5. ThoroIoro,
R Is IrroIIoxIvo buf nof symmofrIc.
Example 17 Let P anJ 8 be the jo//ouing re/ations on A = /2, 4, 6, 6/. P = /(2, 4, (2, 6, (2, 6,
(4, 2, (4, 4/ anJ 8 = /(6, 4, (6, 6, (6, 6, (6, 2, (6, 4/. FinJ (P 8
c
anJ P
2
.
Solution: GIvon R = t2, 4), t2, 5), t2, 6), t4, 2), t4, 4) and S = t5, 4), t5, 5), t5, 6), t6, 2), t6, 4)
ti) tR . S) = t2, 4), t2, 5), t2, 6), t4, 2), t4, 4), t5, 4), t5, 5), t5, 6), t6, 2), t6, 4)
ThIs ImpIIos tR . S)
c
= t2, 2), t4, 5), t4, 6), t5, 2), t6, 5), t6, 6)
tii) RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng 2, 4, 5, 6, wo havo
MtR) =
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
So, MtR
2
) = MtR) MtR)
=
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
=
1 1 0 0
1 2 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
RopIacIng aII non-zoro onfrIos by 1 In MtR

2
), wo gof
MtR
2
) =
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
So, R
2
= t2, 2), t2, 4), t4, 2), t4, 4), t4, 5), t4, 6)
Example 18 Let P be the re/ation on the set /2, J, 4, 6, 6/ JejineJ by the ru/e (x, y P ij
x + 2y 12. FinJ the re/ation P. A/so jinJ the rej/exioe, synnetric anJ transitioe c/osure oj P.
Solution: Lof A = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and R = tx, y) e R II x + 2y 12; x, y e A
i.e., R = t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4), t4, 2), t4, 3), t4, 4), t5, 2), t5, 3), t6, 2), t6, 3)
Tho roIIoxIvo cIosuro oI R i.e., rtR) = t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4), t4, 2),
t4, 3), t4, 4), t5, 2), t5, 3), t5, 5), t6, 2), t6, 3), t6, 6)
Tho symmofrIc cIosuro oI R i.e., s(R) = t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t2, 6), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4),
t3, 5), t3, 6), t4, 2), t4, 3), t4, 4), t5, 2), t5, 3), t6, 2), t6, 3)
Tho fransIfIvo cIosuro oI R i.e., ttR) = t2, 2), t2, 3), t2, 4), t2, 5), t3, 2), t3, 3), t3, 4), t4, 2),
t4, 3), t4, 4), t5, 2), t5, 3), t6, 2), t6, 3), t3, 5), t4, 5), t5, 4), t5, 5), t6, 4), t6, 5)
Example 19 Let P be the re/ation in the integers l JejineJ by (x y is an eoen integer. Frooe
that P is an equioa/ence re/ation anJ jinJ the Jisjoint equioa/ence c/asses.
Solution: Lof R bo fho roIafIon In fho Infogors I doIInod by tx y) Is an ovon Infogor. i.e.,
tx y) Is dIvIsIbIo by 2.
RoIIoxIvo: !or aII x e I wo havo tx x) = 0
i.e., tx x) = 2h; h = 0 e I
i.e., x R x V x e I
i.e., tx y) Is dIvIsIbIo by 2
i.e., tx y) = 2h; h e I
= ty x) = 2t h); h eI
i.e., y R x
Thus, R Is symmofrIc.
i.e., tx y) and ty :) aro ovon Infogor.
i.e., tx y) = 2h
1
and ty :) = 2h
2
; h
1
, h
2
I.
= tx y) + ty :) = 2th
1
+ h
2
); th
1
+ h
2
) e I
i.e., tx :) Is an ovon Infogor.
i.e., x R :
ThoroIoro, fho roIafIon R on I doIInod by tx y) Is ovon Infogor Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
Tho dIsjoInf oquIvaIonco cIassos aro
0 = ... , 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ..
1 = ... , 3, 1, 1, 3, 5, ?, ....
Example 20 Let P be a re/ation JejineJ in A = /1, 2, J, 6, 7, 0/ as P = /(1, 1, (1, J, (1, 6,
(1, 7, (J, 1, (J, J, (J, 6, (J, 7, (6, 1, (6, J, (6, 6, (6, 7, (7, 1, (7, J, (7, 6, (7, 7, (0, 0, (2, 2/.
FinJ the partitions oj A baseJ on the equioa/ence re/ation P.
Solution: GIvon A = 1, 2, 3, 5, ?, 9 and
R = t1, 1), t1, 3), t1, 5), t1, ?), t3, 1), t3, 3), t3, 5), t3, ?), t5, 1), t5, 3), t5, 5), t5, ?), t?, 1), t?, 3),
t?, 5), t?, ?), t9, 9), t2, 2)
Tho dIsjoInf oquIvaIonco cIassos aro
1 = 1, 3, 5, ?; 9 = 9 and 2 = 2.
ObvIousIy
ti) Tho sofs 1, 2 and 9 aro non-ompfy
tii) 1 2 = o; 1 9 = o and 2 9 = o
tiii) 1 . 2 . 9 = A
Honco, 1, 2, 9 Is a parfIfIon oI A.
Example 21 FinJ the nunber oj re/ations jron the set A to the set B ij |A|= n anJ|B|= n.
Solution: GIvon |A| = n and |B|= n
ThoroIoro, |A B| = nn.
A roIafIon R Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is a subsof oI tA B). So, fho numbor oI subsofs oI
tA B) Is oquaI fo 2
nn
. ThoroIoro fofaI numbor oI roIafIons Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is 2
nn
.

EXEkCl5E5
1. Lof A = p, q, r, s and R bo an unIvorsaI roIafIon on A. WrIfo down fho roIafIon R. !Ind
ouf fho smaIIosf and Iargosf subsof oI fho unIvorsaI roIafIon whIch Is an oquIvaIonco
roIafIon.
BInary RoIafIon 6?
2. Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and B = 1, 2, 4, 6, ?. !Ind fho roIafIon Irom A fo B doIInod by
ta) Groafor fhan tb) Loss fhan
tc) Groafor fhan oquaI fo tJ) Loss fhan oquaI fo
te) quaI fo
3. !or fho abovo No. 2, doformIno fho domaIns and rangos oI oach oI fho casos.
4. !or fho abovo No. 2, doformIno fho Invorso roIafIon In oach oI fho abovo casos.
5. Provo fhaf fho roIafIon x y modt3) on fho sof oI Infogors Z Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
6. GIvo an oxampIo oI a roIafIon whIch Is
ta) RoIIoxIvo, SymmofrIc buf nof TransIfIvo.
tb) RoIIoxIvo, TransIfIvo buf nof SymmofrIc.
tc) SymmofrIc, TransIfIvo buf nof RoIIoxIvo.
tJ) RoIIoxIvo buf nof SymmofrIc and TransIfIvo.
te) SymmofrIc buf nof RoIIoxIvo and TransIfIvo.
tj) TransIfIvo buf nof RoIIoxIvo and SymmofrIc.
tg) NoIfhor RoIIoxIvo nor SymmofrIc and TransIfIvo.
th) RoIIoxIvo, SymmofrIc and TransIfIvo.
ti) SymmofrIc and AnfI-symmofrIc.
tj) AnfI-symmofrIc buf nof RoIIoxIvo.
?. Provo fhaf fho roIafIon on fho sof oI nafuraI numbors N doformInod by x R y II and onIy
II x dIvIdos y Is roIIoxIvo, fransIfIvo buf nof symmofrIc.
8. ConsIdor fho roIafIons R
1
and R
2
on a, b, c, J, e as R
1
= ta, b), ta, c), tb, b), tc, J), tc, c),
tc, e) and R
2
= ta, a), ta, J), tJ, b), tJ, e), tJ, J), te, c). !Ind fho roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc and
fransIfIvo cIosuros oI R
1
and R
2
.
9. WrIfo fho IoIIowIng roIafIons as a fabIo
ta) R
1
= t1, 1), t2, 4), t3, 9), t4, 16), t6, 36), t?, 49)
tb) R
2
= t2, 5), t5, 8), t8, 11), t11, 14)
tc) R
3
= t8, i), t1, /), t4, o), t1, o), t4, e), t0, u)
tJ) R
4
= tBapa, Comp. Sc.), tMogha, Mafh), tSunI, Mafh)
10. Lof R bo fho roIafIon In fho nafuraI numbors N doIInod by ta b) Is dIvIsIbIo by 8. Show
fhaf R Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
11. Lof L bo fho sof oI IInos In fho ucIIdoan pIano and Iof R bo fho roIafIon In L doIInod by
/
1
R /
2
II and onIy II /
1
Is paraIIoI fo /
2
. Show fhaf R Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
12. WrIfo fho IoIIowIng roIafIons as a sof oI ordor paIrs.
ta)
Coffon 55
TorI cof 60
WooIon 50
!ancy 45
Frice in
Pupees
C/oth
Materia/
tb)
=AI +KHIA
Mary Comp. Sc.
Smifh Mafh
Comp. Sc.
!inzi Chomisfry
Loroona conomics
Smifh
tc)

5 25
4 16
3 9
2 4
1 1
Nunber 8quare
tJ)
a 1
c 3
o 5
z 26
m 13
A/phabet Nunber
13. Lof A = 5, 6, ?, 8, 9; B = x, y, :, p, q, r; C = 5, ?, 25, 36, 81 and Iof R
1
= t5, p), t5, r),
t6, :), t?, y), t9, x), t9, :) and R
2
= tp, 25), tx, 81), t:, 36), ty, ?), tr, 5). !Ind fho composI-
fIon R
1
R
2
wIfh fho hoIp oI roIafIon mafrIx.
14. !or fho roIafIon R on fho sof 5, 6, ?, ,8, 9 doIInod by fho ruIo tx, y) II x + 2y s 20. !Ind
fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) Iomonfs oI R tb) Iomonfs oI R
1
15. Lof S = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and Iof R bo a roIafIon doIInod by a ruIo tx, y) II tx y) Is an ovon
nafuraI numbor. !Ind fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) Iomonfs oI R tb) Invorso roIafIon oI R
1
.
16. Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod on fho sof S = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 by a ruIo tx, y) II x
2
+ y
2
s 16. !Ind
fho roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc and fransIfIvo cIosuros oI R.
1?. Lof R bo a roIafIon on a, b, c, J doIInod as R = ta, a), ta, b), ta, c), tb, a), tb, b), tb, c),
tc, a), tc, b), tc, c), tJ, J). Show fhaf fho roIafIon R Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon usIng
roIafIon mafrIx.
18. Lof N bo fho sof oI aII nafuraI numbors. oIIno a roIafIon R In N by x R y II and onIy II
tx y) = 34. Show fhaf R Is anfI-symmofrIc.
19. Lof R bo a roIafIon doIInod by a ruIo A R B II and onIy II A _ B. Show fhaf R Is a parfIaI
ordor roIafIon.
20. Tosf fho IoIIowIng roIafIons on N Ior boIng roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc and fransIfIvo.
Lof x, y e N.
ta) x + y Is ovon tb)
x
y
Is a powor oI 2. tc) x + y s 20
21. xamIno fho IoIIowIng roIafIons on fho sof oI Infogors I Ior parfIaI ordor roIafIons.
Lof tx, y) e R II and onIy II
ta) x = y tb) x > y tc) x = y
2
tJ) x < y.
22. Lof R
1
and R
2
bo roIafIons on fho sof S. Show fhaf tR
1
.R
2
) Is roIIoxIvo II bofh R
1
and R
2
aro roIIoxIvo.
23. Lof R
1
bo an anfI-symmofrIc roIafIon on fho sof S. Provo fhaf R
1
Is aIso an anfI-symmof-
rIc roIafIon on fho sof S.
24. Show fhaf II R
1
and R
2
bo fransIfIvo roIafIons on a sof A, fhon tR
1
. R
2
) Is nof nocossarIIy
fransIfIvo on A.
25. !Ind fho oquIvaIonco cIassos doformInod by fho oquIvaIonco roIafIon R on Z doIInod by
a R b II and onIy II a b mod t5) Ior a, b e Z.
26. Skofch oach oI fho IoIIowIng roIafIons on R.
ta) x
2
+ y
2
< 25 tb) x
2
+ 4y
2
= 16 tc) x
2
4y
2
= 16 tJ) 3x + 2y > 6
2?. Lof R bo a roIafIon In fho nafuraI numbor N doIInod by a R b II and onIy II 'a Is a muIfIpIo
oI b` Ior a, b e N. xamIno fho abovo roIafIon Ior roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc, anfI-symmofrIc,
fransIfIvo and anfI-roIIoxIvo.
28. Lof R bo a roIafIon In fho nafuraI numbor N doIInod by x R y II and onIy II 'x
2
= y
2
` Ior
x, y e N. xamIno fho abovo roIafIon Ior roIIoxIvo, symmofrIc, anfI-symmofrIc, fran-
sIfIvo and parfIaI ordor.
29. Lof A bo fho sof oI non zoro Infogors and R bo a roIafIon In A doIInod by ta, b) R tc, J)
II and onIy II a + J = b + c. Provo fhaf R Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
30. Lof A bo fho sof oI non-zoro Infogors and R bo a roIafIon In A doIInod by ta, b) R tc, J) II
and onIy II aJ = bc. Show fhaf R Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
"
4.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
Ono oI fho mosf Imporfanf concopfs In mafhomafIcs Is fhaf oI a IuncfIon. If Is boIng usod In our
day-fo-day IIIo. Af ovory momonf by knowIngIy or unknowIngIy. Gorman MafhomafIcIan
LoIbnIfz was IIrsf fo uso fho form IuncfIon t16461?16). Tho forms mappIng, map and fransIor-
mafIon moan fho samo fhIng. Compufor ScIonco has many appIIcafIons oI IuncfIon. HashIng
IuncfIon Is ono oI fhaf.
ConsIdor a compufIng dovIco fhaf accopfs any roaI numbor, muIfIpIIos If by 5 and adds 3
wIfh fho producf, and gIvos fho oufpuf.
tCompufIng ovIco)
II fho Inpuf Is 1, fhon fho oufpuf Is 8. II fho Inpuf Is
1
5
, fhon fho oufpuf Is 4. II fho Inpuf Is
10, fhon fho oufpuf Is t10 5 + 3) = 53. ThIs cIoar IndIcafos fhaf II fho Inpuf Is x, x e R, fhon fho
oufpuf Is t5x + 3). As a rosuIf fho compufIng dovIco paIrs oII fho oIomonf x e R as tx, 5x + 3) In a
doIInIfo way or prIncIpIo. ThIs Is nofhIng buf a IuncfIon.
4.1 FUNCTl0N
Lof A and B bo fwo non-ompfy sofs. A roIafIon j Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo a
IuncfIon II If safIsIIos fho IoIIowIng fwo condIfIons.
ti) t j ) = A and
tii) II tx
1
, y
1
) e j and tx
2
, y
2
) e j, fhon y
1
= y
2
.
.K?JE
?0 !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs
In ofhor words a roIafIon j Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B Is saId fo bo a IuncfIon II Ior oach
oIomonf x In A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo oIomonf y In B. A IuncfIon Irom A fo B Is somofImos
donofod as j : A B.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng roIafIons Irom fho sof A = 1, 2, 3, 4 fo fho sof B = 1, 4, 6, 9, 16, 18.
j
1
= t1, 1), t2, 6), t4, 9), t4, 18)
j
2
= t1, 1), t2, 6), t3, 9), t4, 9), t4, 16)
j
3
= t1, 1), t2, 4), t3, 9), t4, 16)
and j
4
= t1, 1), t2, 4), t3, 9), t4, 9)
Now, tj
1
) = 1, 2, 4 = A. ThoroIoro j
1
Is nof a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. !urfhor
tj
2
) = 1, 2, 3, 4 = A; buf t4, 9) e j
2
and t4, 16) e j
2
wIfh 9 = 16. ThIs ImpIIos j
2
can nof bo a
IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B.
AgaIn tj
3
) = 1, 2, 3, 4 = A and Ior ovory oIomonf x

e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B. ThoroIoro
j
3
Is a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B. SImIIarIy j
4
Is aIso a IuncfIon. Tho arrow dIagrams
aro gIvon boIow.
Note: !rom fho abovo dIscussIons If Is cIoar fhaf Ono-Many and Many-Many roIafIons aro nof IuncfIons.
1
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
Function 71
4.1.1 Domain and Co-domain of a Function
Suppose that f be a function from the set A to the set B. The set A is called the domain of the
function f where as the set B is called the co-domain of the function f.
Consider the function f from the set A = {a, b, c, d} to the set B = {1, 2, 3, 4} as
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 4)}
Therefore, domain of f = {a, b, c, d} and co-domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 4}. i.e., D(f ) = {a, b, c, d} and
Co-domain f = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
4.1.2 Range of a Function
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The element y B which the function
f associates to an element x A is called the image of x or the value of the function f for x.
From the definition of function it is clear that each element of A has an unique image on B.
Therefore the range of a function f : A B is defined as the image of its domain A. Mathemati-
cally,
R (f ) or rng (f) = {y = f (x) : x A}
It is clear that R (f ) B.
Consider the function f from A = {a, b, c} to B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} as f = {(a, 3), (b, 5), (c, 5)}.
Therefore, R(f ) = {3, 5}.
4.2 EQUALITY OF FUNCTIONS
If f and g are functions from A to B, then they are said to be equal i.e., f = g if the following
conditions hold.
(a) D(f ) = D(g) (b) R(f ) = R(g)
(c) f(x) g(x) " x A.
Consider f(x) = 3x
2
+ 6:R R and g(x) = 3x
2
+ 6:C C, where R and C are the set of real
numbers and complex numbers respectively. Now it is clear that D( f ) D(g). Therefore
f(x) g(x).
Let us consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4}; B = {1, 2, 7, 8, 17, 18, 31, 32} and the function f : A B defined
by f = {(1, 2), (2, 8), (3, 18), (4, 32)}. Consider another function g: A N defined by g(x) = 2x
2
.
Now it is clear that D(f ) = {1, 2, 3, 4} with f(1) = 2, f(2) = 8, f(3) = 18, f(4) = 32.
Similarly D(g) = A = {1, 2, 3, 4} with g(1) = 2, g(2) = 8, g(3) = 18, g(4) = 32. Therefore, we get
(a) D( f ) = {1, 2, 3, 4} = D(g) (b) R( f ) = {2, 8, 18, 32} = R(g) and
(c) f(x) = g(x) " x {1, 2, 3, 4}.
This implies f and g are equal. i.e., f = g.
4.3 TYPES OF FUNCTION
In this section we will discuss different types of function that are highly useful in computer
science and its applications. These are basically one-one, onto, one-one onto and into functions.
4.3.1 One-One Function
A function f : A B is said to be an one-one function or injective if f(x
1
) = f(x
2
), then x
1
= x
2
for
x
1
, x
2
A. i.e., x
1
x
2
f(x
1
) f(x
2
)
Consider a function f: Q Q defined by f(x) = 4x + 3; x Q.
Supposo fhaf jtx
1
) = jtx
2
) Ior x
1
, x
2
e Q.
= 4x
1
+ 3 = 4x
2
+ 3
= 4x
1
= 4x
2
= x
1
= x
2
i.e., jtx
1
) = jtx
2
) = x
1
= x
2
. So, jtx) = t4x + 3) : Q Q Is Ono-Ono.
ConsIdor anofhor IuncfIon j : R R doIInod by jtx) = x
2
; x e R. Supposo fhaf jtx
1
) = jtx
2
)
= x
1
2
= x
2
2
= x
1
= x
2
= x
1
= x
2
i.e., jtx
1
) = jtx
2
) = x
1
= x
2
. If Is aIso cIoar fhaf jt1) = 1 = jt1); buf 1 = 1. ThoroIoro jtx) = x
2
:
R R; x e R Is nof Ono-Ono.
4.3.2 0nto Functlon
A IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo an onfo IuncfIon or surjocfIvo II Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs af
Ioasf ono oIomonf x e A such fhaf jtx) = y.
In ofhor words a IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo an Onfo IuncfIon II jtA) = B. i.e., rango oI j Is
oquaI fo co-domaIn oI j.
ConsIdor a IuncfIon j: Q Q doIInod by jtx) = 4x + 3, x e Q. Thon Ior ovory y e co-domaIn sof
Q fhoro oxIsfs x =
y 3
4
boIongs fo domaIn sof Q. ThoroIoro, jtx) = 4x + 3 Is an Onfo IuncfIon.
4.3.3 0ne0ne 0nto Functlon
A IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo an ono-ono onfo IuncfIon or bIjocfIvo II j Is bofh ono-ono and
onfo IuncfIon.
ConsIdor a IuncfIon j: Q Q doIInod by jtx) = 4x + 3, x e Q. !rom fho abovo dIscussIons If
Is cIoar fhaf jtx) = 4x + 3, x e Q Is an ono-ono onfo IuncfIon.
4.3.4 lnto Functlon
A IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo an Info IuncfIon II Ior af Ioasf ono y e B fhoro oxIsfs no oIomonf
x e A such fhaf jtx) = y. In ofhor words
A IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo an Info IuncfIon II jtA) c B, i.e., rango oI j Is a propor subsof
oI co-domaIn oI j.
ConsIdor a IuncfIon j: Q R doIInod by jtx) = x + 4, x e Q. Honco, If Is cIoar fhaf Ior y =
3
e R
fhoro oxIsfs no oIomonf x = 3 4 e Q. ThoroIoro, jtx) = x + 4 : Q R Is an Info IuncfIon.
4.4 0kAPH 0F FUNCTl0N
Lof j bo a IuncfIon Irom A fo B i.e., Ior ovory x e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B such fhaf y = jtx).
!urfhor nofo fhaf usIng fho IuncfIonaI nofafIon, j can bo oxprossod as
j = tx, jtx)) : x e A.
ThIs roprosonfafIon Is known as fho graph oI fho IuncfIon j.
ConsIdor fho IuncfIons j
1
: R R doIInod by j
1
tx) = x + 1; and
!uncfIon ?3
j
2
: R 2, 2 doIInod by j
2
tx) =
2 II
II
x
x
>
<
4
5
6
0
2 0
Tho graphs oI abovo IuncfIons aro gIvon boIow.
Now consIdor fho roIafIons j
1
: 4, 4 4, 4 doIInod by j
1
tx)
2
= 16 x
2
; x e 4, 4
and j
2
: R R doIInod by j
2
tx)
2
= 16x; x e R. Tho graphs oI abovo roIafIons aro IIguro-1 and
IIguro-2 rospocfIvoIy. Thoso aro nofhIng buf a cIrcIo and paraboIa rospocfIvoIy, whoro In IIguro
1, y = j
1
tx) and In IIguro 2, y = j
2
tx). !rom fho graph If Is cIoar fhaf Ior ono vaIuo oI x In fho
domaIn sof Ioads fo fwo vaIuos In fho rango sof. Honco, fhoso roIafIons aro nof IuncfIons.
f
1
(x) = x +1
f
2
(x) =
2 if x 0
< 2 if x 0
2 2
1
[f (x)] 16 x =
Figure 2
4.5 C0MP05lTl0N 0F FUNCTl0N5
Lof j bo a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B and g bo a IuncfIon Irom fho sof B fo fho sof C.
Thon fho composIfIon oI fho IuncfIons j and g Is gIvon as tg
o
j ) or gj. ThIs Is a IuncfIon Irom
fho sof A fo fho sof C. If may aIso bo nofod fhaf domaIn oI g Is oquaI fo co-domaIn oI j.
As j Is a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof B, fhon Ior ovory x e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B
such fhaf y = jtx). SImIIarIy g Is a IuncfIon Irom fho sof B fo fho sof C, fhon Ior ovory y e B
fhoro oxIsfs unIquo : e C such fhaf : = gty). AgaIn t g
o
j ) Is a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho sof
C, so wo gof tg
o
j ) tx) = : Ior aII x e A.
i.e., tg
o
j ) tx) = gty)
i.e., tg
o
j ) tx) = g tjtx))
ConsIdor fwo IuncfIons j tx) = 2x + 5 and gtx) = 3x.
ThoroIoro tg
o
j ) tx) = g tjtx))
= g t2x + 5)
= 3 t2x + 5)
i.e., tg
o
j ) tx) = 6x + 15
SImIIarIy, tj
o
g) tx) = j tgtx))
= j t3x)
= 2t3x) + 5
i.e., tj
o
g) tx) = 6x + 5
2
2
[f (x)] 16x =
g
x y
f
g
x y z
(g f)
o
!uncfIon ?5
4.5.1 Theorem
Lof j : A B and g : B C bo fwo IuncfIons. Thon tg
o
j ) Is ono-ono II bofh j and g aro ono-ono
and tg
o
j ) Is onfo II bofh j and g aro onfo.
ProoI: Lof j : A B and g : B C bo fwo IuncfIons. SInco j Is a IuncfIon Irom fho sof A fo fho
sof B, fhon Ior ovory x e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B such fhaf y = jtx). SImIIarIy g Is a IuncfIon
Irom fho sof B fo fho sof C, fhon Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs unIquo : e C such fhaf : = gty).
Supposo fhaf j and g aro bofh ono-ono. Our cIaIm Is tg
o
j ) Is ono-ono.
SInco j : A B and g : B C wo havo tg
o
j ) : A C.
Lof x
1
, x
2
e A and tg
o
j ) tx
1
) = tg
o
j ) tx
2
)
ThIs ImpIIos gt j tx
1
) ) = g tj tx
2
))
i.e., j tx
1
) = jtx
2
) 3 g Is ono-ono
i.e., x
1
= x
2
3 j Is ono-ono
ThoroIoro, gtj tx
1
)) = gt jtx
2
)) ImpIIos x
1
= x
2
. So tg
o
j ) Is ono-ono.
Supposo fhaf bofh j and g aro onfo. SInco g Is onfo, Ior ovory : e C fhoro Is af Ioasf ono
y e B such fhaf g ty) = :. AgaIn as j Is onfo, Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs af Ioasf ono x e A such
fhaf jtx) = y.
As a rosuIf Ior ovory : e C fhoro Is af Ioasf ono x e A such fhaf tg
o
j ) tx) = :. ThoroIoro
tg
o
j ) Is onfo.
4.5.2 Theorem
II j : A B; g: B C and h : C , fhon h
o
tg
o
j ) = th
o
g )
o
j, i.e., composIfIon oI IuncfIons
hoIds fho assocIafIvo Iaw.
ProoI : Lof j : A B, g: B C and h: C bo fhroo IuncfIons. So, tg
o
j ) : A C. ThoroIoro
h
o
tg
o
j ) : A .
!urfhor th
o
g): B . So, th
o
g)
o
j : A . ThoroIoro bofh h
o
tg
o
j ) and th
o
g )
o
j aro
IuncfIons Irom A .
SInco j : A B, fhon Ior ovory x e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B such fhaf jtx) = y. !urfhor
g : B C, fhon Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs unIquo : e C such fhaf gty) = :. AgaIn h: C ,
fhon Ior ovory : e C fhoro oxIsfs unIquo t e such fhaf ht:) = t.
Thon h
o
tg
o
j ) tx) = h tg
o
j tx))
= h tg tj tx) ))
= h tg ty) ) = h t:) = t.
!urfhor, th
o
g)
o
j tx) = th
o
g )tj tx))
= th
o
g) ty)
= h tg ty) ) = h t:) = t.
ThoroIoro Ior x e A wo havo h
o
tg
o
j ) tx) = th
o
g)
o
j tx) Ior aII x e A. i.e., h
o
tg
o
j) = th
o
g)
o
j.
4.6 lNVEk5E FUNCTl0N
Lof j : A B bo a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon. Thon fho Invorso oI j, i.e. j
1
bo a IuncfIon Irom B fo A.
SInco j Is a IuncfIon Irom A fo B, Ior ovory x e A, fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B such fhaf j tx) = y.
SInco j
1
: B A Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs unIquo x e A such fhaf j
1
ty) = x, i.e.,
j
1
tj tx)) = x.
4.6.1 Theorem
II j : A B Is bIjocfIvo, fhon fho IuncfIon j possos Invorso mappIng.
ProoI: Supposo fhaf j : A B Is nof bIjocfIvo and possos an Invorso mappIng, i.e., ti) j Is onfo
buf nof ono-ono. tii) j Is ono-ono buf nof onfo or tiii) j Is noIfhor ono-ono nor onfo.
Caso ti) Supposo fhaf j Is onfo buf nof ono-ono.
As j Is onfo, so Ior ovory y
1
e B fhoro oxIsfs af Ioasf ono x
1
e A such fhaf jtx
1
) = y
1
and
Rtj) = B. AgaIn as j Is nof ono-ono wo havo x
1
= x
2
, x
1
, x
2
e A ImpIIos y
1
= jtx
1
) = jtx
2
) = y
2
.
SInco j
1
: B A, so tj
1
) = R tj ) = B, i.e., tj
1
) = B . AIso tx
1
, y
1
), tx
2
, y
2
) e j ImpIIos
ty
1
, x
1
), ty
2
, x
2
) e j
1
wIfh x
1
x
2
as y
1
= y
2
. Honco, j
1
can nof bo a IuncfIon.
Caso tii) Supposo fhaf j Is ono-ono buf nof onfo.
As j Is nof onfo, so Ior af Ioasf ono y
1
e B fhoro oxIsfs no x
1
e A such fhaf jtx
1
) = y
1
and P tj)
= B. SInco, j
1
: B A, so
tj
1
) = Rtj) = B, i.e., tj
1
) = B. Honco j
1
Caso tiii) SImIIarIy If can bo provod fhaf j
1
can nof bo a IuncfIon II j Is noIfhor onfo nor
ono-ono.
ThoroIoro, If Is a confradIcfIon. So our supposIfIon Is wrong. Honco, j : B A musf bo
bIjocfIvo fo possos a Invorso mappIng.
4.6.2 Theorem
Lof j : A B and g: B C bo fwo IuncfIons. II bofh j and g aro InvorfIbIo, fhon
tg
o
j )
1
= j
1

o
g
1
.
ProoI: Supposo fhaf bofh j and g aro InvorfIbIo. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf bofh j and g aro bIjocfIvo
IuncfIons. So by fhoorom 4.5.1, tg
o
j ) Is aIso bIjocfIvo and honco InvorfIbIo.
As j : A B and g : B C wo havo tg
o
j ) : A C i.e., tg
o
j )
1
: C A. AIso j
1
: B A and
g
1
: C B wo havo j
1
o
g
1
: C A.
Honco IIrsf oI aII If Is ovIdonf fhaf bofh tg
o
j )
1
aro j
1

o
g
1
aro IuncfIons Irom fho sof
C fo fho sof A and tg
o
j )
1
t:) = x Ior : e C and x e A.
f
x y
f
1
!uncfIon ??
AgaIn g
1
: C B, so Ior ovory : e C fhoro oxIsfs unIquo y e B such fhaf g
1
t:) = y.
SImIIarIy, j
1
: B A, so Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs x e A such fhaf j
1
ty) = x. !urfhor
j
1
o
g
1
t:) = j
1
tg
1
t:)) = j
1
ty) = x.
i.e., j
1
o
g
1
t:) = x = tg
o
j)
1
t:). ThoroIoro tg
o
j)
1
= j
1

o
g
1
.
4.6.3 Theorem
II j: A B Is a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon, fhon j
1
: B A Is aIso a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon.
ProoI: Lof j : A B Is a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon, i.e., j Is ono-ono and onfo IuncfIon. SInco j Is ono-
ono and onfo, Ior ovory y e B fhoro oxIsfs unIquo x e A such fhaf jtx) = y. AgaIn j
1
: B A
such fhaf j
1
ty) = x.
Lof y
1
, y
2
e B wIfh j
1
ty
1
) = j
1
ty
2
)
ThIs ImpIIos x
1
= x
2
i.e., jtx
1
) = jtx
2
) 3 j Is ono-ono
i.e., y
1
= y
2
i.e., j
1
ty
1
) = j
1
ty
2
) = y
1
= y
2
. Thus, j
1
Is ono-ono. BosIdos fhIs Rtj
1
) = tj) = A. i.e., Rtj
1
)
= A. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf j
1
Is onfo. ThoroIoro j
1
Is bofh ono-ono and onfo. i.e., j
1
Is bIjocfIvo.
4.7 50ME lMP0kTANT FUNCTl0N5
In fhIs socfIon wo wIII dIscuss somo Imporfanf IuncfIons fhaf aro usoIuI In fho confoxf oI
compufor scIonco and appIIcafIons.
4.7.1 ldentlty Functlon
Lof A bo a sof. Tho IuncfIon j: A A Is saId fo bo an IdonfIfy IuncfIon II Ior ovory x e A,
jtx) = x. MafhomafIcaIIy jtx) = x V x e A.
4.7.2 ConStant Functlon
Tho IuncfIon j: A B Is saId fo bo a consfanf IuncfIon II Ior ovory x e A fhoro oxIsfs unIquo
y e B such fhaf jtx) = y. MafhomafIcaIIy,
jtx) = y V x e A
f
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
3
y
2
y
1
f
ConsIdor a IuncfIon j: R I doIInod by jtx) = 2 Ior x e R. WhIch Is a consfanf IuncfIon.
4.7.3 AbSolute Functlon
Tho absoIufo IuncfIon or absoIufo vaIuo IuncfIon jtx) = |x|Is doIInod as
|x| =
x x
x x
;
;
II
II
>
<
4
5
6
0
0
Tho graph oI j = tx, |x|): x e R Is shown In fho IoIIowIng IIguro.
4.7.4 0reateSt lnteger Functlon
Tho groafosf Infogor IuncfIon jtx) = x Is doIInod as fho groafosf Infogor Ioss fhan or oquaI fo
x. Tho vaIuo oI j tx) = x Is oquaI fo n II n s x < tn + 1); n e Z.
ConsIdor fho oxampIos 5 = 5; 5.? = 5; 3.9 = 4; 2.2 = 3 and 6.1 = 6.
4.7.5 Floor and Celllng Functlon
Tho IIoor IuncfIon jtx) = x Is doIInod as fho groafosf Infogor Ioss fhan or oquaI fo x. Tho
coIIIng IuncfIon jtx) = x Is doIInod as fho Ioasf Infogor groafor fhan or oquaI fo x.
Lof x bo any roaI numbor, fhon x IIos bofwoon fwo Infogors caIIod IIoor oI x and coIIIng oI x.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng oxampIos. 35 . = 3; 5 = 5; ?.2 = 8; 3 5 . = 4; 5 = 5; ?.2 = ?.
Note: !rom fho abovo dIscussIon If Is cIoar fhaf x

= x + 1 II x Is nof an Infogor ofhorwIso x = x .
4.7.6 Even and 0dd FunctlonS
A roaI IuncfIon y = j tx) Is saId fo bo ovon II j t x) = j tx) and odd II j t x) = j tx).
ConsIdor fho IuncfIon j tx) = 5x
6
+ 2x
4
x
2
.
ThoroIoro, j t x) = 5t x)
6
+ 2t x)
4
t x)
2
= 5x
6
+ 2x
4
x
2
= j tx).
Honco, jtx) = 5x
6
+ 2x
4
x
2
Is an ovon IuncfIon.
SImIIarIy consIdor anofhor IuncfIon jtx) = sIn x 5x
3
.
ThoroIoro, j t x) = sIn t x) 5t x)
3
= sIn x + 5x
3
= tsIn x 5x
3
) = jtx).
Honco, jtx) = sIn x 5x
3
Is an odd IuncfIon.
Note: If Is fo bo nofod fhaf a IuncfIon can noIfhor bo ovon nor odd. ConsIdor fho oxampIo
j tx) = x
4
+ x
3
+ x
2
x.
ThoroIoro, jt x) = t x)
4
+ t x)
3
+ t x)
2
t x) = x
4
x
3
+ x
2
+ x. ThIs ImpIIos noIfhor
j t x) = jtx) nor j t x) = j tx).
ThoroIoro, j tx) = x
4
+ x
3
+ x
2
x Is noIfhor ovon nor odd IuncfIon.
!uncfIon ?9
4.7.7 CharacterlStlc Functlon
Supposo A bo any subsof oI fho unIvorsaI sof !. Tho characforIsfIc IuncfIon oI A i.e.,
A
Is a roaI
vaIuod IuncfIon
A
: ! 0, 1 doIInod by
A
tx) =
1
0
;
;
II A
II A
x
x
e
4
5
6
ConsIdor fho oxampIo whoro A = 2, 5, ? and ! = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,?. Thon wo havo
A
t1) = 0,
A
t2) = 1,
A
t3) = 0,
A
t4) = 0,
A
t5) = 1,
A
t?) = 1. Tho arrow dIagram Is gIvon boIow.
7
4.7.8 kemalnder Functlon
Lof x bo a non-nogafIvo Infogor and y bo a posIfIvo Infogor. Wo doIIno x mod y or R
y
tx) fo bo fho
romaIndor whon x Is dIvIdod by y. Thus R
y
Is a IuncfIon on Z.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng oxampIos
8 mod 2 = 0, 15 mod 4 = 3, 251 mod 2 = 1, 1?? mod 3 = 0
i.e., R
2
t8) = 0, R
4
t15) = 3, R
2
t251) = 1, R
3
t1??) = 0.
4.7.9 5lgnum Functlon
Tho sIgnum IuncfIon sgntx) on R Is doIInod as
sgn tx) =
0 , II = 0
, II 0
| |
x
x
x
x
Tho rango oI fhIs IuncfIon Is 1, 0, 1.
4.8 HA5H FUNCTl0N
Supposo fhaf wo havo coIIs In a compufor momory Indoxod Irom 0 fo 16. ThIs Is gIvon In fho
IoIIowIng IIguro.
! " # $ % & ' ! " # $
0
A

Wo wIsh fo sforo and rofrIovo arbIfrary posIfIvo Infogors In fhoso ompfy coIIs. Ono way Is fo
uso a hash IuncfIon. A hash IuncfIon fakos a dafa Ifom fo bo sforod or rofrIovod and compufos
fho IIrsf choIco Ior a IocafIon Ior fho dafa Ifom by fho roIafIon
Htn) = n mod h.
Whoro n Is fho dafa Ifom tnumbor) fo bo sforod or rofrIovod. h Is fho sIzo oI fho compufor
momory tproIorabIy prImo). II fho IIrsf choIco Ior a IocafIon Is aIroady occupIod, fhon wo say
fhaf a coIIIsIon has occurrod. To handIo coIIIsIons, a coIIIsIon rosoIufIon poIIcy Is roquIrod. Ono
sImpIo poIIcy Is fo IInd fho noxf hIghosf unoccupIod coII.
II wo wanf fo Iocafo a sforod vaIuo n, compufo n = Htn) and bogIn IookIng af IocafIon n. II
n Is nof af fhIs IocafIon, movo Iorward In fho noxf hIghosf IocafIon. In fhIs confoxf wo usod ono
coIIIsIon rosoIufIon poIIcy. BosIdos fhIs fhoro aro sovoraI ofhor mofhods fo handIo coIIIsIon,
whIch Is boyond fho scopo oI fhIs Book.
ConsIdor an oxampIo In whIch fho dafa Ifom 15, 286, ??, 18, 5, 5?2, 102, 25? and 55 aro fo bo
sforod In ordor In a compufor momory Indoxod Irom 0 fo 16. Horo h = 1?. If Is cIoar fhaf
Ht15) = 15 mod 1? = 15, Ht286) = 286 mod 1? = 14. SImIIarIy Ht??) = 9, Ht18) = 1, Ht5) = 5,
Ht5?2) = 11, Ht102) = 0, Ht25?) = 2, Ht55) = 4. Thus fho aIIocafIon In fho compufor momory Is
gIvon In fho IoIIowIng IIguro.
102 18 25? 55 5 89 ?? 5?2 286 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ? 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Now supposo wo wanf fo sforo 89. SInco Ht89) = 89 mod 1? = 4, 89 shouId bo sforod af
IocafIon 4; buf fhIs posIfIon Is aIroady occupIod. II wo uso fho coIIIsIon rosoIufIon poIIcy dIs-
cussod oarIIor, wo wouId sforo 89 af IocafIon 6, whIch Is as shown In fho abovo IIguro.

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 Let A = /a, b, c, J/ anJ B = /7, S, 0/. FinJ uhether the jo//ouing subsets oj (A B
are junctions jron A to B.
(i j
1
= /(a, 7, (b, S, (c, S/
(ii j
2
= /(a, 7, (a, S, (b, 0, (c, 0, (J, 0/
(iii j
J
= /(a, 7, (b, S, (c, 0, (J, 0/
(io j
4
= /(a, 7, (b, 7, (c, 0, (J, S/
Solution: GIvon fhaf A = a, b, c, J and B = ?, 8, 9.
ti) GIvon j
1
= ta, ?), tb, 8), tc, 8)
ThIs ImpIIos tj
1
) = a, b, c = A. Honco j
1
tii GIvon j
2
= ta, ?), ta, 8), tb, 9), tc, 9), tJ, 9)
ThIs ImpIIos tj
2
) = a, b, c, J = A and ta, ?) e j
2
, ta, 8) e j
2
wIfh ? = 8. Thus, j
2
can nof
bo a IuncfIon.
tiii) GIvon j
3
= ta, ?), tb, 8), tc, 9), tJ, 9)
ThIs ImpIIos tj
3
) = a, b, c, J = A and fhoro Is no such ordor paIr tx, y) e j
3
, tx, :) e j
3
such fhaf y = :. So j
3
Is a IuncfIon.
tio) GIvon j
4
= ta, ?), tb, ?), tc, 9), tJ, 8)
ThIs ImpIIos tj
4
) = a, b, c, J = A and fhoro Is no such ordor paIr tx, y) e j
4
, tx, :) e j
4
such fhaf y = :. So j
4
Is a IuncfIon.
Function 81
Example 2 Give an example of a function which is
(a) Injective but not surjective. (b) Surjective but not injective.
(c) Bijective (d) Neither injective nor surjective.
(e) Constant.
Explain with the help of arrow diagrams.
Solution: (a) Let A = {a, b, c, d, e}and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Consider a function f
1
from A to B as
f
1
= {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4), (e, 5)}
Now R (f
1
) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B. Hence f
1
is not a surjective function but injective. The
arrow diagram is given below.
(b) Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Consider a function f
2
from A to B as f
2
= {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 3), (e, 3)}
Here R(f
2
) = {1, 2, 3} = B and (c, 3) f
2
, (d, 3) f
2
, (e, 3) f
2
such that c d e.
Thus f
2
is surjective but not injective. The arrow diagram is given below.
(c) Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3}
3
from A to B as f
3
= {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 1)}. Here R (f
3
) = {1, 2, 3} = B.
Therefore f
3
is bijective. The arrow diagram is given below.
(d) Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
4
from A to B as f
4
= {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 4), (d, 4)}.
Here R(f
4
) = {2, 3, 4} B and (c, 4) f
4
, (d, 4) f
4
such that c d.
Therefore, f
4
is neither injective nor surjective. The arrow diagram is given below.
(e) Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3}
5
from A to B as f
5
= {(a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 2)}. This implies
f
5
(x) = 2 for every x A. Therefore f
5
is constant. The arrow diagram is given below.
A B C D
a
b
c
d
e
a
b
c
d
e
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
f
1
f
2
Example 3 lj j: x 2x, g: x x
2
anJ h: x (x + 1, then jinJ (j
o
g
o
h anJ j
o
(g
o
h. 8hou that
(j
o
g
o
h = j
o
(g
o
h.
Solution: Lof j : x 2x; g: x x
2
and h: x tx + 1).
i.e., j tx) = 2x, gtx) = x
2
and htx) = x + 1.
So, tj
o
g)tx) = j tgtx))
= j tx
2
) = 2x
2
ThoroIoro, tj
o
g)
o
htx) = tj
o
g)thtx)) = tj
o
g) tx + 1) = 2 tx + 1)
2
.
AgaIn tg
o
h)tx) = gthtx))
= gtx + 1) = tx + 1)
2
ThoroIoro j
o
tg
o
h)tx) = j tx + 1)
2
= 2 tx + 1)
2
.
Honco tj
o
g)
o
h = j
o
tg
o
h).
Example 4 Let j(x be any rea/ junction. 8hou that g
1
(x =
2
j(x j( x +
is a/uays an eoen
junction uhereas g
2
(x =
2
j(x j( x
is a/uays an oJJ junction.
Solution: Lof g
1
tx) =
j x j x t ) t ) +
2
ThoroIoro g
1
t x ) =
j x j x t ) t ) +
2
= g
1
tx), i.e., g
1
t x ) = g
1
tx).
AIso Iof g
2
tx) =
j x j x t ) t )
2
.
ThoroIoro g
2
t x) =
j x j x t ) t )
2
=
j x j x t ) t )
2
= g
2
tx). ThIs ImpIIos g
1
tx) Is an ovon
IuncfIon whoroas g
2
tx) Is an odd IuncfIon.
Example 5 FinJ the conposition (j
o
g anJ (g
o
j in the jo//ouing cases.
(i j (x = sin
2
x anJ g(x = x
2
+ 1
(ii j(x = e
x
anJ g(x = x
J
(iii j(x = 2x
2
+ x anJ g(x = x
2
+ 1
Hence shou that (j
o
g (g
o
j.
Solution: ti) Lof jtx) = sIn
2
x and gtx) = x
2
+ 1
ThoroIoro tj
o
g ) tx) = j tg tx))
= j t x
2
+ 1) = sIn
2
tx
2
+ 1)
a
b
c
d
!uncfIon 83
SImIIarIy tg
o
j)tx) = g tj tx)) = g t sIn
2
x) = sIn
4
x + 1
So, tj
o
g) = tg
o
j ).
tii) Lof j tx) = e
x
and gtx) = x
3
ThoroIoro tj
o
g)tx) = j t gtx)) = j tx
3
) = e
x
3
SImIIarIy tg
o
j)tx) = gt jtx)) = gte
x
) = te
x
)
3
= e
3x
.
So, tj
o
g ) = tg
o
j).
tiii) Lof j tx) = 2x
2
+ x and gtx) = x
2
+ 1
ThoroIoro tj
o
g)tx) = j tgtx)) = j tx
2
+ 1)
= 2tx
2
+ 1)
2
+ tx
2
+ 1) = 2x
4
+ 5x
2
+ 3
tg
o
j)tx) = gtj tx)) = gt2x
2
+ x) = t2x
2
+ x)
2
+ 1
= 4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ x
2
+ 1
So, tj
o
g)tx) = tg
o
j) tx).
Example 6 Deternine uhether the gioen junctions are one-one, onto or bijectioe.
(a j: P
+
P
+
JejineJ by j(x = |x|
(b j: l P
+
JejineJ by j(x = 2x + 7
(c j: P P JejineJ by j(x = |x|
Solution: ta) GIvon j : R
+
R
+
doIInod by jtx) = |x|.
Supposo fhaf j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
= |x
1
| = |x
2
|; i.e., x
1
= x
2
So, j: R
+
R
+
doIInod by jtx) = |x| Is ono-ono. AgaIn jtx) = |x|; x e R
+
ThIs ImpIIos y = |x| = x 3 x e R
+
. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf Ior ovory y e R
+
fhoro oxIsfs x e R
+
such fhaf y = j tx) = |x|. Honco, j: R
+
R
+
doIInod by jtx) = |x|Is onfo. ThoroIoro, bIjocfIvo.
tb) j: I R
+
doIInod by j tx) = 2x + ?
Assumo fhaf j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
ThIs ImpIIos 2x
1
+ ? = 2x
2
+ ?; i.e., x
1
= x
2
.
So, j tx) = 2x + ?; x e I, Is Ono-Ono.
AgaIn j tx) = 2x + ?; x e I
= y = 2x + ? 3 y = j tx)
= x =
y ?
2
If Is cIoar fhaf Ior y = 5 wo gof x = 1 I tSof oI posIfIvo Infogors). Honco jtx) = 2x + ? Is nof
onfo. Thus jtx) = 2x + ? Is Ono-Ono onIy.
tc) GIvon j: R R doIInod by j tx) = |x|
Supposo fhaf j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
= |x
1
| = |x
2
|
= x
1
= x
2
= x
1
= x
2
.
So, j: R R doIInod by jtx) = |x| Is nof Ono-Ono. AgaIn Ior jtx) = y = 5 In fho co-domaIn R
fhoro oxIsfs no oIomonf x in fho domaIn R. Honco j : R R doIInod by jtx) = |x| Is noIfhor
Ono-Ono nor onfo.
Example 7 Let A = /1, 2, J, 4/, B = /x, y, :, t/ anJ C = /2, 4, 0/. Let j = /(1, x, (2, :, (J, y, (4, t/
anJ g = /(x, 2, (y, 2, (:, 4, (t, 0/ be tuo junctions jron A B anJ B C respectioe/y. FinJ the
conposition (g
o
j.
Solution: Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, B = x, y, :, t and C = 2, 4, 9. Lof j = t1, x), t2, :), t3, y), t4, t) and
g = tx, 2), ty, 2), t:, 4), tt, 9)
ThoroIoro, g
o
j = t1, 2), t3, 2), t2, 4), t4, 9). WhIch Is a IuncfIon Irom A C . Tho arrow
dIagram Is gIvon boIow.
g
o
f
Example 8 Let Q be the set oj rationa/ nunbers. 8hou that the junction j . Q Q JejineJ by
j(x = 2x + 7, x Q is a bijectioe junction. FinJ j
1
(0, j
1
(1 anJ j
1
(2.
Solution: j: Q Q doIInod by jtx) = 2x + ?; x e Q
Lof x
1
, x
2
e Q such fhaf jtx
1
) = jtx
2
)
= 2x
1
+ ? = 2x
2
+ ?
= x
1
= x
2
.
i.e., j tx
1
) = j tx
2
) = x
1
= x
2
. So, j tx) = 2x + ?; x e Q Is Ono-Ono. AgaIn Ior ovory y e Q
tco-domaIn sof) fhoro oxIsfs x =
y ?
2
In fho domaIn sof Q such fhaf y = j tx) = 2x + ?. Honco j tx)
= 2x + ? Is onfo. ThoroIoro j tx) = 2x + ?, x e Q Is a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon.
To compufo fho Invorso wo havo j
1
ty) = x
i.e., j
1
ty) =
y ?
2
In gonoraI j
1
tx) =
x ?
2
; x e Q. Honco wo havo j
1
t0) =
?
2
, j
1
t1) = 3 and j
1
t2) =
5
2
.
Example 9 Let A = P /J/ anJ B = P /1/, uhere P is the set oj rea/ nunbers. Let j. A B
JejineJ by j(x =
x 2
x J
, x A. 8hou that j is One-One anJ onto. FinJ the inoerse junction oj j.

Solution: Lof A = R 3 and B = R 1, whoro R Is fho sof oI roaI numbors. Lof j: A B
doIInod by jtx) =
x
x
2
3
, x e A. Lof x
1
, x
2
e A such fhaf j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
=
x
x
1
1
2
3
=
x
x
2
2
2
3
= x
1
x
2
2x
2
3x
1
+ 6 = x
1
x
2
3x
2
2x
1
+ 6
= 2x
2
3x
1
= 3x
2
2x
1
= x
1
= x
2
i.e., j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
= x
1
= x
2
(g f)
o
!uncfIon 85
So, j tx) Is Ono-Ono.
AgaIn Ior ovory y e B, fhoro oxIsfs x =
3 2
1
y
y
In A such fhaf y = j tx) =

x
x
2
3
.
Honco, j tx) =
x
x
2
3
Is onfo.
ThoroIoro, j tx) =
x
x
2
3
, x e A Is a bIjocfIvo IuncfIon. To compufo Invorso wo havo j
1
ty) = x.
i.e., j
1
ty) =
3 2
1
y
y
. In gonoraI j
1
tx) =
3 2
1
x
x
; x e B
Example 10 Let A = /1, 2, 4, 6/, B = /J, 6, 7, 0/, C = /1, 2, 4, 6/ anJ j . A B JejineJ by
j = /(1, J, (2, 6, (4, 7, (6, 0/, g . B C JejineJ by g = /(6, 6, (J, 2, (7, 1, (0, 4/ be tuo junctions.
FinJ the conpositions (j
o
g anJ (g
o
j. 8hou that (j
o
g (g
o
j.
Solution: Lof A = 1, 2, 4, 6; B = 3, 5, ?, 9and C = 1, 2, 4, 6. AIso gIvon j = t1, 3), t2, 5),
t4, ?), t6, 9) wIfh g = t5, 6), t3, 2), t?, 1), t9, 4). ConsIdor fho arrow dIagram fo compufo tg
o
j).
g
o
f
ThoroIoro, tg
o
j) = t1, 2), t2, 6), t4, 1), t6, 4).
SImIIarIy, fo compufo tj
o
g) fho arrow dIagram bocomos

f
o
g
ThoroIoro, tj
o
g) = t5, 9), t3, 5), t?, 3), t9, ?). Honco, If Is cIoar fhaf tj
o
g) = tg
o
j ).
(g f)
o
(f g)
o
g
f
Example 11 Let j. P ( 1, 1 JejineJ by j tx) =
x
1 x
2
+
, x P. FinJ the inoerse oj abooe
junction ij exists, uhere P is the set oj rea/ nunbers.
Solution: Lof j : R t 1, 1) doIInod by j tx) =
x
x 1
2
+
, x e R. Lof x
1
, x
2
e R such fhaf j tx
1
) = j tx
2
)
=
x
x
1
1
2
1 +
=
x
x
2
2
2
1 +
= x
1
+ x
1
x
2
2
x
2
x
2
x
1
2
= 0
= tx
1
x
2
)t1 x
1
x
2
) = 0
= x
1
= x
2
or t1/ x
2
)
So, j tx) =
x
x 1
2
+
, x e R Is nof Ono-Ono, honco nof bIjocfIvo. ThoroIoro, Invorso doos nof
oxIsfs.
Example 12 FinJ the characteristic junction jor the set A. Where the unioersa/ set
U = /1, 2, J, 4, 6, 6, 7, S/ anJ A = /1, 4, 7, S/.
Solution: GIvon unIvorsaI sof ! = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, 8 and A = 1, 4, ?, 8. Tho characforIsfIc
IuncfIon Ior fho sof A Is gIvon as
A
t1) = 1,
A
t2) = 0,
A
t3) = 0,
A
t4) = 1,
A
t5) = 0,
A
t6) = 0,

A
t?) = 1,
A
t8) = 1. Tho arrow dIagram Is gIvon boIow.
Example 13 lj j tx) anJ g(x are both eoen or both oJJ, then prooe that j tx) g(x is eoen.
Solution: Supposo fhaf j tx) and gtx) aro bofh ovon.
i.e., j t x) = j tx) and gt x) = gtx).
Lof htx) = j tx) gtx)
ThoroIoro, ht x) = j t x) gt x) = j tx) gtx) = htx).
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf j tx) gtx) Is ovon. SImIIarIy If can bo provod fhaf II bofh j tx) and gtx) aro
odd, fhon j tx) gtx) Is ovon.
A
!uncfIon 8?
Example 14 8hetch the graph oj
j tx) =
1
x
, ij x 0
0, ij x 0
=
4
5
Solution: GIvon fhaf j tx) =

1
x
x
x
; II 0
0; II 0
=
4
5
;
If Is cIoar fhaf II x Is vory Iargo, fhon j tx) Is noarIy oquaIs fo 0 and j tx) Is vory Iargo whon x
Is noarIy oquaIs fo zoro. Tho graph Is gIvon boIow.
Example 15 Let j tx) anJ g(x are both eoen junctions. Frooe that (j
o
g is a/so an eoen junc-
tion.
Solution: Supposo fhaf j tx) and gtx) aro bofh ovon.
i.e., j t x) = j tx) and gt x) = gtx).
Now tj
o
g)t x) = j t gt x)) = j tgtx)) = tj
o
g)tx)
I.o., tj
o
g)t x) = tj
o
g)tx). ThoroIoro tj
o
g)tx) Is an ovon IuncfIon.
Example 16 Frooe that (j
o
g(x is an oJJ junction ij both j(x anJ g(x are oJJ junctions.
Solution: Supposo fhaf j tx) and gtx) aro odd IuncfIons.
i.e., j t x) = j tx) and gt x) = gtx)
Now tj
o
g)t x) = j tgt x))
= j t gtx)) 3 gtx) Is an odd IuncfIon
= j t gtx)) 3 j tx) Is an odd IuncfIon
= tj
o
g)tx)
i.e., tj
o
gt x) = tj
o
g) tx). ThoroIoro tj
o
g)tx) Is an odd IuncfIon.
Example 17 lj g(x = e
x
anJ (j
o
g is an iJentity junction, prooe that j(x = /n x.
Solution: Lof gtx) = e
x
and tj
o
g) Is an IdonfIfy IuncfIon. i.e., tj
o
g) tx) = x
i.e., j tgtx)) = x
i.e., j te
x
) = x = In te
x
)
ThoroIoro, In gonoraI j tx) = In x.
Example 18 Let j (x = 2x + 1 anJ g(x = x
2
+ 2. FinJ the oa/ues oj (g
o
j (4 anJ (j
o
g (4. 8hou
that they are not equa/.
Solution: GIvon fhaf j tx) = 2x + 1 and gtx) = x
2
+ 2
ThoroIoro, tg
o
j )t4) = gtj t4)) = gt9) 3 jt4) = 2t4) + 1 = 9
= 83 3 gt9) = 9
2
+ 2 = 83
AgaIn tj
o
g)t4) = j tgt4)) = j t18) 3 gt4) = 4
2
+ 2 = 18
= 3? 3 jt18) = 2t18) + 1 = 3?
ThoroIoro, tj
o
g)t4) = tg
o
j )t4)
Example 19 Let j . P P be JejineJ as j (x = x
2
Jx, ij x < 2 anJ x + 2, ij x 2. FinJ j (6, j (2,
j(0 anJ j( 2 .
Solution:
GIvon fhaf j tx) =
x x x
x x
2
3 <
>
4
5
; II 2
+ 2; II 2
So, j t5) = 5 + 2 = ?
j t0) = 0 0 = 0
j t 2) = t 2)
2
3t 2) = 10
j t2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
Example 20 FinJ the Jonain D(j oj each oj the jo//ouing junctions. (i j(x = 16 x
2
,
(ii j(x =
1
4 x
, (iii j(x = x
2
6x + 6
Solution: ti) GIvon jtx) = 16
2
x ; If Is cIoar fhaf j tx) Is nof doIInod Ior 16 x
2
s 0. i.e., 4 s x
s 4. So, jtx) Is nof doIInod Ior x e 4, 4. ThoroIoro tj ) = R 4, 4.
tii GIvon j tx) =
1
4 t ) x
; If Is cIoar fhaf jtx) Is nof doIInod Ior tx 4) = 0, i.e., j tx) Is nof doIInod
af x = 4. ThoroIoro t j ) = R 4.
tiii) GIvon j tx) = x
2
5x + 6. If Is cIoar fhaf j tx) Is doIInod Ior ovory roaI numbor R.
ThoroIoro, t j ) = R.
Example 21 FinJ the graph oj the jo//ouing junctions.
ta) j tx) =
3 1
2 2 3
2 3 2
2
x x
x x
x x
s s
+ <
4
5
II > 3
II
II
tb) jtx) =
x x
x x
+ s
>
4
5
6
6 1
5 1
II
II
Solution: ta) GIvon fhaf
j tx) =
3 1
2 2 3
2 3 2
2
x x
x x
x x
s s
+ <
4
5
II > 3
II
II
Tho graph oI abovo IuncfIon Is gIvon boIow.
!uncfIon 89
tb) GIvon fhaf j tx) =
6, II 1
5 , II 1
+
>
x x
x x
Tho graph Is gIvon boIow.

EXEkCl5E5
1. Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and B = a, b, c, J, e, j. oformIno whofhor oach roIafIon gIvon
boIow Is a IuncfIon Irom A fo B. II If Is a IuncfIon, IInd domaIn, rango. raw fho arrow
dIagram oI oach roIafIon.
ta) t1, J), t1, e), t2, a), t3, b), t4, e), t5, e), t6, j)
tb) t3, J), t4, e), t5, e)
tc) t1, b), t2, b), t3, c), t4, c), t5, j), t6, j)
tJ) t1, c), t2, c), t3, c), t4, c), t5, c), t6, c)
te) t1, a), t2, b), t3, c), t4, J), t5, e), t6, j)
tj) t1, a), t2, b), t3, c), t3, J), t3, j)
tg) t1, e), t4, e), t5, e), t6, e)
2. Lof j bo a IuncfIon Irom fho sof R fo fho sof R, whoro R Is a sof oI roaI numbors. ofor-
mIno whofhor fho IoIIowIng aro Ono-Ono, Onfo or bofh.
ta) jtx) = cosx tb) jtx) = ?x + 3
tc) jtx) = x
3
+ 2? tJ) jtx) = 3x
2
3x + 1
te) jtx) = 3
x
+ 2 tj) jtx) = e
x
4
tg) jtx) =
2 3
2 4
x
x
+
3. Lof j and g bo IuncfIons Irom I fo I, whoro I Is fho sof oI posIfIvo Infogors. !Ind fho
composIfIons tj
o
g) and tg
o
j ).
ta) jtx) = 2x +?; gtx) = cosx tb) jtx) = x
2
+ 2; gtx) = 3
x
+ 5
tc) jtx) = Iog x; gtx) = 5x + 2 J) jtx) = x + 4; gtx) = |x|
te) jtx) = 2
x
+ 2; gtx) = x
2
4. Lof A = a, b, c, J, B = 1, 2, 3, C = 4, 5, 6 and j : A B doIInod by j = ta, 1), tb, 1),
tc, 2), tJ, 2); g: B C doIInod by g = t1, 4), t2, 5), t3, 6) bo fwo IuncfIons. !Ind tg
o
j ). Is
tj
o
g) doIInod7
5. Lof A = 1, 8, 2?, 64; B = a, b, c, J, e; C = 1, 8, 2?, 64 and j : A B doIInod by
j = t1, a), t8, J), t2?, b), t64, e); g : B C doIInod by g = ta, 1), tb, 64), tc, 8), tJ, 2?), te, 8)
bo fwo IuncfIons. !Ind bofh tj
o
g) and tg
o
j ). Show fhaf tj
o
g) = tg
o
j ).
6. Lof ! = a, e, I, o, u bo fho unIvorsaI sof. !Ind fho characforIsfIc IuncfIon Ior fho sof
A = e, o, u.
?. Skofch fho IuncfIons gIvon boIow on R R.
ta) j tx) = x; 2 s x s 3 tb) j tx) = 3
x
tc) j tx) = 3x + 2 tJ) j tx) =
x x
x
2
0
6 0
II
II
>
<
4
5
te) j tx) =
2 1 0 2
0
4 2
x x
x
x x
+ < <
s
+ >
4
5
II
II
II
2
8. !Ind fho domaIn oI oach oI fho IoIIowIng IuncfIons.
ta) j tx) =
1
2 3 x x > C > C
tb) j tx) =
1
? 12
2
x x +
tc) j tx) = x
2
?x +12 tJ) j tx) = x
2
; 0 s x s 2
te) j tx) = 36
2
x
9. Lof j : R R doIInod by j tx) = x
2
+ x 6. !Ind j
1
t14) and j
1
t 8).
10. raw fho graph oI IoIIowIng IuncfIons.
ta) j tx) = x
3
3x + 2 tb) j tx) = x
4
10x
2
+ 9
tc) j tx) =
x
2
+ 1
!uncfIon 91
11. II j tx) = 2x 3 and gtx) = x
2
+ 3x + 5, IInd tj
o
gt5) and tg
o
j)t5). Show fhaf fhoy aro nof
oquaI.
12. II j tx) = 2x 3 and gtx) = x
2
+ 2x + 1. !Ind fho composIfIons tj
o
g) and tg
o
j ). !Ind tj
o
g)t2)
and tg
o
j)t2).
13. II j tx) = 5x + 1. !Ind a IormuIa Ior fho composIfIon IuncfIon j
3
. Hlnt : j
3
= tj
o
j
o
j )
14. Lof A = x, y, : and B = 2, 4, 6, 8. Sfafo whofhor or nof oach dIagram gIvon boIow
doIInos a IuncfIon Irom A Info B.
15. Lof j : R R doIInod by j tx) = 2x + 5. Show fhaf j tx) Is InvorfIbIo. !Ind fho vaIuos oI j
1
t2),
j
1
t4) and j
1
t5 ).
16. Lof j and g bo IuncfIons Irom fho posIfIvo Infogors fo fho posIfIvo Infogors doIInod by
j tx) = 3x + 1, and gtx) = 2x + 1. !Ind fho composIfIons tj
o
j ), tj
o
g), tg
o
j ) and tg
o
g).
1?. Lof A = R 2 and B = R
3
5
4
5
6
7
8
9
, whoro R Is fho sof oI roaI numbors. Lof j : A B doIInod
by j tx) =
3 9
5 10
x
x
; x e R. Show fhaf j Is bIjocfIvo and honco IInd fho Invorso oI j.

18. !or oach Hash IuncfIon, show how fho dafa wouId bo Insorfod In fho ordor gIvon In
InIfIaIIy ompfy coIIs. !so coIIIsIon rosoIufIon poIIcy II roquIrod.
ta) htn) = n mod 11; coIIs Indoxod 0 fo 10; dafa 55, 15, 285, ?43, 3?5, 22, 10, 800.
tb) htn) = n mod 13; coIIs Indoxod 0 fo 12; dafa ?14, 635, 26, ??5, 42, 30, 10, 136, 509.
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
19. Show fhaf fho Invorso oI j tx) = x
2
1 doos nof oxIsfs In gonoraI, buf j : 0, ~) 1, ~) has
an Invorso gIvon by j
1
tx) = x + 1 and j
1
: 1, ~) 0, ~).
20. Lof j bo a IuncfIon Irom X X; X = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 doIInod by jtx) = 3x mod 5. WrIfo fho
IuncfIon and draw fho arrow dIagram.
21. Lof j : X X; X = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 doIInod by jtx) = 4x mod 5. WrIfo fho IuncfIon j as a
sof oI ordor paIrs. WIfh fho hoIp oI arrow dIagram chock whofhor or nof j Is ono-fo-ono
or onfo.
22. Lof j : A B bo a IuncfIon. Show fhaf j Is InjocfIvo II and onIy II j
1
t j tX)) = X Ior aII
X _ A.
23. Lof j : R 0 R 0 doIInod by jtx) =
1
x
. Show fhaf j Is bIjocfIvo and Ifs Invorso Is gIvon
by j

1
tx) =
1
x
.
24. Show fhaf fho IuncfIon jtx) =
x
x
2
1 +
: R R Is noIfhor ono-ono nor onfo.
5.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
!uncfIon fhaf wo havo dIscussod In Chapfor 4 Is a bInary roIafIon fhaf assIgns a unIquo vaIuo
fo oach oIomonf In fho domaIn. Tho cIass oI IuncfIons whoso domaIn Is fho sof oI nafuraI
numbors and rango Is fho sof oI roaI numbors Is known as numorIc IuncfIons or dIscrofo
numorIc IuncfIons. Thoso numorIc IuncfIons aro hIghIy usoIuI In dIgIfaI compufafIon. In fhIs
chapfor wo dIscuss gonorafIng IuncfIons, rocurronco roIafIons, soIufIons fo rocurronco
roIafIons and Ifs appIIcafIon fo compufor scIonco.
5.1 0ENEkATlN0 FUNCTl0N5
An Imporfanf Idoa In dIscrofo mafhomafIcs Is fo osfabIIsh a roIafIon bofwoon fwo IIoIds so as fo
appIy knowIodgo In ono IIoId fo fho ofhor IIoId. ThIs Ioads fo fho dovoIopmonf oI gonorafIng
IuncfIon. ThIs gonorafIng IuncfIon Is an aIfornafIvo way oI roprosonfIng fho numorIc IuncfIons.
Thoso aro Imporfanf fooIs In dIscrofo mafhomafIcs fo soIvo varIous fypos oI counfIng probIoms
and If Is nof IImIfod fo soIvo fho rocurronco roIafIons. If was Infroducod by Iamous
mafhomafIcIan do MoIvro.
Tho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho soquonco oI roaI numbors
0 1 2
, , ,..., ,...
n
a a a a Is fho oxprossIon
Gtx) whIch usuaIIy confaIns InIInIfoIy many non-zoro forms such fhaf
2
0 1 2
0
Gt ) ... ...
n
n
i
i
i
x a a x a x a x
a x
+ + + + +
Wo caII fho abovo oxprossIon Gtx), whoro x Is an IndoformInafo, as gonorafIng IuncfIon

bocauso In somo sonso If gonorafos Ifs cooIIIcIonfs. If dovIafos Irom a poIynomIaI In fho Iacf
fhaf fho cooIIIcIonfs
i
a aro aII zoro aIfor a corfaIn poInf.
!or oxampIo fho gonorafIng IuncfIon oI fho arIfhmofIc soquonco 4, 9, 14, 19, . Is gIvon as
2 3
Gt ) 4 9 14 19 ... x x x x + + + +
#
GeneraIing FuncIion and
Recurrence RelaIion
5.1.1 PropertleS of 0eneratlng Functlon
In fhIs subsocfIon wo wIII dIscuss fho Imporfanf proporfIos known as shIIfIng proporfIos oI
gonorafIng IuncfIon.
1. Lof
2
0 1 2
Gt ) ... ... + + + + +
n
n
x a a x a x a x bo a gonorafIng IuncfIon. Thus, xGtx)=a
0
x+a
1
x
2
+
a
2
x
3
+a
3
x
4
...+a
n
x
n+1
+... If IndIcafos fhaf, II Gtx) gonorafos fho soquonco ,
0 1 2
, , ..., ,...,
n
a a a a
fhon xGtx) gonorafos fho soquonco
n
a a a a
0 1 2
0, , , ,..., ,... . SImIIarIy,
2
Gt ) x x gonorafos fho
soquonco
0 1 2
0, 0, , , , ..., , ...
n
a a a a . In gonoraI, Gt )
h
x x gonorafos fho soquonco,
0 1
0, 0,..., 0, , , a a
2
,..., ,...,
n
a a whoro fhoro aro h zoros boIoro a
0
.
2. Lof
2
0 1 2
Gt ) ... ... + + + + +
n
n
x a a x a x a x bo a gonorafIng IuncfIon. ThoroIoro,
0
Gt ) x a
+ + + +
2
1 2
... ...
n
n
a x a x a x . If IndIcafos fhaf, II Gt ) x gonorafos fho soquonco
0 1 2
, , ,..., ,...,
n
a a a a
fhon Gtx) a
0
gonorafos fho soquonco
1 2
0, , ,..., ,...
n
a a a . SImIIarIy, wo havo
0 1
Gt ) x a a x
n
a a
2
0, 0, ,..., ,... . ProcoodIng In fhIs mannor wo wIII gof
1
0 1 1
Gt ) ...
h
h
x a a x a x


+ + 1 2
0, 0,...,0, , , ,...,
h h h
a a a whoro fhoro
aro h zoros boIoro a
h
.
3. Lof
2
0 1 2
Gt ) ... ...
n
n
x a a x a x a x + + + + + bo a gonorafIng IuncfIon. Thus,
0
Gt ) x a
x
+ + + + +
n
n
a a x a x a x
2 1
1 2 3
... ... . ThoroIoro, dIvIdIng by powors oI x shIIfs fho soquonco fo
fho IoIf. If ImpIIos fhaf II Gtx) gonorafos fho soquonco
n
a a a a
0 1 2
, , ,..., ,..., fhon
0
Gt ) x a
x

1 2
, ,..., ,...
n
a a a . SImIIarIy, wo havo
0 1
2
Gt ) x a a x
x

gonorafos fho
soquonco
n
a a a
2 3
, ,..., ,... . In gonoraI
1
0 1 1
Gt ) ...
h
h
h
x a a x a x
x

, gonorafos fho soquonco
+ + h h h
a a a
1 2
, , ,...
Ior
h 1
.
5.1.2 Addltlon of Two 0eneratlng FunctlonS
Two gonorafIng IuncfIons can bo addod form by form as In fho caso oI poIynomIaIs. ThIs
oporafIon addIfIon provIdos us fo croafo a now gonorafIng IuncfIon Irom oId onos. Lof Gtx) and
Ftx) bo fwo gonorafIng IuncfIons such fhaf
2
0 1 2
2
0 1 2
Gt ) ... ...
!t ) ... ...
n
n
n
n
x a a x a x a x
x b b x b x b x
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
Tho addIfIon oI fwo gonorafIng IuncfIons Gtx) and !tx) Is doIInod as

2
0 0 1 1 2 2
Gt ) !t ) t ) t ) t ) ... t ) ...
n
n n
x x a b a b x a b x a b x + + + + + + + + + +

i
i i
i
a b x
0
t )
!or oxampIo, II
2
!t ) 2 3 5 x x x + + and
2
Gt ) 4 6 8 x x x + +
, fhon

!t ) Gt ) t2 4) + + + x x
+ + + + + x x x x
2 2
t3 6) t5 8) 6 9 13 .
GonorafIng !uncfIon and Rocurronco RoIafIon 95
5.1.3 Multlpllcatlon of Two 0eneratlng FunctlonS
Two gonorafIng IuncfIons can bo muIfIpIIod form by form as In fho caso oI poIynomIaIs. ThIs
oporafIon muIfIpIIcafIon provIdos us fo croafo a now gonorafIng IuncfIon Irom oId onos. Lof
Gtx) and !tx) bo fwo gonorafIng IuncfIons such fhaf
2
0 1 2
2
0 1 2
Gt ) ... ...
!t ) ... ...
n
n
n
n
x a a x a x a x
x b b x b x b x
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
Tho muIfIpIIcafIon oI fwo gonorafIng IuncfIons Gtx) and !tx) Is doIInod as

2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 0
3
0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0
0
0 0
.
Gt ) !t ) t ) t )
t ) ...
h
h
i h i
i
h
h
i h i
h i
x x a b a b a b x a b a b a b x
a b a b a b a b x a b x
a b x

+ + + + +
j \
+ + + + + + +
, (
( ,
j \
, (
( ,
!or oxampIo, II
2
!t ) 2 3 5 x x x + + and
2
Gt ) 4 6 8 x x x + + , fhon

!t )Gt ) x x
2
8 24 54 x x + + +
3 4
54 40 . x x +
5.1.4 The Exponentlal 0eneratlng Functlon
Tho basIc Idoa oI oxpononfIaI gonorafIng IuncfIon Is dovoIopod Irom bInomIaI oxpansIon Ior
posIfIvo InfograI Indox. Tho oxpononfIaI gonorafIng IuncfIon tx) Ior fho soquonco oI roaI
numbors
0 1 2
, , , , ,
n
a a a a

Is gIvon as
2 3
0 1 2 3
0
t )
2! 3! !
!
+ + + + + +

n
n
h
h
h
x x x
x a a x a a a
n
x
a
h
5.2 PAkTlTl0N5 0F lNTE0Ek5
ParfIfIonIng oI Infogors Is vory rIch and quIfo doop. CovorIng ovory aspocf oI parfIfIons Is
boyond fho scopo oI fhIs book. In fhIs socfIon, wo provIdo an ovorvIow oI parfIfIons, and dIscuss
a poworIuI fooI gonorafIng IuncfIon doaIIng wIfh parfIfIons.
A parfIfIon oI a posIfIvo Infogor, n, In numbor fhoory Is a way oI roprosonfIng n as a sum oI
posIfIvo Infogors whoro fho ordor oI fho addonds Is ImmaforIaI. !or an Infogor n, wo donofo
fho parfIfIon IuncfIon Ptn) as fho numbor oI parfIfIons oI n. !or oxampIo Pt4) = 5, sInco

+
+
+ +
+ + +
4 4
3 1
2 2
2 1 1
1 1 1 1
Similarly, it can be shown that P(1) = 1, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 3, P(5) = 7 and P(6) = 11 etc. A
recursive procedure to find the partition of a given integer n is given below.
5.2.1 Generating Function for Partitions
In number theory many methods are available to find the partitions of an integer. In this sub-
section we will discuss how generating function is used to compute the value of P(n) for an
integer n. On introducing generating function to compute P(n) can reduce the difficulty of
complex problems. This is because generating function can be manipulated more easily than
combinatorial quantities. The concept is based on power series and was first applied to
partitions by Euler. This is because the coefficient a
n
of x
n
, in the power series
2
0 1 2
0
G( ) ... ...
=
= = + + + + +
i n
i n
i
x a x a a x a x a x represents the number of ways that the event n
can happen.
In order to find a generating function for the number of partitions of a number n, our aim is
to find out the number of ones, twos, threes and so on are there in the partition. In each
partition, one can occur 0, 1, 2, ... times; thus contributing a factor of
2 3
(1 ...) + + + + x x x to
the generating function G(x). Again, two can occur 0, 1, 2, times; thus contributing a factor
of
2 4 6
(1 ...) + + + + x x x to G(x). Similarly, three can occur 0, 1, 2, 3, times; thus contributing
a factor of
3 6 9
(1 ...) + + + + x x x to G(x). Proceeding in this manner, we find that the generating
function for the number of partitions of an integer is:
=
= + + + + + + + + + + + +
= <

= <
2 3 2 4 6 3 6 9
2 3 4
1
G( ) (1 ...)(1 ...)(1 ...)...
1 1 1 1
...; 1
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )
1
; 1
(1 )
k
k
x x x x x x x x x x
x
x x x x
x
x
The above function G(x) generates the sequence P(0), P(1), P(2), P(3), , where we define
P(0) = 1. It implies that, if we consider the generating function
1
1
G( )
(1 )
m
k
k
x
x
=
=
for some
fixed m, then the coefficient of x
n
is the number of partitions of n into summands that do not
exceed m. Some values of the partition function are given below in the form of a table for
reference.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P( ) 1 2 3 5 7 11 15 22 30 42
n
n
For example, to get the value of P(3), we have to compute the coefficient of x
3
in the
generating function
3
1
1
G( )
(1 )
k
k
x
x
=
=
. Thus we have
GonorafIng !uncfIon and Rocurronco RoIafIon 9?
2 3 2 4 3 6
2 3 4
Gt ) t1 ...)t1 ...)t1 ...)
1 2 3 4 ...
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
x x x x x x x x
x x x x
ThoroIoro, Pt3) = 3.
5.3 kECUkkENCE kELATl0N5
Rocurronco roIafIon bogIns wIfh somo vory oIomonfary roIafIons fhaf aro InfuIfIvoIy oIIocfIvo.
If provIdos a Iow mofhods Ior consfrucfIng moro compIIcafod roIafIons basod on sImpIor
roIafIons. !or oxampIo, II wo ask a porson abouf fho ago oI hIs oIdosf son BIako, fhon ho couId
foII us, 1? yoars dIrocfIy or ho couId foII us ho Is 5 yoars oIdor fhan hIs socond son SmIfh
whoroas SmIfh Is 4 yoars oIdor fhan hIs onIy sIsfor Loroona. Whon ho foIIs us fhaf hIs onIy
daughfor Is 8 yoars oId fhon wo havo no dIIIIcuIfy fo caIcuIafo fho ago oI hIs oIdosf son BIako,
who Is 1? yoars oId. ThoroIoro, a rocurronco roIafIon oxprossos fho nfh oIomonf oI a soquonco
In forms oI Ifs prodocossors. In fhIs socfIon wo dIscuss an InfroducfIon fo rocurronco roIafIons
fhaf aro hIghIy usoIuI In dosIgn and anaIysIs oI aIgorIfhms.
A rocurronco roIafIon Ior fho soquonco
0 1 2
, , , ,
n
s s s s Is an oquafIon fhaf oxprossos s
n
In
forms oI Ifs prodocossors
0 1 2 1
, , , ,
n
s s s s Ior aII Infogor n n, whoro n Is a posIfIvo Infogor.
Thus, If Is cIoar fhaf a rocurronco roIafIon Is doIInod wIfh corfaIn condIfIons known as InIfIaI
condIfIons or boundary condIfIons oI rocurronco roIafIon. A rocurronco roIafIon Is ofhorwIso
known as dIIIoronco oquafIon.
!or oxampIo, fho rocurronco roIafIon oI fho soquonco <?, 12, 1?, 22, .> Is
+
n n
s s n s
1 1
5, 2; 2
Tho condIfIon
1
2 s Is known as InIfIaI condIfIon.
5.4 M0DEL5 0F kECUkkENCE kELATl0N
Rocurronco roIafIon can bo usod fo modoI varIofy oI roaI IIIo probIoms bofh InsIdo and oufsIdo
compufor scIonco. In fhIs socfIon wo wIII dIscuss Iow Imporfanf roaI worId probIoms fhaf uso
rocurronco roIafIon.
5.4.1 TowerS of Hanol
Tho puzzIo Towors oI HanoI Is IashIonod aIfor fho ancIonf Towor Brahma rIfuaI as shown
boIow. AccordIng fo Iogond, af fho fImo fho worId was croafod, fhoro was a dIamond fowor
tTowor A) wIfh 64 goIdon dIsks. Tho dIsks woro oI docroasIng In sIzo Irom boffom fo fop. Aparf
Irom fhIs, fhoro woro fwo ofhor dIamond fowors tTowor B and C). SInco fho fImo oI croafIng,
Brahman prIosfs havo boon fryIng fo movo fho dIsks Irom fowor A fo fowor C usIng fowor B
Ior InformodIafo sforago. Tho dIsks aro so hoavy fhaf fhoy can bo movod onIy ono af a fImo
and a Iargor dIsk cannof bo pIacod ovor a smaIIor dIsk. AccordIng fo Iogond, fho worId wIII
como fo an ond whon fho prIosfs havo compIofod fhoIr fask.
In fhIs modoI our aIm Is fo fransIor fho dIsks Irom ono pog A fo anofhor pog C fhrough
InformodIafo pog B by movIng ono dIsk af a fImo. Tho onIy rosfrIcfIon Is fhaf a Iargor dIamofor
pog can nof bo pIacod ovor a smaIIor dIamofor pog. Tho Idoa oI fho abovo modoI can bo cIoarod
Irom fho IoIIowIng IIguro.

Tower A

Tower B

Tower C

A vory oIoganf soIufIon rosuIfs Irom fho uso oI rocursIon. Lof us consIdor fho numbor oI
dIsks af fowor A Is n. Our aIm Is fo gof fho Iargor dIsk af fho boffom oI fowor C. In ordor fo gof
fhIs, wo movo fho romaInIng tn 1) dIsks fo fowor B and fhon movo fho Iargosf dIsk fo fowor
C as shown In fho IIguro gIvon boIow. Now wo havo fo movo fho dIsks Irom fowor B fo fowor
C. In ordor fo gof fhIs wo havo fowor A and C avaIIabIo. ThoroIoro, our soIufIon Ior an n dIsk
probIom Ioads fo fwo tn 1) dIsk probIoms.

Tower A

Tower B

Tower C

Lof s
n
donofos fho numbor oI movos roquIrod fo soIvo fho n dIsk puzzIo. If Is aIso cIoar fhaf,
II fhoro Is onIy ono dIsk fhon wo sImpIy movo If fo fho fowor C. ThoroIoro, wo havo fho
rocurronco roIafIon
+ >
n n
s s n
1
2 1, 1 wIfh s
1
= 1
Wo can uso an IforafIvo approach fo soIvo fhIs rocurronco roIafIon. ThoroIoro, wo gof
+
n n
s s
1
2 1

+ + + +
2
2 2
2 t2 1) 1 2 2 1
n n
s s

+ + + + + +
2 3 2
3 3
2 t2 1) 2 1 2 2 2 1
n n
s s

+ + + + + + + +
3 2 4 3 2
4 4
2 t2 1) 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1
n n
s s

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +

3
n n
n n
n n
n n
n
s
s
s
1 2 3 2
t 1)
1 2 3 2
1
1 2 3 2
1
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 1; 1
2 1
Generating Function and Recurrence Relation 99
From the above formula, the number of moves required to move 64 disks from tower A to
tower C is equal to
= = s
64
64
2 1 18, 446, 744, 073, 709, 551, 615.
5.4.2 Rabbits and Fibonacci Numbers
A young pair of rabbits, one of each sex, is placed on an island. A pair of rabbits does not bread
until they are two months old. After they are two months old, each pair produces another pair
each month. Our aim is to find out number of pairs of rabbits on the island after n months,
assuming that no rabbits ever die. This famous problem was posed by Leonardo di pisa, also
known as Fibonacci.
A very elegant solution results from the use of recursion. First we consider tabulation and
then we fit a recurrence relation. The tabulation of reproduction is given below.
Month
(n)
Reproduction
Pairs
Young
Pairs
Total
Pairs (
n
s )
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
2
3
5
1
1
2 = 1 + 1
3 = 2 + 1
5 = 3 + 2
8 = 5 + 3
Let s
n
denotes the number of pairs of rabbits after n months. From the above table it is clear
that, at the end of the first month, the number of pairs of rabbits on the island is one i.e., s
1
=1.
This is because this pair does not bread during the first two months. Therefore, s
2
=1. In the
third month the first pair produces one more pair of rabbits. So, the number of pairs is 2 i.e.,
= = +
3 2 1
2 . s s s Therefore, the number of pairs of rabbits after n months is equal to the sum of
members of rabbits in the previous month (
n
s
1
) and the number of new born pairs (s
n2
).
Therefore, we get the recurrence relation as

= +
= =
n n n
s s s
s s
1 2
1 2
with
1, 1
The above recurrence relation is otherwise known as Fibonacci sequence.
5.4.3 Compound Interest
Another important real application of recurrence relation is to compute compound interest
when principal, rate of interest and number of years are given. Suppose that Mr. Smith has
deposited amount s
0
in a savings account at a bank. Our aim is to compute the total amount
after n years if the rate of interest per year is r percent.
A very elegant solution results from the use of recurrence relation. Let s
n
denote the
amount in the account after n years. The amount in the account after n years is equal to the
sum of amount in the account after (n 1) years and the interest paid in the n
th
year. Therefore,
we get

j \ j \
+ +
, ( , (
( , ( ,
n n n n
r r
s s s s
1 1 1
1
100 100
Wo uso an IforafIvo approach fo soIvo fhIs rocurronco roIafIon. ThoroIoro,
j \
+
, (
( ,
n n
r
s s
1
1
100

j \ j \ j \
+ + +
, ( , ( , (
( , ( , ( ,
j \ j \ j \
+ + +
, ( , ( , (
( , ( , ( ,

n n
n n
r r r
s s
r r r
s s
2
2 2
2 3
3 3
1 1 1
100 100 100
1 1 1
100 100 100

j \
+
, (
( ,
n
r
s
0
1
100
Honco, fho amounf In fho accounf can bo compufod by usIng fho abovo rocurronco roIafIon
onco fho vaIuos s
0
, r and n aro known.
5.5 LlNEAk kECUkkENCE kELATl0N WlTH C0N5TANT C0EFFlClENT5
A IInoar rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs Is oI fho Iorm
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
... t )

+ + + + +
n n n n h n h
c s c s c s c s c s j n
whoro, c
i
, i = 0, 1, 2, ., h aro consfanfs. II bofh c
0
and c
h
aro non-zoro, fhon fho abovo oquafIon
Is known as an h
th
ordor rocurronco roIafIon.
II j tn) = 0, fhon fho abovo rocurronco roIafIon Is formod as h
th
ordor IInoar homogonoous
rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs.
5.5.1 FlrSt 0rder kecurrence kelatlonS
A IIrsf ordor IInoar homogonoous rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs Is oI fho Iorm
>
n n
c s c s n
0 1 1
t 0) wIfh
0
A s
whoro, c c
0 1
, aro consfanfs wIfh fho InIfIaI condIfIon
0
A s . Tho abovo oquafIon can aIso bo
wrIffon as
>
n n
s r s n
1
, t 0) wIfh
0
A s
On appIyIng rocurronco ropoafodIy wo gof
2 3
1 2 3 0
... ... A

n n
n n n n
s r s r s r s r s r
ThoroIoro, fho gonoraI soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon Is a goomofrIc soquonco wIfh
rafIo r, i.e.,
n
n
s Ar
SImIIarIy, a IIrsf ordor IInoar non-homogonoous rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf
cooIIIcIonfs Is gIvon as

+ >
n n
c s c s c n
0 1 1 2
t 0)
wIfh
0
A s
whoro, c c c
0 1 2
, , aro consfanfs wIfh fho InIfIaI condIfIon
0
A s . Tho abovo oquafIon can aIso
bo wrIffon as
+ >
n n n
s r s c n
1
t 0) wIfh
0
A s
On appIyIng rocurronco ropoafodIy, wo gof
2
1 2 1
0
1 1
A

+ + +
+ +

n n n n n n
n n
n n i n n i
i i
i i
s r s c r s rc c
r s r c r r c
II c
n
Is consfanf, tsay h) fhon fho soIufIon Is gIvon as
1
A II t 1)
1
A II t 1)
+
n
n
n
r
s r h r
r
hn r
5.6 DlFFEkENT METH0D5 0F 50LUTl0N
In fhIs socfIon wo dIscuss fho basIc IundamonfaI mofhods such as backfrackIng, Iorward
chaInIng and summafIon mofhod fo soIvo IIrsf ordor IInoar rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf
cooIIIcIonfs.
5.6.1 8acktracklng Method
Tho IundamonfaI fochnIquo fo soIvo a rocurronco roIafIon Is backfrackIng. In fhIs mofhod, fo
soIvo a rocurronco roIafIon wo sfarf wIfh s
n
and movo backward fowards s
1
fo gof a pafforn by
subsfIfufIng
n n
s s
1 2
, , . and so on. !or oxampIo, consIdor fho rocurronco roIafIon
+
n n
s s
1
2 wIfh
1
3. s
Thus, wo havo

+
n n
s s
1
2

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
n n
n n
n n
s s
s s
s s
2 2
3 3
4 4
t 2) 2 2 2
t 2) 2 2 3 2
t 2) 3 2 4 2

+
+
+

n n
s n
s n
n
t 1)
1
t 1) 2
2t 1)
3 2t 1)
ThoroIoro, +
n
s n 3 2t 1)
5.6.2 Forward Chalnlng Method
Anofhor basIc fochnIquo fo soIvo rocurronco roIafIon Is Iorward chaInIng. In fhIs mofhod, wo
sfarf Irom InIfIaI condIfIon and movo Iorward fowards s
n
unfII wo gof a cIoar pafforn. !or
oxampIo, consIdor fho rocurronco roIafIon
+
n n
s s
1
2 wIfh
1
3. s
Thus, wo havo + s s
2 1
2
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +

n n
s s s s
s s s s
s s s s
s s s s
s s s n s n
3 2 1 1
4 3 1 1
5 4 1 1
6 5 1 1
1 1 1
2 t 2) 2 2 2
2 t 2 2) 2 2 3
2 t 2 3) 2 2 4
2 t 2 4) 2 2 5
2 t 2t 2)) 2 2t 1)
ThoroIoro, +
n
s n 3 2t 1)
5.6.3 5ummatlon Method
Anofhor way oI soIvIng IIrsf ordor IInoar rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonf Is
summafIon mofhod. In fhIs mofhod, wo roarrango fho gIvon rocurronco roIafIon In fho Iorm

n n
s hs j n
1
t ) and fhon backfrack fIII fho InIfIaI condIfIon. As a rosuIf wo gof a numbor oI
oquafIons and fhon add fhoso oquafIons In such a mannor fhaf aII InformodIafo forms gof
cancoIIod. !InaIIy, wo gof fho roquIrod soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon. !or oxampIo,
consIdor fho IIrsf ordor rocurronco roIafIon
+
n n
s s
1
2 wIfh s
1
3.
Thus, wo gof fho IoIIowIng sof oI oquafIons.

n n
n n
n n
n n
s s
s s
s s
s s
s s
1
1 2
2 3
3 4
2 1
2
2
2
2
2
On addIng fhoso tn 1) oquafIons wo gof
n
s s n
1
2t 1).
ThoroIoro, fho soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon Is + 3 2t 1).
n
s n
5.7 H0M00ENE0U5 50LUTl0N5
Tho fofaI soIufIon oI a IInoar rocurronco roIafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs Is fho sum oI
homogonoous soIufIon and parfIcuIar soIufIon. In fhIs socfIon, wo dIscuss how fo gof fho
homogonoous soIufIon oI a IInoar dIIIoronco oquafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs. Tho
homogonoous soIufIon fo fho IInoar dIIIoronco oquafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs Is obfaInod
by makIng j tn) = 0. ConsIdor fho homogonoous IInoar dIIIoronco oquafIon

0 1 1 2 2 3 3
... 0

+ + + + +
n n n n h n h
c s c s c s c s c s
A homogonoous soIufIon oI a IInoar dIIIoronco oquafIon wIfh consfanf cooIIIcIonfs Is oI fho
Iorm
1
A
n
r , whoro r
1
Is caIIod a characforIsfIc roof and A Is a consfanf obfaInod by fho boundary
condIfIons. On subsfIfufIng A
n
n
s r In fho abovo dIIIoronco oquafIon, wo gof

1 2 3
0 1 2 3
1 2 3
0 1 2 3
A A A A ... A 0
. ., A ... 0

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
n n n n n h
h
n h
h
c r c r c r c r c r
i e r c c r c r c r c r
1 2 3
0 1 2 3
. ., ... 0;

+ + + + +
h
h
i e c c r c r c r c r A 0
n
r 3
1 2 3
0 1 2 3 1
. ., ... 0

+ + + + + +
h h h h
h h
i e c r c r c r c r c r c
Tho abovo oquafIon Is known as characforIsfIc oquafIon oI fho dIIIoronco oquafIon.
ThoroIoro, II r
1
Is a roof oI fho characforIsfIc oquafIon,
1
A
n
r Is a homogonoous soIufIon fo fho
dIIIoronco oquafIon. Tho abovo characforIsfIc oquafIon Is oI h
fh
dogroo and fhus If has h
characforIsfIc roofs. So, fhoro arIso fwo casos, dIsfIncf roofs and muIfIpIo roofs.
+=IA ` II fho roofs oI fho characforIsfIc oquafIon aro dIsfIncf, fhon fho homogonoous
soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as,
1 1 2 2 3 3
A A A ... A + + + +
h n n n n
n h h
s r r r r
whoro,
h
r r r
1 2
, , , aro dIsfIncf characforIsfIc roofs and fho consfanfs
1 2
A , A , , A
h
aro fo
bo doformInod by fho gIvon boundary or InIfIaI condIfIons.
+=IA ` II somo oI fho roofs oI fho characforIsfIc oquafIon aro muIfIpIo roofs, fhon fho
homogonoous soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as,
2 1
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 1
tA A A ... A ) B B ... B
+
+ + + + + + + +
h n n n n n
n n h n h n
s n n n r r r r
whoro, r
1
bo a roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy n and rosf oI fho roofs
2 3 1
, , ... ,
+ h n
r r r aro dIsfIncf. Tho
consfanfs
1 2 1 2
A , A , ... , A , B , B , ... , B
n h n
aro fo bo doformInod by fho boundary condIfIons.
ConsIdor fho rocurronco roIafIon Ior fho !IbonaccI soquonco

+

1 2
1 2 0 1
. ., 0, 2; 1, 1
n n n
n n n
s s s
i e s s s n s s
Tho characforIsfIc oquafIon Is gIvon as

2
1 0 r r
On soIvIng fho abovo oquafIon, wo gof fho characforIsfIc roofs r
1
and r
2
as
+
1
1 5
2
r and
2
1 5
2
r
Thoy aro dIsfIncf roaI roofs and fho rafIo
+ 1 5
2
Is known as fho GoIdon rafIo. Thus, fho
gonoraI soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon Is gIvon as
1 2
1 5 1 5
A A
2 2
n n
n
s
j \ j \
+
+
, ( , (
( , ( ,
!sIng fho boundary condIfIons wo gof fho IoIIowIng oquafIons.
1 2
A A 1 + = and
1 2
1
A A
5
=
On soIvIng fho abovo oquafIons wo gof
1
1 5
A
2 5
+
= and
2
1 5
A
2 5
=
ThoroIoro, fho gonoraI soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon Is gIvon as
+ +
=

1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
2 2
2 5 2 5
n n
n
s
5.8 PAkTlCULAk 50LUTl0N
Tho soIufIon fhaf safIsIIos fho dIIIoronco oquafIon wIfh j tn) on fho rIghf hand sIdo oI fho
dIIIoronco oquafIon Is caIIod as parfIcuIar soIufIon. Thoro Is no gonoraI procoduro Ior
doformInIng fho parfIcuIar soIufIon oI a dIIIoronco oquafIon Ior ovory IuncfIon j tn). Howovor,
In sImpIo casos fhIs soIufIon can bo doformInod by fho mofhod oI InspocfIon caIIod as frIaI
soquonco mofhod. Wo consIdor a frIaI IuncfIon dopondIng on corfaIn Iorms oI j tn). Tho
unknown consfanfs assocIafod wIfh fho frIaI IuncfIon aro fo bo doformInod by subsfIfufIng fho
frIaI IuncfIon In fho rocurronco roIafIon. Wo prosonf a fabIo Ior frIaI IuncfIon basod on j tn) fo
gof fho parfIcuIar soIufIon oI fho dIIIoronco oquafIon.
f (n)
Tria/
Function
h, whoro h Is a consfanf I tConsfanf)
a
n
, whoro a Is a consfanf buf nof a
characforIsfIc roof
I
n
a
a
n
, whoro a Is a consfanf buf a
characforIsfIc roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy n.
I
n n
n a
1 2
0 1 2
3
0 1 2
:
n n n
n
a n a n a n a
Ex a n a n a

+ + + +
+ +

1
0 1
3 2
0 1 2 3
I I I
: I I I I
n n
n
n n
Ex n n n
+ + +
+ + +

1 2
0 1 2
t )
:
n n n n
n
n
a a n a n a n a
Ex bna

+ + + +

1
0 1
0 1
tI I I )
: tI I )
n n n
n
n
a n n
Ex a n
+ + +
+

1 2
0 1 2
t )
n n n n
n
c a n a n a n a

+ + + + whoro
c Is a characforIsfIc roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy
n.
1
0 1
tI I I )
n n n n
n
c n n n

+ + +
n n
a b c + + , whoro a, b and c aro
consfanfs.
1 2 3
I I I
n n
a b + +

5.9 T0TAL 50LUTl0N
Tho dIscrofo numorIc IuncfIon fhaf Is fho sum oI homogonoous and parfIcuIar soIufIon, Is
known as fofaI soIufIon. Lof
h
n
s bo fho homogonoous soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon
whoroas
p
n
s Is fho parfIcuIar soIufIon. ThoroIoro, wo gof

+ + + + +
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
0
h h h h h
n n n n h n h
c s c s c s c s c s and

+ + + + +
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
t )
p p p p p
n n n n h n h
c s c s c s c s c s j n
!rom fho abovo oquafIons on addIng wo gof

+ + + + + +
0 1 1 1
t ) t ) t ) t )
h p h p h p
n n n n h n h n h
c s s c s s c s s j n
Thus fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is + .
h p
n n n
s s s If Is obsorvod fhaf, fho
parfIcuIar soIufIon aIono wIII nof, In gonoraI, safIsIy fho boundary condIfIons, howovor, wo can
adjusf fho homogonoous soIufIon so fhaf fho fofaI soIufIon safIsIIos fho dIIIoronco oquafIon
and boundary condIfIons.
ConsIdor fho dIIIoronco oquafIon,

+
1 2
5 6 4
n n n
s s s , 2 n .ti)
wIfh s
0
= 1, s
1
= 3. Tho characforIsfIc oquafIon Is gIvon as
+
2
5 6 0 . ., 2, 3 r r i e r
Tho homogonoous soIufIon Is gIvon as
1 2
A t2) A t3)
h n n
n
s +
Lof fho parfIcuIar soIufIon bo P.
p
n
s ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIon ti), wo gof
P 5P + 6P = 4; i.e., P = 2
Thus, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
1 2
A t2) A t3) 2
h p n n
n n n
s s s + + +
!sIng InIfIaI condIfIons wo gof
1 2
1 2
A A 1 0
2A 3A 1 1
jor n
jor n
+
On soIvIng fhoso oquafIons wo gof

1
A 4 and
2
A 3 . ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho
dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
+ +
+ + +
1 2
4t2) 3t3) 2 3 2 2
n n n n
n
s
5.10 50LUTl0N 8Y 0ENEkATlN0 FUNCTl0N
Wo can IInd a cIosod Iorm Ior a IInoar rocurronco roIafIon by usIng gonorafIng IuncfIon. Onco
fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Is sfrong-mIndod, an oxprossIon Ior fho vaIuo oI fho numorIc IuncfIon
can bo obfaInod. Wo IIIusfrafo fho fochnIquo by fho IoIIowIng oxampIo.
ConsIdor fho rocurronco roIafIon

+

1 2
0 1
3 4 0, 2
3, 2
n n n
s s s n
s s
t ) i
MuIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos oI oquafIon ti) by x
n
, wo gof

+
1 2
3 4 0
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x t ) ii
SummIng oquafIon tii) Ior aII n, n 2, wo gof

+
1 2
2 2 2
3 4 0
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x
t ) iii
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt ) .

n
n
n
x s x ThoroIoro, oquafIon tiii) roducos fo
i.e.,
1 2 2
0 1 1 2
2 2
2
0 1 0
tGt ) ) 3 4 0
tGt ) ) 3 tGt ) ) 4 Gt ) 0

+
+

n n
n n
n n
x s s x x s x x s x
x s s x x x s x x
i.e.,
2
0 1 0
Gt )t1 3 4 ) 3 3 ? + + + + x x x s s x s x x
2
2 2
0 0
3 ? 3 ? 2 1
Gt )
1 3 4 t1 )t1 4 ) 1 1 4
2t1 ...) t1 4 t4 ) ...)
2 t 4 )

+ +
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
+

n n
n n
x x
x
x x x x x x
x x x x
x x
On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonf oI x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
+ 2 t 4) , 0
n
n
s n
5.11 ANALY5l5 0F THE AL00klTHM5
Rocurronco roIafIon Is quIfo usoIuI In compufor scIonco. Wo uso rocurronco roIafIon fo anaIyzo
fho fImo compIoxIfy oI sovoraI aIgorIfhms. Tho fochnIquo Is fo dovoIop a rocurronco roIafIon
and InIfIaI condIfIons fhaf doIIno a soquonco
1 2 3 4
, , , , , s s s s
whoro s
n
Is fho fImo roquIrod
Ior an aIgorIfhm fo oxocufo an Inpuf oI sIzo n. Wo can doformIno fho fImo roquIrod Ior an
aIgorIfhm by soIvIng fho rocurronco roIafIon. In fhIs socfIon, wo dIscuss soIocfIon sorf, bInary
soarch, InsorfIon sorf and Sfrasson`s mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon. Onco, fho Idoa Is cIoar moro
compIIcafod aIgorIfhms can bo soIvod.
5.11.1 5electlon 5ort
ThIs aIgorIfhm sorfs fho gIvon soquonco In IncroasIng ordor. ThIs fochnIquo IInds fho Iargosf
Ifom and pIacos If af fho Iasf posIfIon. AIfor pIacIng fho Iargosf Ifom af fho Iasf posIfIon, fho
aIgorIfhm sorfs fho romaInIng oIomonfs rocursIvoIy. Lof us consIdor fho Inpuf soquonco oI
Iongfh n as
1 2 3 4
, , , , , .
n
a a a a a
Our aIm Is fo gof fho soquonco In IncroasIng ordor. Now, wo

prosonf fho aIgorIfhm.
Algorlthm
1. _ t , )
2. t 1)
se/ection sort a n
ij n then
>
max_
max_
3.
4.
5. max_ 1
6. 1
?. t )
8. max_
9. t , )
10. _ t , 1)
i inJex
n inJex
return
e/se
inJex
jor i to n Jo
ij a a then
inJex i
saap a a
se/ection sort a n
In ordor fo compufo fho fImo compIoxIfy, wo counf fho numbor oI comparIsons s
n
af IIno ?
roquIrod fo sorf n Ifoms. Horo, ImmodIafoIy wo obfaIn fho InIfIaI condIfIon s
1
= 0. In ordor fo
obfaIn fho rocurronco roIafIon, wo counf fho numbor oI comparIsons af oach IIno and fhon add
fhoso numbors fo gof fho fofaI numbor oI comparIsons s
n
. !rom fho aIgorIfhm If Is cIoar fhaf
fho numbor oI comparIsons af IInos 1 6 Is zoro. AgaIn, wo havo tn 1) comparIsons af IIno ?.
SImIIarIy, fhoro Is no comparIson af IInos 8 9. LIno 10 agaIn ropoafs fho samo aIgorIfhm wIfh
Inpuf sIzo tn 1). Buf fhIs aIgorIfhm roquIros s
n1
comparIsons Ior Inpuf sIzo tn 1). ThoroIoro,
fho fofaI numbor oI comparIsons Is gIvon as
+
1
t 1)
n n
s s n wIfh s
1
= 0.
ThIs Is fho roquIrod rocurronco roIafIon. On soIvIng fhIs by IforafIon, wo gof
+
1
t 1)
n n
s s n

+ +
+ + +

2
3
t 2) t 1)
t 3) t 2) t 1)
n
n
s n n
s n n n

+ + + + +
+ + + +
1
2
1 t 3) t 2) t 1)
1 t 3) t 2) t 1)
t 1)
t )
2
s n n n
n n n
n n
n
If Is fo bo nofod fhaf fho bosf-caso, worsf-caso and avorago-caso fImos aro aII fho samo Ior
fhIs aIgorIfhm.
5.11.2 lnSertlon 5ort
ThIs aIgorIfhm sorfs a gIvon soquonco
1 2 3 4
, , , , ,
n
a a a a a
In IncroasIng ordor by rocursIvoIy

sorfIng fho IIrsf tn 1) oIomonfs and fhon InsorfIng n
fh
oIomonf In fho corrocf posIfIon. So,
fho aIgorIfhm fakos dIIIoronf amounf oI fImo fo sorf fwo Inpuf soquonco oI fho samo sIzo. If Is
nofod fhaf, fho aIgorIfhm works vory IIrsfIy on Ioss oIomonfs. Horo, wo prosonf an aIgorIfhm
Ior Inpuf soquonco oI Iongfh n.
Algorlthm
+
>
1
1. _ t , )
2. t 1)
3.
4. _ t , 1)
5. 1
6.
?. t 1) t )
8.
9.
n
i
i i
lnsertion sort a n
ij n then
return
lnsertion sort a n
i n
tenp a
ahi/e i anJ a tenp Jo
begin
a a
+

1
10. 1
11.
12.
13. _
i
i i
enJ
a tenp
enJ lnsertion sort
In ordor fo compufo fho fImo compIoxIfy, wo counf fho numbor oI comparIsons s
n
af IIno ?
roquIrod fo sorf n oIomonfs. Horo, dIrocfIy wo obfaIn fho InIfIaI condIfIon s
1
= 0. In ordor fo
obfaIn fho rocurronco roIafIon, wo counf fho numbor oI comparIsons af oach IIno and fhon add
fhoso numbors fo gof fho fofaI numbor oI comparIsons s
n
. !rom fho aIgorIfhm If Is cIoar fhaf
fho numbor oI comparIsons af IInos 1 3 Is zoro. AgaIn, IIno 4 ropoafs fho samo aIgorIfhm wIfh
Inpuf sIzo tn 1). Buf fhIs aIgorIfhm roquIros s
n1
comparIsons Ior Inpuf sIzo tn 1). SImIIarIy,
fhoro Is no comparIson af IInos 5 6. Tho fofaI numbor oI comparIsons af IIno ? Is oIfhor zoro
or maxImum oI n fhaf doponds on fho Inpuf oIomonfs. AgaIn fhoro Is no comparIson af IInos
8 13. Tho worsf-caso occurs onIy whon fho oIomonfs In fho soquonco aro gIvon In rovorso
ordor, i.e., In docroasIng ordor. So, fho fofaI numbor oI comparIsons In worsf-caso Is gIvon as
+
1 n n
s s n wIfh s
1
=0
ThIs Is fho roquIrod rocurronco roIafIon. On soIvIng fhIs by IforafIon wo gof
+
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + +

1
2
1
t 1)
2 t 2) t 1)
2 t 2) t 1)
n n
n
s s n
s n n
s n n n
n n n

+

2
t 1)
1 t )
2
n n
n
SImIIarIy, fho bosf-caso occurs II fho oIomonfs aro aIroady sorfod. In fhIs caso fho body oI
whIIo Ioop af IIno ? Is novor onforod. ThIs Is bocauso af oach fImo whon i has Ifs InIfIaI vaIuo
oI tn 1) wo IInd fhaf
i
a tenp af IIno ?. Thus, s
n
= 1 Ior n = 2, 3, . , n af IIno 4. ThoroIoro,
fho bosf-caso runnIng fImo Is gIvon as t ) n .
5.11.3 5traSSen'S Matrlx Multlpllcatlon
In fhIs socfIon, wo dIscuss a now fochnIquo oI mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon caIIod Sfrasson`s mafrIx
muIfIpIIcafIon. Lof A and B bo fwo tr r) mafrIcos. Our aIm Is fo obfaIn fho producf mafrIx
AB. Let the product matrix be P. Therefore, P is also a matrix of order (r r). Here we adopt
a new strategy known as divide-and-conquer to get the product matrix P. For simplicity, we
assume that r is a power of 2, i.e., r = 2
n
. If r is not a power of 2, then find a least suitable
integer m greater than r and is a power of 2. Now, change both the input matrices A and B to
be of order (mm) by introducing (m r) number of rows and columns with entities as zero.
Algorithm
1. Partition both the given matrices A and B into
2 2
r r j \
, (
( ,
submatrices. Therefore, we get

, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
11 12
21 22
and
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
11 12
21 22
where
11 12 21 22 11 12 21 22
, , , , , , , are all
j \
, (
( ,
2 2
r r
submatrices.
2. Compute fourteen matrices
1 2 7 1 2 7
, , , , , , ,

of order
j \
, (
( ,
2 2
r r
r as below.
+

+
+

1 11 22
2 12 22
3 11 21
4 11 12
5 21 22
6 11
7 22
( );
( );
( );
( );
( );
;
;
+
+
+

1 11 22
2 21 22
3 11 12
4 22
5 11
6 12 22
7 21 11
( );
( );
( );
;
;
( );
( );
3. Compute seven matrices
1 2 7
, , ,
of order
j \
, (
( ,
2 2
r r
such that
, 1, 2, , 7
i i i
i

4. The product AB can then be expressed as
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
11 12
21 22
where
11 12 21 22
, , , are all
j \
, (
( ,
2 2
r r
submatrices to be computed such that
+ +
+
11 1 2 4 7
12 4 6
+
+
21 5 7
22 1 3 5 6
A quick count indicates that such an algorithm requires 7 multiplication operations and 18
addition operations of order
j \
, (
( ,
2 2
r r
. Let s
n
denote the total number of arithmetic operations
required to multiply two ( ) (2 2 )
n n
r r matrices. Therefore, we have

+
2 2
1
7 18 2
n
n n
s s with the initial condition s
0
= 1
ThIs Is fho roquIrod rocurronco roIafIon. Tho abovo rocurronco roIafIon can bo wrIffon as

1
1 0
? 18 4 , 1
n
n n
s s s ...ti)
? 0 . ., ? r i e r

1
A t?)
h n
n
s
Lof fho parfIcuIar soIufIon bo P4 .
p n
n
s Thus, Irom oquafIon ti) wo gof
1 1
?P 18
P4 ?P4 18 4 . ., 4 P 4
4 4

j \ j \

, ( , (
( , ( ,
n n n n n
i e
On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonf oI 4
n
bofh sIdos wo gof P = 6. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho

1
A t?) 6 4
h p n n
n n n
s s s + +
On usIng fho InIfIaI condIfIon s
0
= 1, wo gof A
1
= ?. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho
rocurronco roIafIon Is gIvon as

Ig Ig
? ? 6 4 ? ? 6 4 ; Ig + + 3
n n r r
n
s n r

+ +
Ig ? Ig 4 2 81 2
? 6 ? 6 r r r r
Thus, fho compufIng fImo oI fho aIgorIfhm prosonfod abovo Is
2 81
t ) r . So, If fakos Ioss
compufIng fImo fhan fho ordInary mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon.
5.11.4 8lnary 5earch
Lof
1 2
, , , ,
i i i j
a a a a
+ +
bo a IIsf oI oIomonfs fhaf aro sorfod In IncroasIng ordor. ConsIdor a
probIom oI doformInIng whofhor a gIvon oIomonf x Is prosonf In fho IIsf. II fho oIomonf x Is
prosonf In fho IIsf, fhon our aIm Is fo doformIno fho Indox 'j` such fhaf
j
a x . II fho oIomonf
Is nof prosonf In fho IIsf, fhon 'j` Is fo bo sof fo zoro. Lof P t , , , , )
i j
n a a x donofos an
arbIfrary Insfanco oI fhIs soarch probIom, whoro n Is fho numbor oI oIomonfs In fho IIsf
+ + 1 1 2
, , ,..., ,
i i j
a a a a and x Is fho oIomonf fo bo soarchod. Horo wo prosonf a rocursIvo aIgorIfhm
oI fhIs bInary soarch.
Algorlthm
>
+ , ]
, ]
]
1. _ t , , , )
2. t )
3. t0)
4.
t )
5.
2
Binary search a i j x
ij i j then
return
e/se
i j
h
6. t )
h
ij x a then

<
?. t )
8. t )
h
return h
ij x a
9. 1 j h
+
10.
11. 1
12. _ t , , , )
13. _
e/se
j h
Binary search a i j x
enJ Binary search
Now, wo havo fo compufo fho fImo compIoxIfy In fho worsf caso. Lof fho fofaI numbor oI
oIomonfs In fho IIsf bo n. onofo s
n
as fho worsf-caso fImo. II n = 1, fhon fho soquonco confaIns
onIy ono oIomonf a
i
and fhus i = j . In worsf-caso, fho oIomonf x wIII nof bo Iound af IIno 6, so
fho aIgorIfhm wIII bo Invokod a socond fImo af IIno 12. Howovor, In fho socond caII oI bInary
soarch wo wIII havo > i j and fho aIgorIfhm wIII formInafo af IIno 3 by rofurnIng vaIuo 0.
ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf fho aIgorIfhm Invokod fwIco whon n = 1. ThoroIoro, fho InIfIaI
condIfIon Is gIvon as
s
1
= 2.
II n >1, fhon doIInIfoIy i < j. Thus, fho condIfIon af IIno 2 Is IaIso. In fho worsf-caso, fho
oIomonf wIII nof bo Iound af IIno 6 and fhus fho aIgorIfhm wIII bo Invokod af IIno 12. So, fho
fImo roquIrod by fho InvocafIon af IIno 12 Is s
n
, whoro n Is fho sIzo oI fho soquonco fhaf Is
Inpuf af IIno 12. Thus, fho sIzos oI fho IoIf and rIghf sIdos oI fho orIgInaI soquonco aro
, ]
, ]
]
1
2
n
and
, ]
, ]
] 2
n
rospocfIvoIy. As fho worsf-caso occurs wIfh Iargor soquonco, so wo gof
, ]
, ]
]
2
n n
s s .
ThoroIoro, fho rocurronco roIafIon fo fho bInary soarch Is gIvon as

, ]
, ]
]
+
2
1
n n
s s wIfh
1
2 s .ti)
Such fypo oI dIIIoronco oquafIons aro dIIIIcuIf fo soIvo, howovor wo soIvo fhIs whon n Is a
powor oI 2. Lof us fako 2 .
h
n ThoroIoro, abovo dIIIoronco oquafIon ti) roducos fo

+
1
2 2
1
h h
s s .tii)
wIfh
1
2 s
Lof us fako
2
.
h
h
b s ThoroIoro,
0
1 0
2
. s s b So, fho abovo oquafIon tii) wIfh InIfIaI condIfIon
roducos fo

+
1
1
h h
b b wIfh
0
2 b
On soIvIng by IforafIvo mofhod, wo havo

+
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

1
2 2
3 3
0
1
1 1 2 1
1 2 1 3 1
1 2
h h
h h
h h
h h
b b
b b
b b
b h b h h
ThoroIoro, wo gof + 2
h
b h .tiii)
On subsfIfufIng 2
h
n , wo gof Ig Ig 2 . n h h ThoroIoro, fho abovo oquafIon tiii) roducos fo
i.e.,
+
+
2 Ig
2 Ig
h
n
b n
s n
II n Is nof a powor oI 2, fhon n IIos bofwoon fwo powors oI 2. So, wo gof

1
2 2
h h
n
SInco fho gIvon soquonco s Is IncroasIng, wo gof
i.e.,

+ + + + 3
1
2 2
2
2 t 1) 2 Ig 2 2
h h
h
n
h
s s s
h n h s b h
ThoroIoro, on combInIng fhoso In-oquafIons wo gof
< + + < +
1
2 2
Ig 1 2 3 Ig
h h
n
n h s s s h n
Thus, tIg )
n
s n . ThIs Is fho worsf-caso runnIng fImo oI bInary soarch Ior Inpuf oI sIzo n.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 FinJ the generating junction in c/oseJ jorn jor the sequence oj rea/ nunbers 0, 0,
0, 1, 1, 1, 1, .
Solution: Wo know fhaf + + + + + +

2 3
1
1
1
n
x x x x
x
.
ThoroIoro, fho gonorafIng IuncfIon oI 1, 1, 1, . Is
1
1 x
. If ImpIIos fhaf
+
+ + + + +

3
3 4 5 3
...
1
n
x
x x x x
x
.
Honco, fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho soquonco oI roaI numbors 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, .Is
3
1
x
x
.
Example 2 FinJ the generating junction in c/oseJ jorn jor the sequence oj rea/ nunbers 2, 2,
0, 2, 2, .
Solution: Wo know fhaf
2 3
1
1 ... ...
1
+ + + + + +
n
x x x x
x
.
ThoroIoro,
2 3
2
2 2 2 2 ... 2 ...
1
+ + + + + +
n
x x x x
x
.
If ImpIIos fhaf
2 3
0
2
2
2 2 2 2 ... 2 ... 2 .
1
+ + + + +

n h
h
h
x x x x x
x
So, fho gonorafIng IuncfIon oI
2, 2, 0, 2, 2, . Is
2
2
2 .
1
x
x
Example 3 8o/oe the recurrence re/ation
1 2
,
n n n
s 7s 10s 0 n 2

+ . lt is gioen that the
initia/ conJitions are
0
s 0 anJ
1
s J .
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho rocurronco roIafIon

+
1 2
? 10 0
n n n
s s s
+
2
? 10 0 r r
On soIvIng fho abovo oquafIon, wo gof fho characforIsfIc roofs
r = 2 and r = 5
ThoroIoro, fho soIufIon fo fho rocurronco roIafIon Is gIvon as
1 2
A t2) A t5) +
n n
n
s ...ti)
On ImposIng fho InIfIaI condIfIons, wo gof
1 2 0
1 2 1
A A 0 0
2A 5A 3 3
+
3
3
s
s
On soIvIng fho abovo oquafIons wo gof
1
A 1 and
2
A 1. ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIon ti), wo
gof
+ 1t2) 5
n n
n
s .
n n 1 n 2 0
s 7s 10s 0, s 0

+ anJ s
1
= J by using
generating junction ahere,
n 2
.
Solution: ConsIdor fho rocurronco roIafIon

+

1 2
0 1
? 10 0, 2
0, 3
n n n
s s s n
s s
...ti)
MuIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos oI oquafIon ti) by
,
n
x
wo gof

+
1 2
? 10 0
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x ...tii)
SummIng oquafIon tii) Ior aII n, n 2, wo gof

+
1 2
2 2 2
? 10 0
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x
...tiii)
Nofo fhaf
n
n
n
x s x

0
Gt ) . ThoroIoro, oquafIon tiii) roducos fo
n n
n n
n n
x s s x x s x x s x

+

1 2 2
0 1 1 2
2 2
tGt ) ) ? 10 0
2
0 1 0
2
0 1 0
2
1 1
0 0
. ., tGt ) ) ? tGt ) ) 10 Gt ) 0
. ., Gt )t1 ? 10 ) ? 3
3 3 1 1
. ., Gt )
1 ? 10 t1 2 )t1 5 ) 1 2 1 5
. ., Gt ) 1t1 2 ) t1 5 ) 1 t2 ) t5 )

+
+ +
+
+
+ +

n n
n n
i e x s s x x x s x x
i e x x x s s x s x x
x x
i e x
x x x x x x
i e x x x x x
On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonf oI
n
x bofh sIdos, wo gof
+ t 1)2 5 , 0
n n
n
s n
n n 1 n 2 0
s 4s 4s 0 s 1

+ , anJ s
1
= 6 by using
n 2
.

+

1 2
0 1
4 4 0, 2
1, 6
n n n
s s s n
s s
...ti)
MuIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos oI oquafIon ti) by
n
x , wo gof

+
1 2
4 4 0
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x ...tii)
SummIng oquafIon tii) Ior aII n, n
2, wo gof

+
1 2
2 2 2
4 4 0
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x
...tiii)
Nofo fhaf

0
t )
n
n
n
O x s x . ThoroIoro, oquafIon tiii) roducos fo
1 2 2
0 1 1 2
2 2
tGt ) ) 4 4 0
n n
n n
n n
x s s x x s x x s x

+

2
0 1 0
2
0 1 0
2 2 2
1 2
2 2
. ., tGt ) ) 4 tGt ) ) 4 Gt ) 0
. ., Gt )t1 4 4 ) 4 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
. ., Gt )
1 4 4 t1 2 ) 1 2 t1 2 )
. ., Gt ) 1t1 2 ) 2t1 2 )
. ., Gt ) 1t1 2 t2 ) ) 2t1 2t2 ) 3t2 )
x x
i e x
x x x x x
i e x x x
i e x x x x x

+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+
+ + + + + + +
0 0
)
. ., Gt ) 1 t2 ) 2 t 1)t2 )
n n
n n
i e x x n x

+ +


n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
+
+ + +
1
t 1)2 t 1)2 t1 2 )2 , 0
n n n
n
s n n n
Example 6 8o/oe the recurrence re/ation ,
n n 1 n 2 0
s 4s 4s 0 s 1

+ anJ
1
6 s aithout using
n 2
.

+

1 2
0 1
4 4 0, 2
1, 6
n n n
s s s n
s s
...ti)
Tho characforIsfIc oquafIon fo fho oquafIon ti) Is gIvon as
2 2
4 4 0, . ., t 2) 0 r r i e r +
Tho characforIsfIc roofs aro gIvon as r = 2, 2. ThoroIoro, fho soIufIon fo fho rocurronco
roIafIon Is gIvon as
1 2
tA A )2
n
n
s n + ...tii)
1 0
1 2 1
A 1 1
2A 2A 6 6
s
s

3
3
1
A 1 and
2
A 2 . ThoroIoro, fho soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco
oquafIon Is gIvon as
t1 2 )2 , 0
n
n
s n n +
Example 7 8o/oe the Jijjerence equation ,
n
n n 1 n 2
s 7s 10s J

+ gioen that
0
s 0 anJ
1
s 1 .
Solution: ConsIdor fho dIIIoronco oquafIon

+

1 2
0 1
? 10 3
0, 1
n
n n n
s s s
s s
...ti)
Tho characforIsfIc oquafIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon ti) Is gIvon as
i.e.,
+

2
? 10 0
t 2)t 5) 0
r r
r r
ThoroIoro, fho characforIsfIc roofs aro r = 2, 5. So, fho homogonoous soIufIon fo fho oquafIon
ti) Is gIvon as
1 2
A t2) A t5)
h n n
n
s + ...tii)
Lof fho parfIcuIar soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon ti) bo P3
p n
n
s . Thus, Irom oquafIon ti)
wo gof
i.e.,
1 2
P3 ?P3 10P3 3
?P 10P
3 P 3
3 9
n n n n
n n

+
j \
+
, (
( ,
i.e.,
2P
3 3
9
n n j \

, (
( ,
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
9
P
2
. ThoroIoro, fho parfIcuIar soIufIon
Is gIvon as
j \

, (
( ,
9
3 .
2
p n
n
s Honco, fho soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon ti) Is gIvon as
1 2
9
A t2) A t5) 3
2
h p n n n
n n n
s s s
j \
+ + +
, (
( ,
1 2 0
1 2 1
9
A A 0
2
29
2A 5A 1
2
s
s
3
3
1
A
8
3
and
2
11
A .
6
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho
( )
+ +
8 9 11
3 6 2
t2) t5) 3
n n n
n
s
Example 8 8o/oe the Jijjerence equation
n n 1 n 2
s 6s 0s J

+ + , gioen that ,
0 1
s 0 s 1 .
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho dIIIoronco oquafIon
1 2
6 9 3
n n n
s s s

+ + .ti)
2
6 9 0 . ., 3, 3 + + r r i e r
1 2
tA A )t 3)
h n
n
s n +
Lof fho parfIcuIar soIufIon bo P
p
n
s . ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIon ti), wo gof
P +6P + 9P = 3; i.e., P =
3
16
1 2
3
tA A )t 3)
16
h p n
n n n
s s s n + + +
!sIng InIfIaI condIfIons
0 1
0, 1 s s , wo gof
1
1 2
3
A 0 0
16
3
tA A )t 3) 1 1
16
jor n
jor n
+ +

1
3
A
16
and
2
1
A .
12
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo
fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
j \
+ +
, (
( ,
3 1 3
.
t 3)
16 12 16
n
n
s n
Example 9 8o/oe the Jijjerence equation
n n 1 n 2
s 2s s J

+ , gioen that ,
0 1
s 0 s 1 .
1 2
2 3
n n n
s s s

+ .ti)
+
2
2 1 0 . ., r r i e 1 r Is a roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy 2.
1 2
tA A )t1)
h n
n
s n +
If Is cIoar fhaf 1 Is a characforIsfIc roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy 2 and 3 can bo wrIffon as
2
3 1
. Lof fho
parfIcuIar soIufIon bo
2
P
p
n
s n . So, oquafIon ti) roducos fo
2 2 2
P 2Pt 1) Pt 2) 3 n n n + i.e.,
3
P =
2
2
1 2
3
tA A )t1)
2
h p n
n n n
s s s n n + + +
!sIng InIfIaI condIfIons
0 1
0, 1 s s , wo gof
1
1 2
A 0 0
3
A A 1 1
2
jor n
jor n

+ +
On soIvIng fhoso oquafIons, wo gof

1
A 0 and
2
1
A
2

. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon fo fho
2
3
2 2
n
n n
s +
Example 10 8hoa that the tota/ so/ution oj the Jijjerence equation

2
n n 1 n 2
s 6s 6s 24r

+ + Is t ) t )
n n 2
1 2
17 77
A 2 A J 2n n
J 12
+ + + + ,
ahere A
1
anJ A
2
are constants.
2
1 2
5 6 24
n n n
s s s r

+ + ...ti)
2
5 6 0 r r + +
On soIvIng fho abovo oquafIon wo gof fho characforIsfIc roofs r=2, 3. ThoroIoro, fho
homogonoous soIufIon Is gIvon as
1 2
A t 2) A t 3)
h n n
n
s +
If Is gIvon fhaf fho rIghf hand sIdo oI fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is 24r
2
. ThIs Is a poIynomIaI oI
dogroo 2. ThoroIoro, consIdor fho parfIcuIar soIufIon as
2
1 2 3
P P P
p
n
s n n + + . So, oquafIon ti)
roducos fo
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
P P P 5P t 1) P t 1) P 6P t 2) P t 2) P 24 + + + + + + + + n n n n n n r
i.e.,
2 2
1 2 1 1 2 3
12P t12P 34P ) t29P 1?P 12P ) 24 r r r + + +
On equating the coefficients, we have
1 1
2 1 2
1 2 3 3
12P 24 . ., P 2
17
12P 34P 0 . ., P
3
77
(29P 17P 12P ) 0 . ., P
12
i e
i e
i e

+
So, the particular solution is given as + +
2
17 77
2
3 12
p
n
s n n .
Thus, the total solution to the difference equation is given as
2
1 2
17 77
A ( 2) A ( 3) 2
3 12
h p n n
n n n
s s s n n + + + + +
Example 11 Find the total solution of the difference equation
n n 1
s s 5
, given that
0
s 2 .
Solution: Given that the difference equation
1
5
n n
s s

(i)
The characteristic equation is given as
1 0 . ., 1 r i e r is a characteristic root.
The homogeneous solution to the difference equation is given as
1
A (1)
h n
n
s
It is clear that 1 is a characteristic root and 5 can be written as 5.1
n
. Let the particular solution
be P
p
n
s n . Therefore, equation (i) reduces to
P P( 1) 5 n n i.e., P = 5
1
A 5
h p
n n n
s s s n + +
Using initial condition
0
2 s we get
1
A 2 . Therefore, the total solution to the difference
equation is given as
2 5
n
s n +
Example 12 Find the total solution of the difference equation .
n
n n 1
s 2s 5 2
, given that
0
s 7 .

1
2 5 2
n
n n
s s (i)
i.e.,
2 0 2 r r
is a characteristic root.
The homogeneous solution is given as
1
A (2)
h n
n
s
Let the particular solution be P 2 .
p n
n
s n So, equation (i) reduces to
1
P 2 2P( 1)2 5 2
n n n
n n

i.e., 2 [P P( 1)] 5 2
n n
n n
i.e.,
P 5
1
A (2) 5 2
h p n n
n n n
s s s n + +
Using initial condition
0
7, s we get
1
A 7 . Therefore, the total solution to the difference
equation is given as
7(2) 5 2
n n
n
s n + .
Example 13 Solve the difference equation ( ) ,
n
n n 1 n 2
s 4s 4s n 1 3

+ + given that
0
s 0 and
1
s 2 .
1 2
4 4 ( 1)3
n
n n n
s s s n

+ + (i)
2
4 4 0 . ., 2 r r i e r + is a characteristic root of multiplicity 2.
1 2
(A A )2
h n
n
s n +
Let the particular solution be
1 2
(P P )3 +
p n
n
s n . So, equation (i) becomes
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
1 2 2
(P P )3 4(P P ( 1))3 4(P P ( 2))3 ( 1)3
4 4
. ., 3 [P P (P P P ) (P P 2P )] 3 3
3 9
1 1
. ., 3 (P 4P ) P 3 3 .
9 9

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
, ] j \
+ + +
, (
, ]
( ,
]
n n n n
n n n
n n n
n n n n
i e n n n n
i e n n
On equating the coefficients, we get
2
P 9 and
1
P 27 .
Therefore, the total solution is given as
1 2
(A A )2 (9 27)3 + + +
h p n n
n n n
s s s n n
Using initial conditions
0
0 s and
1
2 s , we get
1
A 27 and
2
A 1 . Therefore, the total
solution to the difference equation is given as
(27 )2 (9 27)3
n n
n
s n n + + .
Example 14 Find the total solution to the recurrence relation ( ) ,

+ +
2 n
n n 1 n 2
s 4s 4s n 1 2
given that
0
s 0 and .
1
s 2
2
1 2
4 4 ( 1)2
n
n n n
s s s n

+ + (i)
2
4 4 0 . ., 2 r r i e r + is a characteristic root of multiplicity 2.
1 2
(A A )2
h n
n
s n +
As the right hand side of the given difference equation is
2
( 1)2
n
n + and 2 is a characteristic
root of multiplicity 2, the general particular solution to the difference equation is
2 2
1 2 3
(P P P ) 2
p n
n
s n n n + + . So, equation (i) reduces to
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
2 2 2 2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
2 2 2 2
1 2 3
2 3 4 2 3 4
1 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 4 2
1 2
1 2
(P P P ) 2 4(P P ( 1) P ( 1) )( 1) 2
4(P P ( 2) P ( 2) )( 2) 2 ( 1)2
. ., 2 [P P P 2P ( 1) 2P ( 1) 2P ( 1)
P ( 2) P ( 2) ( 2) ] ( 1)2
. ., 2 [2P (6 6)P
n n
n n
n
n
n
n n n n n n
n n n n
i e n n n n n n
n n n n
i e n + +
+ + + +
2 2
3
2 2
1 2 3 2 3 3
(12 24 14)P ] ( 1)2
. ., 2 [(2P 6P 14P ) (6P 24P ) 12 P ] ( 1)2
n
n n
n n n
i e n n n
On equating the coefficients, we get
3 2 3
12P 1; 6P 24P 0 and
1 2 3
2P 6P 14P 1 +
On solving these equations, we get,
1 2
11 1
P , P
12 3

and
3
1
P .
12
Therefore, the total solution is given as

2 2
1 2
11 1 1
(A A )2 2
12 3 12
h p n n
n n n
s s s n n n n
j \
+ + + + +
, (
( ,
Using initial conditions s
0
=0 and s
1
=2, we get
1
A 0 and
2
1
A .
3
Therefore, the total

solution to the difference equation is given as
j \
+ + +
, (
( ,
2 2
1 11 1 1
2 2
3 12 3 12
n n
n
s n n n n
Example 15 Solve the difference equation
1 2 3 n n n n
s s s s

+ + +
given that
0
s 4 .
1 2 3 n n n n
s s s s

+ + +
(i)
On taking n = n 1, we get
1 2 3 4 n n n n
s s s s

+ + +
(ii)
On squaring the difference equation (i) we get

+ + +
2
1 2 3 n n n n
s s s s
i.e.,

+
2
1 1 n n n
s s s
i.e.,

2
1
2 0
n n
s s ...(iii)
Let us take lg .
n n
b s It implies that 2 .
n
b
n
s So, equation (iii) reduces to
1
1
2
2 1
(2 ) 2(2 ) 0
. ., 2 2 0
n n
n n
b b
b b
i e

+

This is possible only when
1
2 1 0
n n
b b

(iv)
Now, we have to solve this first order, linear and non-homogeneous difference equation (iv).
So, the characteristic equation is given as

1
2 1 0 . ., .
2
r i e r
Therefore, the homogeneous solution is given as
1
A .
2
n
h
n
b
j \
, (
( ,
Let the general particular solution to the equation (iv) is P
p
n
b . So, equation (iv) reduces to
2P P 1 = 0 i.e., P = 1.
Thus, the total solution is given as
1
2
A( ) 1
h p n
n n n
b b b + + (v)
Again, we have
0 0
lg lg 4 2 b s . On imposing this condition we get
0
A 1 2 b + , i.e.,
A = 1. Therefore, the total solution is given as

j \
+
, (
( ,
1
1
2
n
n
b
i.e.,
j \
+
, (
( ,
1
lg 1
2
n
n
s
i.e.,
j \
+
, (
( ,
1
1
2
2
n
n
s
2
n n 1
s 2s 0
, given that the initial condition .

0
s 4
Solution: Given that
2
1
2 0
n n
s s

(i)
Let us take lg .
n n
b s It implies that 2 .
n
b
n
s So, equation (i) reduces to

1
2
(2 ) 2(2 ) 0
n n
b b
i.e.,
1
2 1
2 2 0
n n
b b

+

This is possible only when
1
2 1 0
n n
b b

(ii)
The above equation (ii) is of first order, linear and non-homogeneous and hence can be solved.

1
2 1 0 . ., .
2
r i e r
Therefore, the homogeneous solution is given as
1
A .
2
n
h
n
b
j \
, (
( ,
Let the general particular solution to the equation (ii) is P.
p
n
b So, equation (ii) reduces to
2P P 1 = 0 i.e., P = 1.
Thus, the total solution is given as
j \
+ +
, (
( ,
1
1
2
n
h p
n n n
b b b A
(iii)
Again, we have
0 0
lg lg 4 2 b s . On imposing this condition we get,
0
A 1 2 b + i.e.,
A = 1. Therefore, the total solution is given as
i.e.,
1
1
2
1 1
1 . ., lg 1
2 2
2
n
n n
n n
n
b i e s
s
j \
+
, (
( ,
j \ j \
+ +
, ( , (
( , ( ,
Example 17 Find the total solution of the difference equation .

n
n n 1 n 1
ns ns s 2

+

+
1 1
2
n
n n n
ns ns s
i.e.,

+
1
( 1) 2
n
n n
ns n s ...(i)
Let us take .
n n
b ns Therefore,
1 1
( 1)
n n
n s b

. Thus, the difference equation (i) reduces to
1
2
n
n n
b b

+ (ii)
+ 1 0 . ., 1 r i e r
The homogeneous solution is given as A( 1)
h n
n
b .
Let the general particular solution to the equation (ii) is P2
p n
n
b . So, equation (ii) reduces to
1
P2 P2 2
n n n
+
On equating the coefficient of 2
n,
we get
2
P .
3
Thus, the total solution to the difference
equation (ii) is given as
2
A( 1) 2
3
2
A( 1) 2
3
h p n n
n n n
n n
n
b b b
ns
j \
+ +
, (
( ,
j \
+
, (
( , ...(iii)
The above equation (iii) is the required total solution.
1
!;
n n
s ns n n 1
with initial condition

0
s 2 .

1
!; 1
n n
s ns n n (i)
Let us take / !
n n
b s n . Therefore,
1 1
/( 1)!
n n
b s n

. Thus, equation (i) reduces to
i.e.,

1
1
! ( 1)! !
1
n n
n n
n b n n b n
b b
...(ii)
1 0 . ., 1 r i e r
Therefore, homogeneous solution is given as A(1)
h n
n
b .
Since, the characteristic root of the difference equation is 1 and 1 can be written as 1
n
, the
general form of particular solution is P
p
n
b n . So, equation (ii) reduces to
P P( 1) 1 . ., P 1 n n i e
Thus, the total solution to the difference equation (ii) is given as
A(1)
h p n
n n n
b b b n + + (iii)
Again, we have
0 0
/ 0! 2 b s . On imposing the condition in equation (iii), we get A = 2. Thus,
the total solution is given as
+ 2(1)
n
n
b n
i.e., + / ! 2(1)
n
n
s n n
i.e., + ! (2 1 )
n
n
s n n
Example 19 Compute the product AB by using Strassens matrix multiplication algorithm where
2 4
3 5
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 6
3 2
, ]
, ]
]
Solution: Given that the matrices

2 4
3 5
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
and
1 6
3 2
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
Partition both the given matrices A and B into submatrices of order (11). Therefore, we get
the submatrices
11 12 21 22 11 12 21 22
, , , , , , , as below.
11 12 21 22
11 12 21 22
2, 4, 3, 5
1, 6, 3, 2

Now, compute fourteen matrices
1 2 7 1 2 7
, , , , , , , as below
+ +
+
+
+
+

1 11 22 1 11 22
2 12 22 2 21 22
3 11 21 3 11 12
4 11 12 4 22
5 21 22 5 11
6 11 6 12 22
7 22 7 21 11
( ) 7; ( ) 3;
( ) 1; ( ) 5;
( ) 1; ( ) 7;
( ) 6; 2;
( ) 8; 1;
2; ( ) 4;
5; ( ) 2
Compute seven matrices
1 2 7
, , , of order (11) such that
i i i
M A B , 1, 2,..., i 7.
Therefore, we get
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21, 5, 7, 12, 8, 8, 10
Now, compute the submatrices
11 12 21 22
, , , as below:
11 1 2 4 7
12 4 6
21 5 7
22 1 3 5 6
14
20
18
28
+ +
+
+
+
Therefore, the product AB is given as
11 12
21 22
14 20
18 28
, ] , ]
, ] , ]

, ] , ]
, ] , ]
] ]

2 2
n n 1
s 2s 1
; with initial condition

0
s 2 .
2 2
1
2 1
n n
s s

...(i)
Let us take
2
n n
b s . Therefore,
2
1 1 n n
b s

. Thus, equation (i) reduces to
1
2 1
n n
b b

(ii)
This is a first order, linear and non-homogeneous difference equation and hence can be solved.
i.e., 2 0 2 r r
Therefore, homogeneous solution is given as A(2)
h n
n
b .
Let the general form of particular solution is
p
n
b P . So, equation (ii) reduces to
i.e., P 2P 1 P 1
Thus, the total solution to the difference equation (ii) is given as
A(2) 1
h p n
n n n
b b b + (iii)
Again, we have
2
0 0
4. b s On imposing the condition in equation (iii), we get A = 5. Thus, the
total solution is given as

2
5 2 1 5 2 1
n n
n n
b i.e., s
i.e., 5 2 1
n
n
s
Example 21 Determine s
n
if , , ,
0 1 2
s 0 s 1 s 4 and s
3
=12 satisfy the difference equation

+ + .
n 1 n 1 2 n 2
s c s c s 0
1 1 2 2
0
n n n
s c s c s

+ + (i)
and
0 1 2 3
0, 1, 4, 12 s s s s .
On putting n = 2 in equation (i), we get
+ +
2 1 1 2 0 1
0; . ., 4 s c s c s i e c
On putting n = 3 in equation (i) we get
+ + +
3 1 2 2 1 1 2
0; 4 12 s c s c s i.e., c c

2
4 c
Therefore, equation (i) reduces to
1 2
4 4 0
n n n
s s s

+ . The characteristic equation is given as
+
2
4 4 0 2, 2 r r i.e., r
Thus, the total solution is given as ( )2
n
n
s n + . On imposing the initial condition
0
0 s
and
1
1 s , we get B = 0 and A =
1
.
2
Therefore, the total solution to the difference equation is
given as
1
2 .
n
n
s n

Example 22 Solve the difference equation ,

n n 1 n 2
s s s 0

+ + given that
0
s 0 and
1
s 2 .
1 2
0
n n n
s s s

+ + (i)
The characteristic equation to the above equation is given as
2
1 3
1 0 .,
2 2
i
r r i.e r + +
Thus, the homogeneous solution is given as
j \ j \
+ +
, ( , (
( , ( ,
1 2
1 3 1 3
2 2 2 2
n n
n
i i
s
On using the initial conditions
0
0 s and
1
2 s , we get
+
1 2
1 2
0; 0
4
; 1
3
n
n
i
On soIvIng abovo fwo oquafIons wo gof
1
2
3 i
and

2
2
.
3 i
Thus, fho fofaI soIufIon Is
gIvon as
j \ j \
+
, ( , (
( , ( ,
2 1 3 2 1 3
2 2 2 2 3 3
n n
n
i i
s
i i
Example 23 FinJ the tota/ so/ution oj
n
n n 1 n 2
s 6s 6s 42 4

+ +
Solution: GIvon fhaf
1 2
5 6 42 4
n
n n n
s s s

+ + .ti)
Tho characforIsfIc oquafIon oI fho abovo dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
i.e.,
2
5 6 0; 2, 3 r r r + +
Thus, fho homogonoous soIufIon Is gIvon as
1 2
t 2) t 3)
h n n
n
s +
Lof fho gonoraI Iorm oI parfIcuIar soIufIon Is P4
p n
n
s . So, Irom oquafIon ti) wo gof
1 2
.
P4 5P4 6P4 42 4
n n n n
+ +
i.e.,
5 6
4 tP P P) 42 4
4 16
n n
+ +
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof P = 16 and honco 16 4
p n
n
s . ThoroIoro,
fho fofaI soIufIon Is gIvon as
1 2
t 2) t 3) 16 4
h p n n n
n n n
s s s + + +
Example 24 FinJ the tota/ so/ution oj the jo//oaing recurrence re/ation
1
n
n n
s s Jn 2
+
1
3 2
n
n n
s s n
+ .ti)
i.e., + 1 0; 1 r r
Thus, fho homogonoous soIufIon Is gIvon as
1
t 1)
h n
n
s . Lof fho gonoraI Iorm oI parfIcuIar
soIufIon Is
1 2
tP P )2
p n
n
s n + . ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIon ti), wo gof
1
1 2 1 2
tP P )2 tP t 1) P )2 3 2
n n n
n n n
+ + +
i.e., 1 2 1
3 3 1
2 P 2 P P 3 2
2 2 2
n n n
n n
j \ j \
+
, ( , (
( , ( ,
On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonfs and on soIvIng wo gof
1
P 2 and
2
2
P .
3
Honco, fho parfIcuIar
soIufIon Is gIvon as
j \
+
, (
( ,
2
2 2 .
3
p n
n
s n
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI soIufIon Is gIvon as
j \
+ + +
, (
( ,
1
2
t 1) 2 2
3
h p n n
n n n
s s s n
Example 25 FinJ the genera/ so/ution oj the Jijjerence equation
n n 1 n 2 n J
4s 20s 17s 4s 0

+
1 2 3
4 20 1? 4 0
n n n n
s s s s

+ .ti)
+
3 2
4 20 1? 4 0 r r r
i.e.,

2
t 4)t2 1) 0 r r
i.e.,
1 1
4, ,
2 2
r r
ThoroIoro, fho gonoraI soIufIon fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
1 2 3
1
4 t )
2
n
n
n
s n
j \
+ +
, (
( ,
Example 26 FinJ the genera/ so/ution oj the recurrence re/ation
n n 1 n 2 n J
s 6s 12s Ss 0

+ + +
1 2 3
6 12 8 0
n n n n
s s s s

+ + + .ti)
+ + +
3 2
6 12 8 0 r r r
i.e.,
+
3
t 2) 0 r
i.e., 2, 2, 2 r
If ImpIIos fhaf r = 2 Is a characforIsfIc roof oI muIfIpIIcIfy 3. ThoroIoro, fho gonoraI soIufIon
fo fho dIIIoronco oquafIon Is gIvon as
2
1 2 3
t )t 2)
n
n
s n n + +
Example 27 Obtain the partia/ Jeconposition anJ iJentijy the sequence haoing in the jo//oaing
expressions as generating junction.

t ) t )
2
6 2x
a O x
1 4x
+
t ) t )
2
6 20x
b O x
1 11x J0x
+
2
5 2
Gt )
1 4
x
x
x
+
5 2 3 2
Gt )
t1 2 )t1 2 ) t1 2 ) t1 2 )
x
x
x x x x
+
+
+ +
1 1
Gt ) 3t1 2 ) 2t1 2 ) x x x

+ + .ti)
Nofo fhaf

0
t ) .
n
n
n
O x s x ThoroIoro, oquafIon ti) roducos fo
0 0 0
3 t2 ) 2 t 2 )
n n n
n
n n n
s x x x

+

On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonfs oI bofh sIdos wo gof
3 2 2t 2) ; 0
n n
n
s n +
i.e.,
5 2 II Is ovon
2 II Is odd
n
n
n
n
s
n

tb) GIvon fhaf

2
6 29
Gt )
1 11 30
x
x
x x
6 29 ? 1
Gt )
t1 6 )t1 5 ) t1 6 ) t1 5 )
x
x
x x x x
1 1
Gt ) ?t1 6 ) t1 5 ) x x x

.ti)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, oquafIon ti) roducos fo

0 0 0
? t6 ) t5 )
n n n
n
n n n
s x x x

On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonfs oI x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
? 6 5 ; 0
n n
n
s n
Example 28 Obtain the partia/ Jeconposition anJ iJentijy the sequence haoing in the jo//oaing
expressions as generating junction.
t ) t )
2
J2 22x
a O x
2 Jx x
+
t ) t )
2
1
b O x
6 6x x
+
2
32 22
Gt )
2 3
x
x
x x
32 22 10 12
Gt )
t2 )t1 ) t1 ) t2 )
x
x
x x x x
1
1
Gt ) 10t1 ) 6 1
2
x
x x
j \
+
, (
( ,
.ti)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt ) .
n
n
n
x s x

ThoroIoro, oquafIon ti) roducos fo

j \
+
, (
( ,

0 0 0
10 6
2
n
n n
n
n n n
x
s x x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
j \
+
, (
( ,
1
10 6 ; 0
2
n
n
s n
tb) GIvon fhaf
2
1
Gt )
5 6
x
x x
+
1 1 1
Gt )
t5 )t1 ) 4t1 ) 4t5 )
x
x x x x

1
1
1 1
Gt ) t1 ) 1
4 20 5
x
x x
j \
+
, (
( ,
...ti)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, oquafIon ti) roducos fo

j \
+
, (
( ,

0 0 0
1 1
4 20 5
n
n n
n
n n n
x
s x x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
j \
+
, (
( ,
1 1 1
; 0
4 20 5
n
n
s n
Example 29 8o/oe the Jijjerence equation by using generating junction.
, ; ,
n n 1 n 2 0 1
s 6s 6s 0 n 2 s 2 s 2

+
Solution: MuIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos oI dIIIoronco oquafIon by x
n
, wo gof
1 2
6 5 0
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x

+ ...ti)
SummIng oquafIon tii) Ior aII n, 2 n , wo gof
1 2
2 2 2
6 5 0
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x

+

...tii)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt ) .
n
n
n
x s x

ThoroIoro, oquafIon tiii) roducos fo
i.e.,
1 2 2
0 1 1 2
2 2
2
0 1 0
tGt ) ) 6 5 0
tGt ) ) 6 tGt ) ) 5 Gt ) 0
n n
n n
n n
x s s x x s x x s x
x s s x x x s x x

+
+

i.e.,
2
0 1 0
Gt )t1 6 5 ) 6 2 10 x x x s s x s x x + +
i.e.,
1
2
2 10 2
Gt ) 2t1 )
1 6 5 t1 )
x
x x
x x x

+
i.e.,

0 0
2
n n
n
n n
s x x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof 2, 0
n
s n .
, ; ,
n n 1 n 2 0 1
s 6s 6s 0 n 2 s 2 s 4

+
n
, wo gof
1 2
5 6 0
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x

+ .ti)
SummIng oquafIon ti) Ior aII n, 2 n , wo gof
1 2
2 2 2
5 6 0
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x

+

.tii)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, oquafIon tii) roducos fo
1 2 2
0 1 1 2
2 2
tGt ) ) 5 6 0
n n
n n
n n
x s s x x s x x s x

+

2
0 1 0
2
0 1 0
1
2
0 0
. ., tGt ) ) 5 tGt ) ) 6 Gt ) 0
. ., Gt )t1 5 6 ) 5 2 6
2 6 2
. ., Gt ) 2t1 2 )
1 5 6 t1 2 )
. ., 2 t2 )
n n
n
n n
x
i e x x
x x x
i e s x x

+
+ +

On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonf oI bofh x
n
sIdos, wo gof
1
2 , 0
n
n
s n
+
.
, ; ,
n n 1 n 2 0 1
4s Js s 6 n 2 s 1 s 4

+
n
, wo gof
1 2
4 3 5
n n n n
n n n
s x s x s x x

+ ...ti)
SummIng oquafIon ti) Ior aII n,
2 n
, wo gof
1 2
2 2 2 2
2 3 4
1 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 1 0
4 3 5
. ., 4 3 5t )
. ., 4tGt ) ) 3 tGt ) ) Gt ) 5 t1 )
n n n n
n n n
n n n n
n n n
n n n
n n n
s x s x s x x
i e s x s x s x x x x
i e x s s x x x s x x x x x

+
+ + + +
+ + + +

2 2 1
0 1 0
2 2
2
2 2
2
. ., Gt )t4 3 ) 4 4 3 5 t1 )
5 4 15 15
. ., Gt )t4 3 ) 4 19
t1 ) t1 )
4 15 15 4 15 15
. ., Gt )
t1 )t4 3 ) t1 )t4 )t1 )
2 1?6 13
. ., Gt )
3t1 ) 15t4 ) 5t1 )
2
. ., Gt )
i e x x x s s x s x x x
x x x
i e x x x x
x x
x x x x
i e x
x x x x x x
i e x
x x x
i e x
+ + + +
+
+ + +

+ +

+ +
+
+
1
1 1
1?6 13
t1 ) 1 t1 )
3 60 4 5
x
x x

j \
+ +
, (
( ,
SInco,
0
Gt ) .
n
n
n
x s x

ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon roducos fo

j \
+
, (
( ,

0 0 0 0
2 44 13
t )
3 15 4 5
n
n n n
n
n n n n
x
s x x x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
j \
+
, (
( ,
2 44 1 13
t 1) , 0
3 15 4 5
n
n
n
s n
.
, ; ,
n
n n 1 n 2 0 1
s 6s 6s n 2 n 2 s 1 s 1

+ +
n
, wo gof
1 2
5 6 t2 )
n n n n n
n n n
s x s x s x nx x

+ + .ti)
wIfh
0 1
1, 1 s s . SummIng abovo oquafIon ti) Ior aII n, 2 n , wo gof
1 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 1
5 6 t2 )
t1 ) 1 t2 ) t1 2 )
n n n n n
n n n
n n n n n
s x s x s x nx x
x x x x

+ +
, ] +
]

Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon roducos fo
2
2
0 1 0 2
2
2
0 1 0 2
2
2
2
2 3 4
2
t2 )
tGt ) ) 5 tGt ) ) 6 Gt )
t1 ) t1 2 )
t2 )
. ., Gt )t1 5 6 ) 5
t1 ) t1 2 )
t2 )
. ., Gt )t1 5 6 ) 1 5
t1 ) t1 2 )
2 8 2? 35 14
. ., Gt )
t1 ) t1 2 )t1
x x
x s s x x x s x x x
x x
x x
i e x x x x s s x s x
x x
x x
i e x x x x x x
x x
x x x x
i e x
x x
+ +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ +

2 3 4
2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 8 2? 35 14
5 6 ) t1 ) t1 2 ) t1 3 )
5 1 3 2 1?
. ., Gt )
4t1 ) 2t1 ) t1 2 ) t1 2 ) 4t1 3 )
5 1 1?
. ., t 1) 3 t2 ) 2 t 1)t2 ) t3 )
4 2 4
n n n n n n
n
n n n n n n
x x x x
x x x x x
i e x
x x x x x
i e s x x n x x n x x

+ +
+
+ +

+ + + +

n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
i.e.,
+
+ + +
+ + +
5 t 1) 1?
3 2 2t 1)2 3 , 0
4 2 4
? 1?
t2 5)2 3 , 0
4 2 4
n n n
n
n n
n
n
s n n
n
s n n
, ;
n n 1 0
s s 4n J n 1 s 1
+
n
, wo gof
1
4 3
n n n n
n n
s x s x nx x
+ .ti)
wIfh
0
1 s . SummIng abovo oquafIon ti) Ior aII n, 1 n , wo gof
2 1
1
1 1 1 1
4 3 4 t1 ) 3 t1 )
n n n n
n n
n n n n
s x s x nx x x x x x

+

Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon roducos fo
0 2
0 2 2
2
2 2
0 0 0 0
4 3
tGt ) ) Gt )
t1 ) t1 )
4 3 4 3
. ., Gt )t1 ) 1
t1 ) t1 ) t1 ) t1 )
1 4 5 2 3
. ., Gt )
t1 ) t1 ) 2t1 ) t1 ) 2t1 )
5 3
. ., 2 t 1) t )
2 2
n n n n
n
n n n n
x x
x s x x
x x
x x x x
i e x x s
x x x x
x x
i e x
x x x x x
i e s x x n x x

+

+ + +

+
+ +
+ +
+ + +

On oquafIng cooIIIcIonf oI x
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
+ + +
5 3
2t 1) t 1) , 0
2 2
n
n
s n n .
Example 34 8o/oe the recurrence re/ation by using generating junction.
, ; ,
n n 1 n 2 0 1
s 2s s 7 n 2 s 2 s 4

+
n
, wo gof
1 2
2 ?
n n n n
n n n
s x s x s x x

+ .ti)
wIfh
0
2 s and
1
4 s . SummIng abovo oquafIon ti) Ior aII n, 2 n , wo gof fho IoIIowIng
oquafIon.
1 2
2 2 2 2
2 ?
n n n n
n n n
n n n n
s x s x s x x

+

.tii)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon tii) roducos fo
2 2 1
0 1 0
2 2
2
0 1 0
2
3 2 3
tGt ) ) 2 t t ) ) t ) ? t1 )
? ? 2 2
. ., Gt )t1 2 ) 2
t1 ) t1 )
? 2 2 ? 12 ?
. ., Gt )
t1 ) t1 ) t1 ) t1 )
x s s x x O x s x O x x x
x x x
i e x x x s s x xs
x x
x x
i e x
x x x x
+
+
+ + +

+
+


+
+ +
+
+ +

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
t 3)t 4) t 3 1)t )
. ., ? 12 t 1) ?
!
t 2)!
. ., ? 12 t 1) ?
2t )!
n
n n n
n
n n n n
n
n n n
n
n n n n
n x
i e s x x n x
n
n x
i e s x x n x
n
n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
t 2) !
? 12t 1) ? , 0
2t ) !
n
n
s n n
n
+
+ +
Example 35 8o/oe the recurrence re/ation by using generating junction.
, ; ,
n
n n 1 n 2 0 1
s 7s 10s J n 2 s 0 s 6

+
n
, wo gof
1 2
? 10 t3 )
n n n n
n n n
s x s x s x x

+ .ti)
wIfh
0
0 s and
1
6 s . SummIng abovo oquafIon ti) Ior aII n, 2 n , wo gof fho IoIIowIng
oquafIon.
1 2
2 2 2 2
? 10 t3 )
n n n n
n n n
n n n n
s x s x s x x

+

.tii)
Nofo fhaf
0
Gt )
n
n
n
x s x

. ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon tii) roducos fo
2 2 1
0 1 0
2 2
2
0 1 0
tGt ) ) ? tGt ) ) 10 Gt ) t3 ) t1 3 )
9 6 9
. ., Gt )t1 ? 10 ) ?
t1 3 ) t1 3 )
x s s x x x s x x x x
x x x
i e x x x s s x xs
x x
+ + +

2
0 0 0 0
6 9 9 ? 1
. ., Gt )
t1 3 )t1 5 )t1 2 ) 2t1 3 ) 2t1 5 ) t1 2 )
9 ?
. ., t3 ) t5 ) t2 )
2 2
n n n n
n
n n n n
x x
i e x
x x x x x x
i e s x x x x

+ +

+ +

n
bofh sIdos, wo gof
+ +
9 ?
t3) t5) t2) ; 0
2 2
n n n
n
s n
Example 36 FinJ the generating junction jor the sequence 1, J, 0, 27, .
Solution: Lof Gtx) bo fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho gIvon soquonco.
ThoroIoro, Gtx) can bo wrIffon as
2 3
Gt ) 1 3 9 2? x x x x + + + +

+ + + +

2 3
1
1 3 t3 ) t3 )
t1 3 )
x x x
x
Example 37 FinJ the exponentia/ generating junction jor the sequence 1, J, 0, 27, .
Solution: Lof tx) bo fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho gIvon soquonco.
ThoroIoro, tx) can bo wrIffon as
( ) ( )
+ + + +
+ + + +
2 3
2 3
3
9 2?
t ) 1 3
2! 3!
3 3
1 3
2! 3!
x
x x
x x
x x
x
e
Example 38 FinJ the c/oseJ jorn oj the generating junction jor the jo//oaing sequence s
n
,
ahere s
n
= n + J.
Solution: GIvon fhaf s
n
= n+3. On muIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos by x
n
and fhon fakIng summafIon
ovor 0 n , wo gof
0 0 0
3
n n n
n
n n n
s x nx x

+

Nofo fhaf, Gt ) .
n
n
n o
x s x

ThoroIoro, abovo oquafIon roducos fo
1 2 1
1 0
Gt ) 3 t1 ) 3t1 ) .
n n
n n
x x nx x x x x

+ +

Example 39 FinJ the sequences corresponJing to the jo//oaing generating junctions.

3
t ) t ) a 2 x +
2
t ) t )
x
b 1 x e + +
Solution: + + + +
3 2 3
t ) t2 ) 8 12 6 a x x x x
Tho soquonco corrospondIng fo fho abovo gonorafIng IuncfIon Is gIvon as t8, 12, 6, 1, 0, 0, .).

+ + + + + + + + +
j \ j \
+ + + + +
, ( , (
( , ( ,
2 3
2 2
2 3
t ) t1 ) t1 2 ) t1 )
2! 3!
1 1
2 3 1
2! 3!
x
x x
b x e x x x
x x x
Tho soquonco corrospondIng fo fho abovo gonorafIng IuncfIon Is gIvon as
j \ j \
+
, ( , (
( , ( ,
1 1
2, 3, 1 , ,
2! 3!
.
Example 40 Obtain the so/ution to the jo//oaing jirst orJer /inear recurrence re/ation by using
iteratioe nethoJ.
n n 1
s 2s J
+ wIfh
0
s 6
1
2 3
n n
s s
+ and
0
5 s . ThoroIoro, by appIyIng fho rocurronco roIafIon
ropoafodIy, wo havo
1
2
2 2
2 3
2t2 3) 3 2 3t1 2)
n n
n n
s s
s s

+
+ + + +

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
j \
+ +
, (
( ,

2 3 2
3 3
3 2 4 2 3
4 4
2 3 1
0
2 t2 3) 2 3 3 2 3t1 2 2 )
2 t2 3) 3t1 2 2 ) 2 3t1 2 2 2 )
2 3t1 2 2 2 2 )
2 1
2 5 3 2 5 3 t2 1)
2 1
8 2 3
n n
n n
n n
n
n n n
n
s s
s s
s
Example 41 Conpute
n n n
u s t . lt is gioen that ,
n
n
s J n 0 anJ , .
n
n
t 6 n 0
Solution: GIvon fhaf 3 , 0.
n
n
s n On muIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos by x
n
and fhon fakIng
summafIon ovor 0 n , wo gof

0 0 0
1
3 t3 )
t1 3 )
n n n n
n
n n n
s x x x
x
Nofo fhaf,
0
St ) .
n
n
n
x s x

So, abovo oquafIon roducos fo
1
St )
t1 3 )
x
x
.
SImIIarIy, 5 , 0.
n
n
t n On muIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos by x
n
and fhon fakIng summafIon
ovor 0, n wo gof

0 0 0
1
5 t5 )
t1 5 )
n n n n
n
n n n
t x x x
x
Nofo fhaf,
0
Tt )
n
n
n
x t x

. So, abovo oquafIon roducos fo
1
Tt ) .
t1 5 )
x
x
Now, wo havo
1 1 5 3
!t ) St ) Tt )
t1 3 ) t1 5 ) 2t1 5 ) 2t1 3 )
x x x
x x x x

Nofo fhaf,
0
!t ) .
n
n
n
x u x

So, abovo oquafIon roducos fo.

0 0 0
5 3
t5 ) t3 )
2 2
n n n
n
n n n
u x x x
n
In fho abovo oquafIon, wo gof
( )
+ +

1 1
5 3 1
t5) t3) 5 3
2 2 2
n n n n
n
u
In fho abovo soIufIon, wo havo fakon fho gonorafIng IuncfIons Stx), Ttx) and !tx) Ior fho
soquoncos s
n
, t
n
and u
n
rospocfIvoIy.
EXEkCl5E5
1. !Ind fho fofaI soIufIon oI fho IoIIowIng dIIIoronco oquafIons.
ta)
1 2
6 ? 0
n n n
s s s

, gIvon fhaf
0
0 s and
1
2 s .
tb)
1 2
8 16 0
n n n
s s s

+ , gIvon fhaf
0
1 s and
1
3 s .
tc)
1 2
? 5 0
n n n
s s s

+ , gIvon fhaf
0
1 s and
1
3 s .
tJ)
1 2
8 16 0
n n n
s s s

+ , gIvon fhaf
0
1 s and
1
3 s .
te)
1 2 3
3 3 0
n n n n
s s s s

+ , gIvon fhaf
0
0 s ,
3
3 s and
5
10 s .
2. !Ind fho fofaI soIufIon oI fho IoIIowIng dIIIoronco oquafIons.
ta)
1 2
2 ?
n n n
s s s

+ , gIvon fhaf
0
2 s and
1
5 s .
tb)
1 2
4 4 t 1)2
n
n n n
s s s n

+ + , gIvon fhaf
0
0 s and
1
4 s .
tc)
1 2
6 3
n
n n n
s s s

, gIvon fhaf
0
1 s and
1
1 s .
tJ)
1 2
? 10 6 10
n n n
s s s n

+ + , gIvon fhaf
0
0 s and
1
3 s .
te)
2
1 2
? 5 2
n n n
s s s n

+ + , gIvon fhaf
0
2 s and
1
6 s .
3. SoIvo fho IoIIowIng dIIIoronco oquafIons.
ta)
1 2 3
2 2 0
n n n n
s s s s

+ , wIfh
0
2 s ,
1
1 s
tb)
1 2
6 9 3 2
n
n n n
s s s

+ + + , wIfh
0
0 s and
1
3. s
tc)
1 2
4 3 5
n n n
s s s

+ , wIfh
0
1 s and
1
10 s .
tJ)

+
1 2 3
5 ? 3 ?,
n n n n
s s s s wIfh
0
0 s ,
1
3 s and
2
6 s .
te)
1 2
10 25 5
n
n n n
s s s

+ , wIfh
0
1 s and
1
6 s .
4. SoIvo fho IoIIowIng rocurronco oquafIons wIfh fho gIvon InIfIaI condIfIons.
ta)

+
1 2 3
9 2? 81 2 ;
n
n n n n
s s s s
0 1
2, 5 s s and
2
8 s
tb)

+ + +
2
1 2
9 20 2 1;
n n n
s s s n n
0
1 s and
2
? s .
tc)
1 2
6 t 1)5
n
n n n
s s s n

+ + ;
0
3 s and
1
?. s
tJ)

+ +
2
1 2 3 0 1 2
8 21 18 t 1)3 ; 3, 5 and ?.
n
n n n n
s s s s n s s s
te)
1 2
? 10 3 4
n n
n n n
s s s

+ + + ;
0
2 s and
1
5 s .
5. oformIno fho parfIcuIar soIufIon oI fho IoIIowIng dIIIoronco oquafIons.
ta)
1 2
5 6 1
n n n
s s s

+
tb)
1 2
2 2 3
n n n
s s s n

+ +
tc)
1 2
2 ? 3 3
n
n n n
s s s

+
tJ)

+ + +
2
1 2
4 4 2 3
n n n
s s s n n
te)
1 2
6 8 3
n n n
s s s

+
6. ObfaIn an oxpIIcIf IormuIa Ior fho soquonco doIInod by fho dIIIoronco oquafIon and InIfIaI
condIfIon by usIng backfrackIng mofhod.
ta)
1
3
n n
s s
wIfh
1
5 s
tb)
1
2
n n
s s
+ wIfh
1
3 s
tc)
1
5 ?
n n
s s
+ wIfh
1
2 s
?. ObfaIn an oxpIIcIf IormuIa Ior fho soquonco doIInod by fho dIIIoronco oquafIon and InIfIaI
condIfIon by usIng Iorward chaInIng mofhod.
ta)
1 n n
s s n
+ wIfh
1
4 s
tb)
1
0
n n
s ns
wIfh
1
? s
8. !so gonorafIng IuncfIon fo soIvo fho IoIIowIng dIIIoronco oquafIons.
ta)
1 2
8 0, 2
n n n
s s s n

+ + wIfh
0
0 s and
1
3. s
tb)
1 2
6 9 0, 2
n n n
s s s n

+ wIfh
0
2 s and
1
5. s
tc)
1 2
4 4 0, 2
n n n
s s s n

+ wIfh
1
1 s and
2
?. s
tJ)
1 2
2 2 0, 2
n n n
s s s n

+ wIfh
0
1 s and
1
4. s
9. SoIvo oach oI fho IoIIowIng rocurronco roIafIons by usIng gonorafIng IuncfIons.
ta)
2
1 2
5 2 3 1, 2
n n n
s s s n n

+ + wIfh
0
0 s ,
1
3. s
tb)
1 2
5 6 5 , 2
n n n
s s s n n

+ wIfh
0 1
0, 12. s s
tc)
1 2
8 16 8, 2
n n n
s s s n

+ + wIfh
0 1
3, 15. s s
tJ)
1 2
6 ? 2 , 2
n
n n n
s s s n

+ wIfh
0 1
5, 8. s s
te)
1 2
? 10 t 1)2 , 2
n
n n n
s s s n n

+ + wIfh
0 1
3, 5. s s
10. ObfaIn fho cIosod Iorm oI fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior oach oI fho IoIIowIng soquoncos.
ta) 2, 4, 8, 16, . tb) 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, .
tc) 0, 0, 1, 3, 5, ?, . tJ) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, .
11. Show fhaf fho soIufIon oI fho homogonoous IInoar rocurronco roIafIon
2 1
5 6 2
n
n n n
s s s
+ +
+ Is
j \
, (
( ,
1
5 .
6
n
n
s
12. Show fhaf A2 B4
n n
n
s + Is a soIufIon oI fho rocurronco roIafIon

+
1 2
6 8 0.
n n n
s s s
13. Show fhaf tA B )3
n
n
s n + Is a soIufIon oI fho rocurronco roIafIon
1 2
6 9 0
n n n
s s s

+ .
14. ObfaIn fho soIufIon fo oach oI fho IoIIowIng rocurronco roIafIon by usIng IforafIvo mofhod.
ta)
1 0
3, 5
n n
s s s
+ tb)
1 0
3 , 1
n n
s s n s
+
15. !Ind fho cIosod Iorm oI fho oxpononfIaI gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior oach oI fho IoIIowIng
soquoncos.
ta) 1, 1, 1, 1, . tb) 0, 0, 1, 3, 5, ?, .
tc) 2, 4, 8, 16, . tJ) 1, 1, 1, 1, .
16. !Ind fho cIosod Iorm oI fho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior oach oI fho IoIIowIng soquonco, s
n
whoro
ta) 2 3
n
s n + tb) 5
n
n
s
tc) t? 3 )
n
s n n + tJ) ?
n
s
1?. Compufo fho producf AB usIng Sfrasson`s mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon.
2 5 1 5 6 1
t ) 0 ? 3 0 8 2
? 5 0 ? 10 0
? 3 5 2
t )
2 5 0 8
4 3 5 3
t )
2 1 1 8
a
b
c
j \ j \
, ( , (

, ( , (
( , ( ,
j \ j \

, ( , (
( , ( ,
j \ j \

, ( , (
( , ( ,
18. Compufo fho producf AB by usIng ? muIfIpIIcafIons and 15 addIfIons as doIInod boIow:
1 21 22
2 1 11
3 11 21
4 12 2
+

5 12 11
6 22 5
? 22 12
8 6 21

1 2 6
2 11 11
3 12 21
4 3 ?

5 1 5
6 4 22

? 22 8
1 1 2

+
2 1 4
+
Tho oIomonfs oI fho producf mafrIx C can bo compufod as boIow:
11 2 3
12 1 5 6
C
C
+
+ +
21 2 ?
22 2 5
C
C

+
Show fhaf fhoso oquafIons yIoId fho corrocf rosuIf Ior fho IoIIowIng mafrIcos.
4 3 5 3
t )
2 1 1 8
? 3 5 2
t )
2 5 0 8
a
b
j \ j \

, ( , (
( , ( ,
j \ j \

, ( , (
( , ( ,
19. oformIno fho gonorafIng IuncfIon oI fho numorIc IuncfIon s
n
, whoro
3 ;
3 ;
n
n
n
ij n is eoen
s
ij n is oJJ
20. Compufo fho parfIaI docomposIfIons and IdonfIIy fho soquonco havIng In fho IoIIowIng
oxprossIons as gonorafIng IuncfIons.
2
2
2
3 2
t ) Gt )
1 9
5 3
t ) Gt )
1 6 5
1
t ) Gt )
1 6
x
a x
x
x
c x
x x
e x
x x
+
+
2
2
2
10 5
t ) Gt )
1 6 9
15 3
t ) Gt )
2 3
?
t ) Gt )
t1 2 )t1 3 )
x
b x
x x
x
J x
x x
x
j x
x x
+
+
21. ObfaIn fho soquoncos corrospondIng fo fho gonorafIng IuncfIon gIvon boIow:
4
2 3
t ) t2 )
t ) 3 2
x
a x
c x x e
+
+ +
2 4
3 2
t ) t5 ) t3 )
t )
x x
b x x
J e e
+ + +
+
22. Tho IoIIowIng aIgorIfhm compufos x
n
rocursIvoIy, whoro x Is a roaI numbor and n Is a
posIfIvo Infogor.
1. t , )
2. 1,
3. t )
4.
2
5. t t , ) t , ) )
6.
A/gorithn Exp x n
ij n then
return x
n
n
return Exp x n Exp x n n
enJ Exp
, ]
, ]
]

Lof s
n
bo fho numbor oI muIfIpIIcafIons roquIrod af IIno 5 fo compufo x
n
. !Ind a rocurronco
roIafIon and InIfIaI condIfIon Ior fho soquonco s
n
. SoIvo fho obfaInod rocurronco roIafIon
II n Is a powor oI 2.
23. Tho IoIIowIng aIgorIfhm compufos fho maxImum and mInImum oIomonfs In a soquonco.
1. max_ mIn t , , , max, mIn)
2. t )
3. max
4. mIn
5. t ) / 2
i
i
A/gorithn a i j
ij i j
a
a
n i j
+ , ]
]
+
>
>
6. max_ mIn t , , , max_ , mIn_ )

?. max_ mIn t , 1, , max_ , mIn_ )
8. tmax_ max_ ),
9. max max_
10.
11. max max_
12. tmIn_ mIn_ ),
13. mIn mIn_
14.
15. mIn mI
a i n /ejt /ejt
a n j right right
ij /ejt right then
/ejt
e/se
right
ij /ejt right then
right
e/se
n_
16. max_ mIn
/ejt
enJ
Lof s
n
bo fho numbor oI comparIsons roquIrod af IInos 8 and 12 Ior an Inpuf oI sIzo n. !Ind
a rocurronco roIafIon and InIfIaI condIfIon Ior fho soquonco s
n
. SoIvo fho obfaInod rocurronco
roIafIon II n Is a powor oI 2.
24. oformIno t
n
II
n n n
u s t + . If Is gIvon fhaf
1 0
2 1
0 2
n
n
s n
n

and
1 0
0 1
n
n
u
n

25. !Ind
n n n
u s t In fho IoIIowIng casos, whoro s
n
and t
n
aro gIvon boIow:
1 0 2
t )
0 3
n
ij n
a s
ij n

and
1 0 2
0 3
n
ij n
t
ij n

t ) 2 ; 0
n
n
b s n and
1 0 2
3 3
n n
ij n
t
ij n

26. oformIno +
n n n
u s t In fho IoIIowIng casos, whoro s
n
and t
n
aro gIvon boIow:
1 0 2
t )
0 3
n
ij n
a s
ij n

and
1 0 2
0 3
n
ij n
t
ij n

t ) 2 ; 0
n
n
b s n and
1 0 2
3 3
n n
ij n
t
ij n

2?. Compufo fho producf AB usIng Sfrasson`s mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon.

ta)
1 4 6
3 0 5
j \

, (
( ,
3 5 1
0 ? 2
5 9 1
j \
, (

, (
( ,
tb)
1 ?
2 5
j \

, (
( ,
5 9 0 1
3 ? 8 1
j \

, (
( ,
6.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
In ono Iorm or fho ofhor counfIng orIgInafod wIfh fho prImIfIvo man. Ho dId nof IInd any
probIom as Iong as If was wIfhIn fho IImIfs oI hIs IIngors. As If crossod fho IImIfs oI hIs IIngors,
ho Iound ouf ofhor dovIcos and Invonfod fho numbors. Buf counfIng bocomos IaborIous and
ImpossIbIo ovon wIfh numbors. Honco now concopfs and Idoas aro dovoIopod whIch gavo rIso
fo pormufafIons and combInafIons. In dIscrofo mafhomafIcs wo IroquonfIy oncounfor fho
probIom oI counfIng. Tho branch oI Iscrofo MafhomafIcs doaIIng wIfh counfIng probIom Is
caIIod combInaforIcs. Tho dIIIoronf fochnIquos oI counfIng probIom aro Imporfanf In compufor
scIonco, ospocIaIIy In aIgorIfhm anaIysIs and dosIgn. In fhIs chapfor wo wIII bo doaIIng wIfh
fwo Imporfanf aspocfs, i.e., pormufafIon and combInafIon. PormufafIon Is doIInod as fho
arrangomonf oI oIomonfs whoroas combInafIon Is doIInod as soIocfIon oI oIomonfs.
6.1 FUNDAMENTAL PklNClPLE 0F C0UNTlN0
BasIcaIIy IundamonfaI prIncIpIo oI counfIng Is oI fwo fypos. Thoso aro addIfIon prIncIpIo and
muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo.
Addltlon Prlnclple: II ono ovonf can occur In n
1
dIIIoronf ways and anofhor ovonf can occur
In n
2
dIIIoronf ways, fhon oxacfIy ono oI fhoso ovonfs fakos pIaco In tn
1
+ n
2
) ways. Tho abovo
addIfIon prIncIpIo can bo oxfondod fo IInIfo numbor oI ovonfs. ThIs addIfIon prIncIpIo Is
ofhorwIso known as prIncIpIo oI dIsjuncfIvo counfIng.
!or oxampIo assumo fhaf a sfudonf havo fo chooso an oIocfIvo papor In compufor scIonco
Irom ono oI fho Iour IIsfs confaInIng 5, 6, 5 and 4 oIocfIvo papors rospocfIvoIy.
If IndIcafos fhaf fho sfudonf can chooso an oIocfIvo Irom fho IIrsf IIsf In 5 ways, Irom fho
socond IIsf In 6 ways, Irom fho fhIrd IIsf In 5 ways whoroas Irom fho Iourfh IIsf In 4 ways.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways fhaf fho sfudonf can chooso an oIocfIvo papor Irom fho
Iour IIsfs Is oquaI fo t5 + 6 + 5 + 4) = 20.
Multlpllcutlon Prlnclple: II ono ovonf can occur In n
1
dIIIoronf ways and anofhor ovonf can
occur In n
2
dIIIoronf ways fhon bofh fhoso ovonfs fako pIaco In tn
1
n
2
) ways. Tho abovo prIncIpIo
can bo oxfondod fo IInIfo numbor oI ovonfs. ThIs muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo Is ofhorwIso known
as prIncIpIo oI soquonfIaI counfIng.
$
+>E=JHE?I
!or oxampIo consIdor a cInoma haII wIfh 3 onfrancos and 5 oxIfs. ThoroIoro, fho numbor oI
ways fhaf a porson can onfor and oxIf Irom fho cInoma haII Is t3 5) = 15.
6.2 FACT0klAL N0TATl0N
Tho confInuod producf oI IIrsf n nafuraI numbors Is donofod as n! and road as IacforIaI n.
MafhomafIcaIIy,
n! = 1. 2. 3. 4. ..tn 1). n
= 1. 2. 3... tn 1). n
= tn 1)! n
!or oxampIo 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 and 4! = 1 2 3 4 = 24. ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf
5! = 4! 5 = 24 5 = 120.
6.3 PEkMUTATl0N
Assumo fhaf, wo havo 3 dIgIfs 1, 3 and 5. Thon fho fwo dIgIf numbors fhaf can bo Iormod ouf
oI fho gIvon dIgIfs II fho dIgIfs aro nof ropoafod as: 13, 15, 35, 31, 51, 53. ThoroIoro, fhoro aro
6 possIbIo ways oI goffIng 2 dIgIf numbors ouf oI fhroo dIgIfs. ThIs Is nofhIng buf fho
arrangomonf oI 2 dIgIfs ouf oI fhroo dIgIfs. SImIIarIy, II wo mako an arrangomonf oI aII fho
fhroo dIgIfs, fhon wo havo 135, 153, 351, 315, 513 and 531 as possIbIo arrangomonfs. Tho
numbor oI dIIIoronf arrangomonf or ordorIng fhaf can bo mado ouf oI fho gIvon numbor oI
objocfs by fakIng somo or aII af a fImo Is caIIod fho pormufafIon. II r-objocfs aro arrangod ouf
oI n-dIsfIncf objocfs, fhon wo caII If as r-pormufafIon.
Theorem Tho numbor oI arrangomonfs oI r dIIIoronf objocfs ouf oI n dIsfIncf objocfs t
r n
)
Is donofod by F tn, r) and Is caII r-pormufafIon oI n objocfs. If Is doIInod as
F tn, r) = n tn 1) tn 2) .. tn r + 1)
=
!
t )!
n
n r
ProoI: GIvon fhaf fhoro aro n dIsfIncf objocfs and wo havo fo arrango r objocfs. ThIs Is samo
as fho numbor oI ways In whIch r pIacos can bo IIIIod up by n dIsfIncf objocfs.
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
r
th
!rom fho IIguro If Is cIoar fhaf any ono oI fho n objocf can bo puf In 1
sf
pIaco i.e., fho 1
sf
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In n dIsfIncf ways. ThoroIoro, wo aro IoIf ouf wIfh tn 1) objocfs, so fho
2
nd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In tn 1) dIsfIncf ways. SInco oach way oI IIIIIng up fho IIrsf pIaco can
bo assocIafod wIfh oach way oI IIIIIng up fho socond pIaco, so by muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho
IIrsf fwo pIacos can bo IIIIod up In n tn 1) ways. SImIIarIy, Ior fho 3
rd
pIaco wo havo IoIf ouf
wIfh tn 2) objocfs, so fho 3
rd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up by any ono oI fhoso tn 2) objocfs.
ThoroIoro, by muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho IIrsf fhroo pIacos can bo IIIIod up In ntn 1)tn 2)
ways. ProcoodIng In fhIs mannor fho fofaI numbor oI ways In whIch r pIacos can bo IIIIod up Is
gIvon as
= t , ) t 1)t 2)... Iacfors F n r n n n r
= n tn 1) tn 2) .. tn r + 1)
CombInaforIcs 143
=
t 1)t 2)t 3) t 1)t )t 1) 1
1.2.3.4. t 1)t )
n n n n n r n r n r
n r n r
+

=
!
t )!
n
n r
6.3.1 Permutatlon wlth kepetltlon
In fhIs caso fhoro Is no rosfrIcfIon on fho numbor oI fImos a parfIcuIar objocf may occur In
r-pormufafIon oI n objocfs. If ImpIIos fhaf a ropofIfIon Is aIIowod aII fho r pIacos fo bo IIIIod up
by any oI fho n objocfs. ThoroIoro, by muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho fofaI numbor oI ways In
whIch r pIacos can bo IIIIod up Is gIvon as
n n n .. n tr-Iacfors)
= n
r
!or oxampIo consIdor 3 prIzos fo bo gIvon fo 4 sfudonfs. Honco, If Is cIoar fhaf fho 1
sf
prIzo
can bo fakon by any oI fho 4 sfudonfs and sImIIarIy fho 2
nd
prIzo can bo fakon by any oI fho 4
sfudonfs and so on. ThoroIoro, by usIng muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho fofaI numbor oI possIbIo
ways
= 4 4 4 = 64
6.3.2 Permutatlon of ThlngS not all Dlfferent
Assumo fhaf fhoro n objocfs, among whIch K
1
aro aIIko say A, K
2
aro oI socond fypo say B. Lof
fho oIomonfs aro
1
1 2 3
A , A , A , , A
h
and
2
1 2 3
B , B , B , , B
h
. Buf wo know fhaf, II fho n objocfs aro
dIssImIIar, fhon If can bo arrangod In n! dIIIoronf ways.
Now, consIdor fho fofaI numbor oI pormufafIons bo X. !or ono oI fhIs pormufafIon
1
1 2 3
A , A , A , , A
h
, h
1
objocfs can bo arrangod among fhomsoIvos In h
1
! ways. ThoroIoro, Ior X
pormufafIons fho fofaI numbor oI possIbIo ways aro Xh
1
!.
AgaIn Ior ono oI fhoso Xh
1
! pormufafIons, fho h
2
objocfs
2
1 2 3
B , B , B , , B
h
can bo arrangod In
h
2
! ways. ThoroIoro, Ior Xh
1
! pormufafIons, fho fofaI numbor oI possIbIo ways aro oquaI fo
tXh
1
! h
2
!). ThoroIoro, wo gof
Xh
1
! h
2
! = n!
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf X =
1 2
!
! !
n
h h
Note: Tho abovo concopf can bo gonoraIIzod fo any numbor oI objocfs. PormufafIon oI n objocfs ouf oI
whIch h
1
objocfs aro oI 1
sf
kInd say A, h
2
objocfs aro oI 2
nd
kInd say B, h
3
objocfs aro oI 3
rd
kInd say C and
so on Is gIvon by X =
1 2 3
!
,
! ! !
n
h h h
whoro h
1
+ h
2
+ h
3
+... = n.
6.3.3 Clrcular Permutatlon
Arrangomonf oI objocfs In a cIrcIo Is caIIod cIrcuIar pormufafIon. In fhIs caso oI arrangomonf
oI objocfs, fhoro Is no dIsfIncfIon bofwoon fho 1
sf
pIaco and fho Iasf pIaco. Honco, In cIrcuIar
pormufafIon wo IIx ono oI fho n objocfs In fho IIrsf pIaco and arrango romaInIng tn 1) objocfs
among fhomsoIvos. ThIs can bo dono In Ftn 1, n 1) ways i.e., tn 1)!.
!or oxampIo, consIdor a probIom oI arrangIng 5 mombors Ior soafIng on a round fabIo. If Is
a probIom oI cIrcuIar pormufafIon. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways fhaf fho mombors can
bo soafod In fho round fabIo Is t5 1)! = 4! = 24.
Notes: 1. II fho anfIcIockwIso and cIockwIso arrangomonfs aro dIIIoronf, fhon fho fofaI numbor oI
arrangomonfs Is oquaI fo tn 1)!.
2. II bofh cIockwIso and anfIcIockwIso arrangomonfs aro samo, fhon fho fofaI numbor oI arrangomonfs
Is oquaI fo
1
t 1)!
2
n .
6.3.4 keStrlcted PermutatlonS
SomofImos In arrangomonf, wo rosfrIcf somo parfIcuIar objocfs fo bo oIfhor aIways occur or
wIII novor occur. Such fypo oI pormufafIons aro known as rosfrIcfod pormufafIons and fhIs
Ioads fo fwo casos.
+=IA `1 PormufafIon oI n-objocfs In r-pIacos whon 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs wIII aIways occur. In
such caso, IIrsf fho 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs can bo arrangod In r-pIacos and fhon romaInIng tr x)
pIacos wIII bo IIIIod up by fho romaInIng tn x) objocfs. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI
arrangomonfs Is oquaI fo F tr, x) F tn x, r x).
+=IA ~ 2 PormufafIon oI n-objocfs In r-pIacos whon 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs wIII novor occur. In
fhIs caso tn x) objocfs wIII IIII up fho r-pIacos. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI arrangomonfs
Is oquaI fo F tn x, r).
6.3.5 lnterpretatlon of Factorlal 0
Tho vaIuo oI zoro t0) IacforIaI can bo doformInod wIfh fho hoIp oI pormufafIon. Wo know fhaf
Ftn, r) = n tn 1) tn 2) . tn r + 1)
On fakIng r = n wo gof
Ftn, n) = n tn 1) tn 2) . tn n + 1)
= n tn 1) tn 2) . 1
= n!
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
!
!
! 0!
n
n
n
= and honco 0! = 1.
6.4 C0M8lNATl0N
Wo havo soon fhaf pormufafIon Is an ordorod arrangomonf oI objocfs. Howovor, If Is obsorvod
fhaf ordor Is nof sIgnIIIcanf In somo casos. !or oxampIo, consIdor an oxamInafIon and a
sfudonf has fo answor Iour quosfIons ouf oI sovon quosfIons. In fhIs caso, a soIocfIon Is fo bo
mado IrrospocfIvo oI ordor. Wo caII If as combInafIon. Assumo fhaf, wo havo 3 objocfs A, B and
C. II wo consIdor fho groups oI fwo objocfs wIfhouf fakIng Info accounf fho ordor fhon fho
dIIIoronf groups aro AB, BC and CA. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI groups Is 3. ThIs Is nofhIng
buf fho soIocfIon oI 2 objocfs ouf oI fhroo objocfs. Tho numbor oI dIIIoronf soIocfIons fhaf can
bo mado ouf oI gIvon numbor oI objocfs by fakIng somo or aII oI fhom af a fImo Is caIIod fho
combInafIon. In combInafIon wo do nof gIvo Imporfanco fo fho ordor oI arrangomonf.
CombInaforIcs 145
Theorem Tho numbor oI soIocfIons or combInafIons oI r-dIIIoronf objocfs ouf oI n-objocfs
tr n) Is donofod by C tn, r) and wo caII If as r-combInafIon oI n-objocfs. ThIs Is doIInod as
C tn, r) =
!
.
! t )!
n
r n r
ProoI: Wo know fhaf Ftn, r) =
!
;
t )!
n
r n
n r
As dIscussod oarIIor fho ordor oI arrangomonf Is nof sIgnIIIcanf In combInafIon. In ovory

combInafIon fhoro aro r-objocfs fhaf can bo arrangod among fhom In r! numbor oI ways.
ThoroIoro, C tn, r) combInafIons wIII Ioad fo r! Ctn, r) numbor oI pormufafIons. Wo caII If as
a pormufafIon oI r-objocfs ouf oI n-objocfs i.e., Ftn, r). Honco wo gof,
r! Ctn, r) = Ftn, r)
i.e., =
t , )
t , )
!
F n r
C n r
r

=
!
.
! t )!
n
r n r
6.4.1 lmportant PropertleS
Tho Imporfanf proporfIos oI combInafIon aro dIscussod boIow.
ta) Ctn, r) = Ctn, n r)
tb) Ctn, r) : Ctn, r 1) = tn r + 1) : r
ProoI: ta) Wo know fhaf
!
t , )
!t )!
n
C n r
r n r
=
On fakIng r = tn r), wo wIII gof

!
t , )
t )!t t ))!
!
t , )
t )! !
=

= =
n
C n n r
n r n n r
n
C n r
n r r
i.e., C tn, r) = C tn, n r)
tb) In ordor fo provo Ctn, r) : Ctn, r 1) = tn r + 1) : r, consIdor fho L.H.S.

!
t , )
!t )!
!
t , 1)
t 1)!t 1)!
t 1)! t 1)! !
!t )! !
t 1)! t )! t 1) !
t 1)! t )! !
1
+
+
=
+
=

+
=
n
C n r
r n r
n
C n r
r n r
r n r n
r n r n
r n r n r n
r r n r n
n r
r
6.4.2 PaScal'S ldentlty
Lof n and r bo posIfIvo Infogors wIfh n
r. Thon Ctn, r) + Ctn, r 1) = Ctn + 1, r)

ProoI:
! !
t , ) t , 1)
! t )! t 1)! t 1)!
+ = +
+
n n
C n r C n r
r n r r n r
! !
t 1)! t )! t 1)! t )! t 1)
! 1 1
t 1)! t )! t 1)
! 1
t 1)! t )! t 1)
t 1)!
t 1, )
! t 1)!
= +
+

= +

+
+
=

+
+
= = +
+
n n
r r n r r n r n r
n
r n r r n r
n n
r n r r n r
n
C n r
r n r
ThIs provos fho PascaI`s IdonfIfy.
6.4.3 keStrlcted Comblnatlon
SomofImos wo Imposo somo rosfrIcfIons fhaf somo parfIcuIar objocfs fo bo oIfhor aIways occur
or wIII novor occur. Such fypo oI combInafIon Is known as rosfrIcfod combInafIon and fhIs
Ioads fo fwo casos.
+=IA ` 1 CombInafIon oI n-objocfs fakon 'r` af a fImo whon 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs wIII aIways
occur. In such caso, wo koop asIdo fho 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs whIch aIways occur and fhon wo
chooso fho tr x) objocfs Irom fho romaInIng tn x) objocfs. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI
combInafIons Is oquaI fo Ctn x, r x).
+=IA ` 2 CombInafIon oI 'n` objocfs fakon 'r` af a fImo whon 'x` parfIcuIar objocfs wIII novor
occur. In such casos, aIfor romovIng 'x` objocfs Irom 'n` objocfs 'r` objocfs aro fo bo soIocfod
Irom tn x) objocfs. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI combInafIons Is oquaI fo Ctn x, r).
Notes: 1. On fakIng r = n, wo wIII gof

! 1 1
t , ) 1
! t )! 0! 1
n
C n n
n n n
= = = =
ThoroIoro, Ctn, n) = 1
2. On fakIng r = 0, wo wIII gof

! 1 1
t , ) 1
! t )! 0! 1
n
C n n
n n n
= = = =
ThoroIoro, C tn, 0) = 1
3. On fakIng r = 1, wo wIII gof

! t 1)!
t , 1)
1! t 1)! t 1)!
n n n
C n n
n n
= = =

ThoroIoro, Ctn, 1) = n
CombInaforIcs 14?
6.5 THE 8lN0MlAL THE0kEM
Tho sum oI fwo dIsfIncf forms, say tx + y), Is caIIod a bInomIaI. BInomIaI fhoorom Is doIInod as
a IormuIa Ior fho powor oI a bInomIaI, i.e., tx + y)
n
, nN. Tho bInomIaI oxpansIon Ior fho caso
n = 2 was usod by fho Grook mafhomafIcIan ucIId. Howovor, Omar Khayyam fho Arab
mafhomafIcIan Is crodIfod wIfh fho bInomIaI oxpansIon Ior hIghor nafuraI numbors. Lafor fho
groaf BrIfIsh scIonfIsf SIr Isaac Nowfon gonoraIIzod fho bInomIaI fhoorom Ior nogafIvo
InfograI and IracfIonaI IndIcos.
Theorem Lof n Is a posIfIvo Infogor. Thon Ior aII x and y,
1 2 2
0
t ) t , 0) t , 1) t , 2) t , )
t , )

=
+ = + + + +
=
n n n n n
n
n r r
r
x y C n x C n x y C n x y C n n y
C n r x y
ProoI: Wo wIII provo fhIs by fho mofhod oI mafhomafIcaI InducfIon on n.
!or n = 1 wo havo
1
t ) t1, 0) t1, 1) x y x y C x C y + = + = +
!or n = 2 wo havo
2 2 2
t ) 2 x y x xy y + = + +
=
2 2 1 2
t2, 0) t2, 1) t2, 2) C x C x y C y
+ +
So, fho sfafomonf Is fruo Ior n =1 and 2. Assumo fhaf fho sfafomonf Is fruo Ior n = h.
ThoroIoro, wo havo,

1 2 2
0
t ) t , 0) t , 1) t , 2) t , )
t , )
h h h h h
h
h r r
r
x y C h x C h x y C h x y C h h y
C h r x y

=
+ = + + + +
=
Now, Ior n = h + 1, wo havo

1
0 0
1 1
0 0
t ) t )t ) t ) t )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
h h h h
h h
h r r h j j
r j
h h
h r r h j j
r j
x y x y x y x x y y x y
x C h r x y y C h j x y
C h r x y C h j x y
+

= =
+ +
= =
+ = + + = + + +
= +
= +

1 1 1
1 0
t , ) t , )
h h
h h r r h j j
r j
x C h r x y C h j x y
+ + +
= =
= + +

1
1 1 1
1 1
t , ) t , 1)
h h
h h r r h r r
r r
x C h r x y C h r x y
+
+ + +
= =
= + +
; on fakIng j = r 1
( )
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
t , ) t , 1)
t , ) t , 1)
h h
h h r r h r r h
r r
h
h h r r h
r
x C h r x y C h r x y y
x C h r C h r x y y
+ + + +
= =
+ + +
=
= + + +
= + + +

1 t 1) 1
0
t 1, )
h
h h r r h
r
x C h r x y y
+ + +
=
= + + +
; on usIng PascaI`s IdonfIfy
1
t 1)
0
t 1, )
h
h r r
r
C h r x y
+
+
=
= +
CombInaforIcs 149
6.5.5 Vander Monde'S ldentlty
Lof n, n and r bo non-nogafIvo Infogors wIfh r nof oxcoodIng oIfhor n or n. Thon
0
t , ) t , ) t , )
r
j
C n n r C n r j C n j
=
+ =
ProoI: Lof us consIdor fwo bInomIaI oxpansIons t )

n
x y + and t )
n
x y + whoro n and n bofh aro
non-nogafIvo Infogors. ThoroIoro, by usIng bInomIaI fhoorom wo gof
=
+ =
0
t ) t , )
n
n n r r
r
x y C n r x y
...ti)
=
+ =
0
t ) t , )
n
n n j j
j
x y C n j x y
...tii)
On muIfIpIyIng abovo fwo oquafIons, wo gof
0 0
t ) t , ) t , )
n n
n n n r r n j j
r j
x y C n r x y C n j x y
+
= =

+ =

On oquafIng fho bInomIaI cooIIIcIonf oI
n n r r
x y
+
on bofh sIdos wo wIII gof
+ = + + + t , ) t , 0) t , ) t , 1) t , 1) t , ) t , 0) C n n r C n C n r C n C n r C n r C n
i.e.,
=
+ =
0
t , ) t , ) t , )
r
j
6.5.6 ldentltleS lnvolvlng 8lnomlal CoefflclentS
In fhIs socfIon, wo wIII dIscuss Imporfanf IdonfIfIos InvoIvIng bInomIaI cooIIIcIonfs. Through
ouf fhIs socfIon wo shaII uso
0 1 2 3
, , , , ,
n
C C C C C rospocfIvoIy In pIaco oI Ctn, 0), Ctn, 1),
t , 2), t , 3), , t , ) C n C n C n n Ior convonIonco oI nofafIon.
1.
0 1 2 3
2
n
n
C C C C C + + + + + =
ProoI: Wo know Irom bInomIaI fhoorom fhaf

2 3
0 1 2 3
t1 )
n n
n
x C C x C x C x C x + = + + + + +
On puffIng x = 1 In fho abovo IdonfIfy, wo gof
2 3
0 1 2 3
t1 1) 1 1 1 1 + = + + + + +
n n
n
C C C C C
i.e.,
0 1 2 3
2 + + + + + =
n
n
C C C C C
2.
1
0 2 4 6 1 3 5 ?
2
n
C C C C C C C C
+ + + + = = + + + +
ProoI: Wo know Irom bInomIaI fhoorom fhaf
2 3
0 1 2 3
t1 )
n n
n
x C C x C x C x C x + = + + + + +
On puffIng x = 1 and x = 1 In fho abovo IdonfIfy, wo gof rospocfIvoIy
0 1 2 3 4 5
2 + + + + + + + =
n
n
C C C C C C C ...ti)
+ + + + =
0 1 2 3 4 5
t 1) 0
n
n
C C C C C C C ...tii)
On addIng abovo fwo oquafIons t1) and t2), wo gof
+ + + =
0 2 4
2 2 2 2
n
C C C
i.e., + + + =
0 2 4
2t ) 2
n
C C C
i.e.,
+ + + =
1
0 2 4
2
n
C C C
ThoroIoro, oquafIon t2) roducos fo

1
1 3 5 ?
2
n
C C C C

+ + + + =
3.
2 2 2 2 2
0 1 2 3
t2 , )
n
C C C C C C n n + + + + + =
ProoI: Wo know Irom Vandor Mondo`s IdonfIfy fhaf
0
t , ) t , ) t , )
r
j
=
+ =
On puffIng n = r = n In fho abovo IdonfIfy, wo gof

2
0 0
t , ) t , ) t , ) t t , )) ; t , ) t , )
r r
j j
C n n n C n n j C n j C n j C n n j C n j
= =
+ = = =

3
i.e.,
2 2 2 2 2
0 1 2 3
t2 , )
n
C C C C C C n n + + + + + =
Alternutlve ProoI: Wo appIy a spocIaI frIck fo gof fho IdonfIfy. SInco wo aro fo sum fho
squaros oI bInomIaI cooIIIcIonfs, by consIdorIng fho cooIIIcIonfs oI t1 + x)
n
aIono wo may nof gof
fho rosuIf. Wo know Irom bInomIaI fhoorom fhaf
2 3
0 1 2 3
t1 )
n n
n
x C C x C x C x C x + = + + + + +
and
1 2 3
0 1 2 3
t 1)
n n n n n
n
x C x C x C x C x C

+ = + + + + +
On muIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos oI abovo oquafIons wo gof
2 1
0 1 0 1
t1 ) t )t )
n n n n
n n
x C C x C x C x C x C
+ = + + + + + +
ThoroIoro, fho cooIIIcIonf oI x
n
on bofh sIdos oI fho abovo oquafIon musf bo oquaI. Thus, wo
gof,
2 2 2 2
0 1 2
t2 , )
n
C n n C C C C = + + + +
i.e.,
2 2 2 2
0 1 2 2
t2 )!
.
t !)
n
n
C C C C
n
+ + + + =
6.6 8lN0MlAL THE0kEM F0k kATl0NAL lNDEX
Any bInomIaI tx + y) can bo wrIffon In fho Iorm oI 1
y
x
x

+

or 1
x
y
y

+

. ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar
fhaf t )
n
x y + can bo roducod fo fho Iorm + t1 ) .
n
: Now wo sfafo, fho bInomIaI fhoorom oI
t1 )
n
: +
whon n Is nof a posIfIvo Infogor or a nogafIvo or posIfIvo IracfIon.
Whon n Is a posIfIvo or nogafIvo IracfIon or nogafIvo Infogor and |:|<1
2
t 1) t 1)t 2) t 1)
t1 ) 1
2! !
n r
n n n n n n r
: n: : :
r
+
+ = + + + + +

CombInaforIcs 151
If Is fo bo nofod fhaf fho numbor oI forms In fho rIghf hand sIdo Is InIInIfo as fho bInomIaI
cooIIIcIonf
t 1)t 2) t 1)
!
n n n n r
r
+
novor vanIshos sInco tn r + 1) can novor bo zoro. Tho
prooI Is boyond fho scopo oI fhIs book. Howovor, wo shaII dIscuss fho appIIcafIon oI fhIs
fhoorom fo approxImafIon probIoms. !or oxampIo, wo can appIy fhIs fhoorom fo compufo fho
n
fh
roof oI a posIfIvo Infogor.
Tho tr +1)
fh
form
1
T
+ r
Is consIdorod as fho gonoraI form. If Is gIvon as
1
t 1)t 2) t 1)
T .
!
+
+
=

r
r
n n n n r
:
r
6.7 THE CATALAN NUM8Ek5
In combInaforIcs, fho CafaIan numbors IIguro a sorIos oI nafuraI numbors fhaf gonoraIIy
occur In varIous counfIng probIoms. If Is namod aIfor BoIgIan mafhomafIcIan ugono CharIos
CafaIan.
Theorem Tho n
fh
CafaIan numbor C
n
Is doIInod In forms oI bInomIaI cooIIIcIonf as
C
n
=
2
1 1 t2 )! t2 )!
1 1 ! ! t 1)! !
n
n n
n n n n n n n

= =

+ + +
Ior 0 n
ProoI: Thoro aro many ways fo prooI fho abovo roIafIon. Horo, wo wIII bo usIng gonorafIng
IuncfIon fo prooI fho roIafIon. If can bo oasIIy soon fhaf fho abovo roIafIon safIsIy fho
rocurronco roIafIon
0
1 C = and
1
0
n
n i n i
i
C CC
+
=
=

Ior 0 n . .t1)
Tho gonorafIng IuncfIon Ior fho CafaIan numbors Is doIInod by
0
t )
n
n
n
c x C x
=
=

If Is cIoar Irom fho oquafIon t1) fhaf fho sum on fho rIghf sIdo oI fho abovo rocurronco
roIafIon Is fho cooIIIcIonf oI x
n

In fho producf
2
0
i
i
i
C x
=

. ThoroIoro, wo havo
2
1
0 0
i n
i n
i n
C x C x

+
= =

=

On muIfIpIyIng bofh sIdos by x, wo gof

+
+
= = = =

= = = +

2
1
1
0 0 1 0
1
i n n n
i n n n
i n n n
x C x C x C x C x
i.e., = +
2
t t )) 1 t ) x c x c x
i.e.,
+ =
2
t t )) t ) 1 0 x c x c x
i.e.,

=
1 1 4
t )
2
x
c x
x
Now, wo havo fo oxpand fho squaro roof as a powor sorIos. ThIs can bo dono by usIng
bInomIaI fhoorom. ThoroIoro, In gonoraI, wo gof
=

=

1
2 2
1 t 4 )
1 4 1 2
1 4
n
n
n
n
x
x
n n
On usIng fho abovo roIafIon In ctx) wo gof
1
1
2 2
1 t 4 )
1 1 2
1 4 2 2
1
t )
1 2
n
n
n
n
n
n
x
n n n
x
c x
n x x n
=
=

+

= =

= =

= =

+

1
1 0
2 2 2
t )
1 1
n n
n n
n n
x x
c x
n n n n

= =

=

+

0 0
2
1
n
n
n
n n
n
x
C x
n n
On oquafIng cooIIIcIonfs oI x
n
bofh sIdos In fho abovo oquafIon wo gof fho dosIrod IormuIa Ior
C
n
. ThoroIoro,

=

+
2
1
1
n
n
C
n n
Note: An aIfornafIvo oxprossIon Ior n
fh
CafaIan numbor C
n
fhaf IndIcafos C
n
Is a nafuraI numbor Is
gIvon as

=

2 2
Ior 1
1
n
n n
C n
n n
6.7.1 AppllcatlonS of Catalan NumberS
If Is obsorvod fhaf In many casos CafaIan numbors provIdos soIufIons fo fho counfIng probIoms
In combInaforIcs. Horo wo wIII dIscuss somo oxampIos, wIfh IIIusfrafIons oI fho caso C
3
= 5.
1. SuccossIvo appIIcafIons oI a bInary oporafor can bo roprosonfod In forms oI a bInary froo. If
IndIcafos fhaf C
n
Is fho numbor oI roofod ordorod bInary froos wIfh tn + 1) Ioavos tL). Horo wo
havo fakon n = 3.

L L L L
L
L
L L
L
L
L L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L L
2. Tho CafaIan numbor C
n
Is fho numbor oI dIIIoronf ways a convox poIygon wIfh tn + 2) sIdos
can bo cuf Info frIangIos by connocfIng vorfIcos wIfh sfraIghf IInos. Tho IoIIowIng ponfagons
IIIusfrafo fho caso n = 3.
+>E=JHE?I #!
3. Tho CafaIan numbor C
n
Is fho numbor oI yck words oI Iongfh 2n. A yck word Is a sfrIng
consIsfIng oI n A`s and n B`s such fhaf no InIfIaI sogmonf oI fho sfrIng has moro B`s fhan A`s.
Tho IoIIowIng yck words IIIusfrafo fho caso n = 3, i.e., yck words oI Iongfh 6.
AAABBB ABAABB ABABAB AABBAB AABABB
4. On consIdorIng fho symboI A as an opon paronfhosos and B as a cIoso paronfhosos. Tho
CafaIan numbor C
n
counfs fho numbor oI oxprossIons confaInIng n paIrs oI paronfhosos fhaf
aro corrocfIy mafchod.
ttt ))) t )tt )) t )t )t ) tt ))t ) tt )t ))
6.8 kAM5EY NUM8Ek
In combInaforIcs, wo camo across many InforosfIng probIoms and a parfy probIom Is ono
among fhom. BoIoro wo dIscuss Ramsoy numbor IIrsf wo sfafo fho parfy probIom. Provo fhaf
In any parfy wIfh poopIo fhoro aro fhroo poopIo who aII know oach ofhor or fhaf fhoro aro
fhroo poopIo who do nof aII know oach ofhor. Tho sImpIosf way fo soIvo fhIs probIom Is usIng
graph fhoory, buf If Is ono oI fho Imporfanf IIIusfrafIons In fho aroa oI IogIc fhaf was dovoIopod
by !. P. Ramsoy. !or fwo coIours, Ramsoy`s fhoorom sfafos fhaf Ior any fwo posIfIvo Infogors
n and n, fhoro oxIsfs a smaIIosf Infogor Ptn, n) = p such fhaf II wo arbIfrarIIy coIour fho odgos
oI fho compIofo graph tfhaf Is a sImpIo graph whoro oach vorfox 'u` Is adjaconf fo ovory ofhor
vorfox 'o`) wIfh 'p` vorfIcos bIuo or rod, fhon wo musf gof a bIuo compIofo graph wIfh 'n`
vorfIcos or a rod compIofo graph wIfh 'n` vorfIcos as subgraph. Thus, If Is cIoar fhaf Ptn, n) = p
sIgnIIIos an Infogor fhaf doponds on bofh n and n. Tho abovo Idoa can bo oxfondod fo IInIfo
numbor oI coIours. ThoroIoro, fho fhoorom sfafos fhaf Ior any gIvon numbor oI coIours h, and
any gIvon Infogors
1 2 3
, , , ,
h
n n n n , fhoro oxIsfs a numbor
1 2 3
t , , , , ) =
h
P n n n n q such fhaf
II fho odgos oI a compIofo graph wIfh 'q` vorfIcos aro coIourod wIfh 'h` dIIIoronf coIours, fhon
Ior somo i bofwoon 1 and h, If musf confaIn a compIofo subgraph wIfh n
i
vorfIcos whoso odgos
aro aII coIour i. Tho numbors Ptn, n) In Ramsoy`s fhoorom aro known as Ramsoy numbors.
Now our aIm Is fo compufo fho vaIuo oI Ptn, n) Ior smaII vaIuos oI n and n.
!Irsf oI aII, wo havo fo fhInk doos If mako any sonso Ptn, 1) or Pt1, n). Lof Ptn, 1) = p.
SInco compIofo graph wIfh 1 vorfox doos nof havo any odgos, coIourIng fho odgos oI compIofo
graph wIfh p vorfIcos bIuo or rod doos nof hoIp us fo gof a compIofo graph wIfh 1 vorfox wIfh
bIuo or rod odgos. ThoroIoro, wo assumo fhaf bofh n and n aro af Ioasf 2. Thus fho smaIIosf
vaIuo oI Ptn, n) musf bo Pt2, 2). Now fho quosfIon arIsos, whaf compIofo graph wIfh 2 vorfIcos
can wo coIour fo bo suro fhaf wo gof oIfhor a bIuo odgo or a rod odgo7 II fho sIngIo odgo Is
coIourod bIuo, fhon wo havo a bIuo odgo af fho samo fImo II If Is coIourod rod, fhon wo havo a
rod odgo. ThoroIoro, If Is cIoarod fhaf Pt2, 2) = 2.
Theorem II n and n aro fwo posIfIvo Infogors bofh groafor fhan 2, fhon
t , ) t 1, ) t , 1) P n n P n n P n n +
ProoI: Lof t 1, ) p P n n = , t , 1) q P n n = and r = tp + q).
ConsIdor a group 1, 2, 3, ..., r oI r poopIo. Lof us assumo fhaf L
1
bo fho sof oI poopIo known
fo porson 1 whoroas L
2
bo fho sof oI poopIo nof known fo porson 1. If IndIcafos fhaf fho fwo
sofs fogofhor havo tr 1) poopIo; so oIfhor L
1
has af Ioasf p poopIo or L
2
has af Ioasf q poopIo.
If Ioads fo fwo casos.
#" undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
ta) II L
1
has t 1, ) p P n n = poopIo, fhon by doIInIfIon, If confaIns a subsof oI tn 1) poopIo
known fo oach ofhor or If has a subsof oI n poopIo unknown fo ono anofhor. In fho oarIIor caso
fho tn 1) poopIo and porson 1 fogofhor consfIfufo n poopIo known fo oach ofhor.
Thus, In fhoIr caso, a group oI t 1, ) t , 1) P n n P n n + poopIo nocossarIIy IncIudos n
porsons who aII know oach ofhor or n poopIo who do nof know oach ofhor. ThoroIoro,
t , ) t 1, ) t , 1) P n n P n n P n n +
tb)Tho samo argumonf IoIIows by symmofry whon L
2
confaIns q poopIo.
Theorem II n and n aro fwo posIfIvo Infogors bofh groafor fhan 1, fhon
+

2
t , )
1
n n
P n n
n
ProoI: Whon n = 2 and n = 2 wo havo

= =

2
t2, 2) 2 .
1
P
ThoroIoro, fho gIvon roIafIon hoIds wIfh oquaIIfy. Wo wIII prooI fhIs by fho mofhod InducfIon
on h = n + n. As wo havo jusf soon, fho gIvon roIafIon Is fruo whon h = 4. Assumo fhaf fho
roIafIon Is fruo Ior h 1. ThoroIoro,
3 3
t 1, ) and t , 1)
2 1
n n n n
P n n P n n
n n
+ +

On addIng fho abovo InoquaIIfIos, wo gof
3 3
t 1, ) t , 1)
2 1
n n n n
P n n P n n
n n
+ +
+ +

By usIng PascaI`s IdonfIfy, wo gof fho IoIIowIng:
+
+

2
t 1, ) t , 1)
1
n n
P n n P n n
n
...ti)
AgaIn, wo know Irom fho provIous fhoorom fhaf
+ t , ) t 1, ) t , 1) P n n P n n P n n ...tii)
ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii), wo gof
+
+

2
t , ) t 1, ) t , 1)
1
n n
P n n P n n P n n
n
i.e.,
+

2
t , )
1
n n
P n n
n
.
6.8.1 kamSey NumberS
AII known Ramsoy numbors P tn, n) Ior vaIuos oI n and n up fo ? aro shown In fho IoIIowIng
fabIo. II fho oxacf vaIuo Is unknown, fho fabIo IIsfs fho bosf known bounds. P tn, n) Ior vaIuos
oI n and n Ioss fhan 3 aro gIvon by P t1, n) = 1 and P t2, n) = n Ior aII vaIuos oI n. Tho
dovoIopmonf oI Ramsoy numbor rosoarch has boon wrIffon by SfanIsIaw RadzIszowskI.
+>E=JHE?I ##

n

m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1
2 1 2
3 1 3 6
4 1 4 9 18
5 1 5 14 25 43 49
6 1 6 18 35 41 58 87 102 165
7 1 7 23 49 61 80 143 113 298 205 540
Tho uppor onfrIos across fho maIn dIagonaI aro omIffod bocauso oI frIvIaI symmofry
P tn, n) = P tn, n).
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 FinJ the oa/ue oj
!
!
7
J
anJ chech uhether
!
!
7
J
= 3!
Solution = =
. . .
3!4 5 6 ? ?!
840
3! 3!
and 3! = 3 2 1 = 6
ThoroIoro,
?!
3!
3!
Example 2 Eoa/uate the jo//ouing jor n = S anJ r = J.
ta) tn r)! tb)
!
!
n
r
tc)
!
!t )!
n
r n r
Solution GIvon fhaf n = 8 and r = 3. ThoroIoro,
ta) tn r)! = t8 3)! = 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120
tb) = = = =
. . . . .
! 8! 8 ? 6 5 4 3!
. . . .
8 ? 6 5 4 6?20
! 3! 3!
n
r
tc)
! 8!
!t )! 3!t8 3)!
n
r n r
=

=
8!
3! 5!
=

= =

8.? 6 5! 8.? 6
56
3! 5! 3 2 1
.
Example 3 lt is obseroeJ that in a conputer systen each user has a jour to jioe character
passuorJ, uhere each character is a /ouercase /etter or a Jigit. lt is nanJatory that each
passuorJ nust contain at/east one Jigit. Conpute the tota/ nunber oj possib/e passuorJs.
Solution: Assumo fhaf T bo fho fofaI numbor oI possIbIo passwords. If Is gIvon fhaf oach
password confaIns Iour fo IIvo characfors. Lof P
4
and P
5
donofo fho numbor oI possIbIo
passwords oI Iongfh 4 and 5 characfors rospocfIvoIy. ThoroIoro, by addIfIon prIncIpIo
T = P
4
+ P
5
Now, our aIm Is fo caIcuIafo P
4
and P
5
. In ordor fo caIcuIafo P
4
, IIrsf oI aII wo havo fo compufo
fho numbor oI passwords oI Ioworcaso Ioffors and dIgIfs fhaf aro 4 characfors Iong and fhon wo
havo fo subfracf fho numbor oI passwords wIfh no dIgIfs. ThoroIoro, by usIng muIfIpIIcafIon
prIncIpIo
P
4
= 36
4
26
4
= 1222640
SImIIarIy, P
5
= 36
5
26
5
= 48584800
ThoroIoro, T = P
4
+ P
5
= 1222640 + 48584800 = 4980?440.
Example 4 lj tuo Jice are throun once, then jinJ the nunber oj uays in uhich ue can get an
eoen sun.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fwo dIco aro fhrown onco. If Is cIoar fhaf fho mInImum sum wo wIII gof
Is 2 whoroas fho maxImum sum Is 12. Our aIm Is fo caIcuIafo fho numbor oI ways fhaf wo wIII
gof fho ovon sum i.e., wo nood fho sum 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12.
Now, wo wIII gof fho sum 2 In 1 way i.e., t1, 1). SImIIarIy, wo wIII gof fho sum 4 In 3 ways i.e.,
t1, 3), t2, 2) and t3, 1). LIkowIso wo wIII gof fho sum 6, 8, 10 and 12 In 5, 5, 3 and 1 ways
rospocfIvoIy. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways In whIch wo wIII gof an ovon sum Is oquaI fo
1 + 3 + 5 + 5 +3 +1 = 18.
Example 5 8hou that (2n! = 2
n
(n! 1.J.6.(2n 1
Solution: t2n)! = 2n t2n 1) t2n 2) t2n 3) t2n 4).. 4. 3. 2. 1
= 2n t2n 2) t2n 4).4.2t2n 1)t2n 3)..3.1
= 2 n 2 tn 1) 2 tn 2)... t2.2) 2 t2n 1)t2n 3)..3.1
= 2n n tn 1) tn 2)... 2 1 t2n 1)t2n 3)...3.1
=2n tn!) 1.3.5.t2n 1)t2n 3)
Example 6 FinJ the oa/ue oj the jo//ouings.
ta) F(S, 6 tb)
t , )
t , )
F 10 6
F 12 S
Solution:
. . . .
3! 4 5 6 ? 8 8! 8!
t ) t8, 5)
t8 5)! 3! 3!
6?20
= = =
=
a F
tb)
= = = = =

10!
t10,6) 10! 4! 10! 10! 1
t10 6)!
12!
t12,8) 4! 12! 12! 10! 11 12 132
t12 8)!
F
F
Example 7 Hou nany bit coJe uorJs can be generateJ oj /ength 6:
Solution: Horo wo havo fo consfrucf bIf codo words oI Iongfh 6. A codo word Is saId fo bo a bIf
codo word II aII fho dIgIfs aro oIfhor 0 or 1. ConsIdor fho codo word as boIow.

6 bit code word
1
st
2
nd

3
rd

4
th

5
th

6
th

Combinatorics 157
From the code word it is clear that each place can be filled in two ways. Therefore, the total
code words = 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 64.
Example 8 In how many ways 25 answer papers are arranged so that a particular pair of
answer papers shall not come together?
Solution: Given that there are 25 answer papers. The restriction is that two answer papers
cannot be put together.
Let us consider this particular pair of answer papers as one answer paper. So we have 24
answer papers instead of 25 answer papers. Now these 24 answer papers can be arranged in
P(24, 24) = 24! ways.
Now the 2 particular answer papers can arranged in 2! ways, on assuming that they are
one. So the total number of ways when particular pair of answer papers is always together is
equal to
24! 2! = 2 24!
But the 25 answer papers can be arranged in P(25, 25) = 25! ways.
Therefore, the number of ways in which a particular pair of answer papers is never together is
equal to
= 25! 2 24! = 25 24! 2 24!
= 24! (25 2) = 23 24!
Example 9 Find the number of ways in which 8 men and 4 women stand in a circle such that
no two women are next to each other.
Solution: According to circular arrangement 8 men can stand in a circle in (8 1)! = 7! ways.
It indicates that there are 8 locations available in the circle for 4 women.
So, first women can stand in 8 ways; second women can stand in 7 ways; third women can
stand in 6 ways whereas fourth women can stand in 5 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways in which no two women are next to each other
= 7! (8 7 6 5)
= 7! P(8, 4) = 8467200.
Example 10 Find the value of n if P(n, 7) = 12 P(n, 5)
Solution: Given that P(n, 7) = 12 P(n, 5)
=

! !
12.
( 7)! ( 5)!
n n
n n
( 5)! 12
( 7)! 1
n
n
( 7)! ( 6)( 5)
12
( 7)!
n n n
n
2
2
11 30 12
11 18 0
( 9)( 2) 0
9 or 2
n n
n n
n n
n
+ =
+ =
=
=
From the equation it is clear that n must be greater than 7. Thus, n = 9.
CombInaforIcs 159
Solution: GIvon fhaf fhoro aro sIx dIgIfs 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9. Wo havo fo Iorm 4-dIgIf numbors
In whIch no dIgIfs aro fo bo ropoafod.
1
st
2
nd
3
rd

4
th

Tho 1
sf
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In 6 ways, as ono oI fho sIx dIgIfs can bo usod, aIfor fhIs 5 dIgIf Is
IoIf ouf. So fho 2
nd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In 5 ways. SImIIarIy fho 3
rd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In 4
ways and fho 4
fh
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In 3 ways.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI Iour dIgIf numbors fhaf can bo Iormod Is oquaI fo
6 5 4 3 = 360
Example 15 Conpute the nunber oj uays in uhich J boys anJ 2 gir/s are to be seateJ jor a
Jinner such that no 2 gir/s anJ no 2 boys sit together.
Solution: Lof us consIdor 5 chaIrs Ior IIvo sfudonfs. Lof fho chaIrs bo gIvon boIow:
1
st
2
nd
3
rd

4
th
5
th

Tho 2 gIrIs can bo pIacod In 2 ovon pIacos. ThIs can bo dono In Ft2, 2) ways. In bofwoon and af
fho oxfromIfIos oI 2 gIrIs fhoro aro 3 odd pIacos In whIch 3 boys can bo soafod. ThIs can bo dono
In Ft3, 3) ways. ThoroIoro, by muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho fofaI numbor oI arrangomonfs Is
oquaI fo
Ft2, 2) Ft3, 3) = 2! 3! = 2 6 = 12.
Example 16 FinJ the tota/ Jistinct nunbers oj six Jigits that can be jorneJ uith 0, 1, J, 6, 7
anJ 0 anJ hou nany oj then is Jioisib/e by 10:
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho dIgIfs aro 0, 1, 3, 5, ? and 9. Wo havo fo Iorm sIx dIgIf numbors.
1
st
2
nd
3
rd

4
th
5
th
6
th

Tho 1
sf
pIaco cannof bo IIIIod up by 0 as If wIII romIf In 5 dIgIf numbor. So fho 1
sf
pIaco can
bo IIIIod up In 5 ways. !or fho 2
nd
pIaco wo aro IoIf wIfh 5 dIgIfs, so fho 2
nd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up
In 5 ways. SImIIarIy 3
rd
pIaco can bo IIIIod up In 4 ways, 4
fh
pIaco In 3 ways, 5
fh
pIaco In 2 ways
and 6
fh
pIaco In 1 way.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI dIIIoronf numbors fhaf can bo Iormod Is oquaI fo 5 5 4
3 2 = 600
Now Iof us IInd ouf fho numbors fhaf aro dIvIsIbIo by 10. A numbor wIII bo dIvIsIbIo by 10 II
fho unIf pIaco has 0. ThoroIoro, fho 6
fh
pIaco can bo arrangod by 1 way. Tho romaInIng 5 pIacos
can bo arrangod wIfh 5 dIgIfs as Ft5, 5) ways. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI sIx dIgIf numbors fhaf can bo
dIvIsIbIo by 10 Is oquaI fo
Ft5, 5) 1 =
5! 5!
120
t5 5)! 0!
= =
.
Example 17 Hou nany 6 Jigit nunbers can be jorneJ using the Jigits 6, 0, 6, 6 anJ 67
Solution: GIvon fhaf fhoro aro 5 dIgIfs 5, 0, 6, 5 and 6. In whIch 5 appoars 2 fImos, 6 appoar 2
fImos whoroas 0 appoars onco.
So, fho fofaI numbor oI pormufafIon

= = =

5! 5 4 3 2!
30
2! 2! 2! 2 1
.
Buf fhoso arrangomonfs aIso IncIudo 0 In fho IIrsf pIaco. ThIs Ioads fo 4 dIgIf numbors. So, wo
havo fo oxcIudo such casos. ThoroIoro, fho romaInIng 4 dIgIfs can bo arrangod In

= = =

4! 4 3 2!
6
2! 2! 2! 2 1
ways.
Honco, fho fofaI 5 dIgIf numbors = 30 6 = 24
Example 18 FinJ the nunber oj pernutations in the /etter 'MALAYALAM`.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho word MALAYALAM. ThIs confaIns 9 Ioffors consIsfIng oI fwo M`s,
fwo L`s, Iour A`s and ono Y. So fho no. oI pormufafIon Is oquaI fo
=
9!
3?80.
2! 2! 4! 1!
Example 19 AJans has 6 jrienJs. ln hou nany uays can he inoite tuo or nore oj then to a tea
party:
Solution: Adams has 5 IrIonds and ho has fo InvIfo fwo or moro oI fhom fo a foa parfy, i.e., ho
can InvIfo 2 IrIonds, 3 IrIonds, 4 IrIonds or 5 IrIonds. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways Is
oquaI fo
Ct5, 2) + Ct5, 3) + Ct5, 4) + Ct5, 5) = 26.
Example 20 FinJ the nunber oj uays in uhich 'n` things oj uhich 'n` are a/ihe can be arrangeJ
in circu/ar orJer.
Solution: Lof fho numbor oI arrangomonfs = X
Lof us consIdor ono oI fhoso X arrangomonf. Now 'n` objocfs aro aIIko. II fhoso 'n` sImIIar
objocfs aro ropIacod by dIssImIIar objocfs, fhan If can bo arrangod among fhom In n! ways.
ThoroIoro, X pormufafIon wIII gIvo tX n!) arrangomonfs. Buf II 'n` fhIngs aro dIIIoronf
fhon fho numbor oI cIrcuIar arrangomonfs = tn 1)!.
Honco, X n! = tn 1)!
=
t 1)!
!
n
X
n
Example 21 Hou nany eoen nunbers that can be jorneJ by using a// the Jigits 1, 2, 4, 6, 6, 7
anJ 0:
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho dIgIfs aro 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, ? and 9. Wo havo fo Iorm ovon numbors usIng
aII fho sovon dIgIfs. Buf wo know fhaf a numbor Is saId fo bo an ovon numbor II fho unIf pIaco
Is dIvIsIbIo by 2 i.e., fho 1
sf
pIaco has an ovon numbor. So, fho unIfs pIaco can bo arrangod by
usIng fho dIgIfs 2, 4 or 6.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI ways oI arrangIng unIfs pIaco Is Ft3, 1) = 3.
Now fho rosf 6 pIacos can bo IIIIod up by 6 numbors In Ft6, 6) = 6! ways. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI
ovon numbors = 3 6!
= 3 ?20 = 2160
Example 22 There are J toys to be JistributeJ anong 7 chi/Jren. ln hou nany uays can it be
Jone such that
(a No chi/J gets nore than one toy.
(b There is no restriction as to the nunber oj toys any chi/J gets.
(c No chi/J gets a// toys.
CombInaforIcs 161
Solution: GIvon fhaf fhoro aro 4 foys and ? chIIdron.
ta) Tho IIrsf foy can bo dIsfrIbufod In ? ways as If can bo gIvon fo any ono oI ? chIIdron. Tho
2
nd
foy can bo gIvon fo any ono oI fho romaInIng 6 chIIdron. SImIIarIy, fho 3
rd
foy can bo
gIvon In 5 ways. ThoroIoro, by muIfIpIIcafIon prIncIpIo fho fofaI numbor oI ways possIbIo
= ? 6 5 = 210
tb) GIvon fhaf fhoro Is no rosfrIcfIon fo fho numbor oI foys any chIId gofs. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
ropofIfIon Is aIIowod. So, aII fho 3 foys can bo gIvon In ? ways. ThoroIoro, fho roquIrod
numbor oI ways possIbIo
= ? ? ? = 343
tc) Tho numbor oI ways In whIch a chIId gofs aII fho 3 foys Is ? as ono among ? chIIdron gofs
aII fho 3 foys.
II fhoro Is no rosfrIcfIon on fho numbor oI foys any chIId gofs, fhon fofaI numbor oI ways
possIbIo Is 343. ThoroIoro, fho roquIrod numbor oI ways In whIch no chIId gofs aII fho foys
= 343 ? = 336.
Example 23 Hou nany coJe signa/s can be jorneJ by hoisting 4 j/ags oj Jijjerent co/ours:
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho 4 IIags aro oI dIIIoronf coIours. Wo can Iorm sIgnaIs by hoIsfIng ono,
fwo, fhroo or Iour IIags.
By hoIsfIng ono IIag, fho numbor oI codo sIgnaIs = Ft4, 1) = 4
By hoIsfIng 2 IIags, fho numbor oI codo sIgnaIs = Ft4, 2) = 12
So, by addIfIon prIncIpIo, fho fofaI numbor oI codo sIgnaIs Is oquaI fo 4 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 64.
Example 24 An urn contains 0 ba//s inc/uJing 6 reJ, J b/ue anJ 1 green. They are throun one
by one anJ arrangeJ in a rou. Assune that a// the 0 ba//s are throun, then jinJ the nunber oj
Jijjerent arrangenents.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho urn confaIns 9 baIIs. i.e., n = 9.
Numbor oI rod baIIs = 5 i.e., p = 5
Numbor oI bIuo baIIs = 3 i.e., q = 3
Numbor oI groon baIIs = 1 i.e., r = 1
As fho objocfs aro ropoafod, fho fofaI numbor oI pormufafIons aro oquaI fo
= = =
. . .
5! 6 ? 8 9 ! 9!
504
. .
! ! ! 5! 3! 1! 5! 1 2 3
n
p q r
Example 25 Hou nany nunbers greater than 7000 can be jorneJ uith the Jigits 2, 4, 7, S anJ
0 ij no Jigits are repeateJ:
Solution: Wo havo fo Iorm numbors groafor fhan ?000. So If shaII bo mInImum Iour dIgIf
numbor. GIvon 5 dIgIfs aro 2, 4, ?, 8 and 9. Lof fho Iour dIgIf numbor as gIvon boIow.
1
st
2
nd
3
rd

4
th

As fho roquIrod numbor Is groafor fhan ?000, so fho IIrsf pIaco dIgIf musf bo groafor fhan ?.
ThoroIoro,
Tho 1
sf
pIaco can bo IIIIod up by ?, 8 or 9 i.e., In Ft3, 1) = 3 ways.
Tho rosf fhroo pIacos can bo IIIIod up In Ft4, 3) = 24 ways.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI Iour dIgIf numbors groafor fhan ?000 Is oquaI fo 24 3 = ?2.
AgaIn If Is cIoar fhaf any IIvo dIgIf numbor wIII bo groafor fhan ?000. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI
IIvo dIgIf numbors Is oquaI fo Ft5, 5) = 5! = 120.
Honco, fho fofaI numbors groafor fhan ?000 = ?2 + 120 =192.
Example 26 ln a neeting there are 12 peop/e. Each shahes hanJs uith each other exact/y once.
Deternine the tota/ nunber oj shahe hanJs.
Solution: TofaI numbor oI poopIo In fho moofIng = 12
ach shako hand InvoIvos fwo poopIo.
TofaI numbor oI shako hands = Ct12, 2) = = =
12! 12!
66.
2! t12 2)! 2! 10!
Example 27 ln hou nany uays a crichet tean oj e/eoen is chosen jron a batch oj 1S p/ayer:
Hou nany oj then ui//
(a lnc/uJe a particu/ar p/ayer
(b Exc/uJe a particu/ar p/ayer
Solution: Wo havo fo soIocf 11 pIayors Irom 18 pIayors whIch can bo dono In
18!
t18, 11)
?!
F = ways.
ta) Now, wo havo fo soIocf fho foam IncIudIng a parfIcuIar pIayor. In fhIs caso ono pIayor Is
IIxod. So, rosf 10 pIayors Is fo bo soIocfod Irom 1? pIayors and If can bo dono In Pt1?, 10)
ways.
i.e.,
1?!
t1?, 10)
?!
F = ways.
tb) Now wo havo fo soIocf fho foam by oxcIudIng a parfIcuIar pIayor. In fhIs caso wo havo fo
oxcIudo a parfIcuIar pIayor. So 11 pIayors has fo bo choson Irom 1? pIayors, and fhIs can
bo dono In Ft1?,11) ways.
i.e.
1?!
t1?, 11)
6!
F = , ways.
Example 28 lj C tn, r) = 66 anJ F tn, r) = JJ6, jinJ the oa/ue oj r.
Solution: GIvon fhaf Ctn, r) = 56 and Ftn, r) = 336.
= =

= =
=
! !
56 and 336
!t )! t )!
!
336 t )!
! 56
!t )!
! !t )!
6
t )! !
! 6 3!
3
n n
r n r n r
n
n r
n
r n r
n r n r
n r n
r
r
CombInaforIcs 163
Example 29 ln a ojjice c/ub there are 4 /aJies anJ 10 gent/enen, a connittee has to be jorneJ,
uith 2 /aJies anJ 2 gent/enan, in hou nany uays can this be Jone ij
(a Any /aJy anJ gent/enan can be inc/uJeJ:
(b One particu/ar gent/enan nust be there in the connittee:
Solution: GIvon fhaf 4 IadIos and 10 gonfIomon aro fhoro In fho oIIIco cIub. A commIffoo oI 2
IadIos and 2 gonfIomon has fo bo Iormod.
ta) ConsIdor fho caso oI any Iady and gonfIomon can bo IncIudod. Now 2 IadIos can bo soIocfod
Irom 4 IadIos In Ct4, 2) ways and 2 gonfIomon can bo soIocfod Irom 10 gonfIomon In Ct10, 2)
ways.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways = Ct4, 2) Ct10, 2)
4! 10! 4! 10!
2?0
2!t4 2)! 2!t10 2)! 2! 2! 2! 8!
= = =

tb) Now, wo havo fo soIocf fho commIffoo wIfh ono parfIcuIar gonfIoman. So, rosf ono
gonfIoman can bo soIocfod Irom romaInIng 9 gonfIoman In Ct9, 1) ways. Tho 2 IadIos can
bo soIocfod Irom 4 IadIos In Ct4, 2) ways.
ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI ways = Ct4, 2) Ct9, 1)
4! 4!
9 9 54
2!t4 2)! 2! 2!
= = =

.
Example 30 ln an exanination a nininun is to be secureJ in each oj 4 subjects to pass. ln
hou nany uays can a stuJent jai/:
Solution: A sfudonf can IaII In any oI fho IoIIowIng mannor
ta) Ho may IaII In any ono oI fho papor whIch Is possIbIo In Ct4, 1) ways.
tb) Ho may IaII In any fwo oI fho papors whIch Is possIbIo In Ct4, 2) ways.
tc) Ho may IaII In any fhroo oI fho papors whIch Is possIbIo In Ct4, 3)ways.
tJ) Ho may IaII In aII fho Iour papors whIch Is possIbIo In Ct4, 4) ways.
Thus, fho numbor oI ways In whIch a sfudonf can IaII
= Ct4, 1) + Ct4, 2) + Ct4, 3) + Ct4, 4)
= C t5, 2) + C t5, 4) = 10 + 5 = 15.
Example 31 Conpute the tota/ nunber oj Jijjerent uorJs that can be generateJ out oj J
capita/s, J consonants anJ 4 ooue/s ij each uorJ contains 2 consonants, 2 ooue/s anJ beginning
uith capita/.
Solution: GIvon 5 capIfaIs, 3 consonanfs and 4 vowoIs. Wo havo fo Iorm words wIfh 2
consonanfs, 2 vowoIs and bogInnIng wIfh capIfaI.
Now 2 consonanfs can bo soIocfod Irom 3 consonanfs In Ct3, 2) ways. AgaIn 2 vowoIs can bo
soIocfod Irom 4 vowoIs In Ct4, 2) ways. ThIs group oI 4 Ioffors can bo arrangod among
fhomsoIvos In 4! ways.
ThoroIoro, fofaI numbor oI words = 4! Ct3, 2) Ct4, 2)
= 24 3 6 = 432.
Now oach word shaII bogIn wIfh capIfaI and fhoro aro 3 capIfaIs. ThoroIoro, fofaI numbor oI
words = 3 432 = 1296
$" undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
Example 32 FinJ the niJJ/e tern in the expansion oj
.
14
J
4
2
x
x

+

Solution In fho abovo oxpansIon n = 14. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI forms Is oquaI fo 15.
If IndIcafos fhaf fhoro oxIsfs onIy ono mIddIo form i.e.,

+

14
1
2
= 8
fh
form. ThoroIoro,

=

=
7
3 14 7
8 4
7 7
2
t14, 7)t )
3432 2 .
T C x
x
x
Example 33 Conpute the 10
th
tern in the expansion oj
( )
1J
2
Jx 2y .
Solution In fho abovo oxpansIon n = 13. Our aIm Is fo compufo fho 10
fh
form. ThoroIoro, wo gof
2 13 9 9 4 9 8 9
10
t13, 9)t3 ) t 2 ) 715 3 t 2) T C x y x y
= = .
Example 34 A crichet tean oj 11 p/ayers is to be chosen jron 16 p/ayers inc/uJing 6 bou/ers
anJ 2 uichet heepers. ln hou nany Jijjerent uays can a tean be jorneJ so that the tean
consists oj at /east J bou/ers anJ at /east one uichet heeper:
Solution GIvon fhaf numbor oI bowIors = 5
Numbor oI wIckof koopors = 2
and numbor oI ofhor pIayors = 16 7 = 9
Tho foam oI 11 has fo bo Iormod wIfh af Ioasf 3 bowIors and af Ioasf ono wIckof koopor.
Boa/cr Wichct hccpcr

Dthcrs

No. oj aays

3 1 7 Ct5, 3) t2, C 1) t9, C 7) =720
3 2 6 Ct5, 3) t2, C 2) t9, C 6)= 840
4 1 6 Ct5, 4) t2, C 1) t9, C 6)= 840
4 2 5 Ct5, 4) t2, C 2) t9, C 5)= 630
5 1 5 Ct5, 5) t2, C 1) t9, C 5) = 252
5 2 4 Ct5, 5) t2, C 2) t9, C 4) =126
ThoroIoro, fofaI numbor ways Is gIvon as
= 720 + 840 + 840 + 630 + 252 + 126
= 3408 ways.
Example 35 An exanination paper consists oj questions JioiJeJ into groups A anJ B. Oroup A
contains 7 questions anJ Oroup B contains 6 questions. A stuJent is requireJ to attenpt S
Combinaforics $#
questions se/ecting at /east J jron each Oroup. ln hou nany uays can the canJiJate se/ect
question:
Solution GIvon fhaf fhoro aro fwo groups In fho quosfIon papor, Group A and Group B. Group
A confaIns 7 quosfIons and Group B confaIns 5 quosfIons. A sfudonf has fo answor 8 quosfIons
soIocfIng af Ioasf 3 Irom oach group. ThIs can bo dono In fho IoIIowIng ways:
Oroup B Nunbcr oj aays

3
4
5
5
4
3
Ct7, 3) t5, C 5)
Ct7, 4) t5, C 4)
Ct7, 5) t5, C 3)
Oroup A
Thus, fho fofaI numbor oI soIocfIon Is gIvon as
Ct7, 3) Ct5, 5) + Ct7, 4) Ct5, 4) + Ct7, 5) Ct5, 3)
7 6 5 7 6 5 7 6 5 4
5 420
6 6 2 2

= + + =
A sfudonf can chooso fho quosfIon papors In 420 ways.
Example 36 lj n is a positioe integer, then shou that
2n
6 24n 1 is Jioisib/e by 676.
Solution If Is cIoar fhaf =
2
t5 24 1) t25 24 1).
n n
n n ThoroIoro,
= +
= + + + +
= + +
= + + +
2
2
2 2
t25 24 1) t1 24) 24 1
t1 24 t , 2)24 t , )24 ) 24 1
t , 2)24 t , )24
24 t t , 2) t , 3)24 t , )24 )
n n
n
n
n
n n
n C n C n n n
C n C n n
C n C n C n n
= 576 a posIfIvo Infogor.
ThoroIoro,

2
t5 24 1)
n
n
Is dIvIsIbIo by 576.
Example 37 Conpute the niJJ/e terns oj the expansion
.
1J
2
2
1
x
x

+

Solution In fho abovo oxpansIon n = 13. ThoroIoro, fho fofaI numbor oI forms Is oquaI fo 14.
Honco, fhoro oxIsfs fwo mIddIo forms i.e.,
14
2
= 7
fh
form and

+

14
1
2
= 8
fh
form. ThoroIoro,
wo gof
6
2 13 6 12
7 2
7
2 13 7 12
8 2
1
T t13, 6)t ) 1716
1
T t13, 7)t ) 1716
C x x
x
C x x
x

= =

= =

Example 38 FinJ the sun oj
.
J n 1 2
0 1 2 n 1
C C C C
2 J n
C C C C
+ + + +
Solution: Wo know fhaf
1
1
r
r
C n r
C r
+
=
On puffIng r = 1, 2, 3, ., n, In fho abovo oquafIon and fhon addIng, wo gof

+ + + + = + + + +
= + + + +
+
=

1 2 3
0 1 2 1
1 2 1
2 3 2 3
2 3
t 1) t 2) 1
t 1)
.
2
n
n
C C C C n n
n n n
C C C C n
n n n
n n
Example 39 ls there any tern inJepenJent oj x in the expansion oj
16
J
2
2
x
x

: lj yes, then
conpute the sane.
Solution: In fho abovo oxpansIon n = 15. Lof fho tr +1)
fh
form Is Indopondonf oI x. ThoroIoro,
3 15 45 5
1 2
2
T t15, )t ) t15, )t 2)
r
r r r
r
C r x C r x
x

+

= =

As tr + 1)
fh
form Is Indopondonf oI x, so fho powor oI x In T
r+1
musf bo 0. ThoroIoro, wo gof
t45 5r) = 0. If ImpIIos fhaf r = 9. If IndIcafos fhaf fho 10
fh
form Is Indopondonf oI x.
ThoroIoro, wo havo
9 9
10
T t15, 9)t 2) 5005 2 C = = .
Example 40 Ca/cu/ate the oa/ue oj
t )
1
4
16
up to thirJ Jecina/ p/aces by using binonia/ theoren
jor any rationa/ inJex.
Solution:

= =

1
1 1 1
4
4 4 4
1
t15) t16 1) 16 1
16

= = + + +

=

=
=
1
2
4
1 3
1 1 1 1 4 4
2 1 2 1
16 4 16 2! 16
1 3
2 1
64 8192
2t1 0.0156 0.0003)
1.968
In fhIs caso wo nogIocf fho hIghor ordor forms as fhoIr vaIuo wIII nof aIIocf fho fhIrd pIaco oI
docImaI.
+>E=JHE?I $%
Example 41 lj t , ) P n 1 n and t , ) P n n 1 are both eoen anJ greater than 2, shou that
t , ) t , ) t , ) P n n P n 1 n P n n 1 1 + .
Solution Lof , t 1, ) p P n n = , t , 1) q P n n = and r = tp + q).
If suIIIcos fo osfabIIsh fhaf In any group oI = X 1, 2, 3, , 1 r oI r 1 poopIo fhoro Is oIfhor
a subgroup oI n poopIo aII who know ono anofhor or a subgroup oI n poopIo aII who do nof
know ono anofhor. Lof h
i
bo fho numbor oI poopIo known fo porson i Ior 1, 2, 3, , i r = . As
knowIng Is mufuaI,
1 2 3 1 r
h h h h
+ + + + Is ossonfIaIIy ovon. SInco tr 1) Is odd; so h

i
Is ovon
Ior afIoasf ono i. Lof If bo i =1.
Assumo fhaf L
1
bo fho sof oI poopIo known fo porson 1 whoroas L
2
bo fho sof oI poopIo nof
known fo porson 1. As fhoro aro ovon numbors oI poopIo L
1
, fhoro musf bo ovon numbor oI
poopIo In L
2
. If IndIcafos fhaf oIfhor L
1
has af Ioasf tp 1) poopIo or L
2
Buf tp 1) Is odd. ThoroIoro, oIfhor L
1
has af Ioasf p poopIo or L
2
ta) Supposo L
1
has af Ioasf p poopIo. AgaIn p = P tn1, n) IndIcafos fhaf L
1
musf confaIn
oIfhor tn 1) poopIo known fo oach ofhor or If has n poopIo unknown fo ono anofhor. In
fho oarIIor caso fho tn 1) poopIo and porson 1 fogofhor consfIfufo n poopIo known fo
oach ofhor.
tb) Tho caso oI q or moro poopIo In L
2
can bo handIod by symmofry.
ThoroIoro, t , ) t 1, ) t , 1) 1 P n n P n n P n n +
Example 42 8hou that P (4, J = 0.
Solution Wo know fhaf P t3, 3) = 6 and P t4, 2) = 4.
As P t3, 3) and P t4, 2) aro bofh ovon, so by provIous roIafIon, wo gof
t4, 3) t3, 3) t4, 2) 1 9 P P P + =
Now our aIm Is fo provo fhaf = > t4,3) t3, 4) 8 P P . In ordor fo provo fhIs roIafIon wo oxhIbIf a
group oI 8 poopIo whIch has no subgroup oI 3 poopIo aII known fo oach ofhor and no subgroup
oI 4 poopIo aII aro nof known fo ono anofhor.
Example 43 8hou that P (6, J = 14.
Solution By fhoorom, wo know fhaf,
t5, 3) t4, 3) t5, 2) 9 5 14 P P P + = + =
Now, wo havo fo show fhaf t5, 3) t3, 5) 13 P P = > . In ordor fo show fhIs consIdor a group oI 13
poopIo sIffIng on a round fabIo such fhaf oach porson knows onIy fho 5
fh
porson on hIs rIghf
and fho 5
fh
porson on hIs IoIf. In such a sIfuafIon fhoro Is no subgroup oI 3 poopIo aII known fo
ono anofhor or no subgroup oI 5 poopIo aII unknown fo ono anofhor.
Example 44 8hou that P(4, 4 = 1S.
Solution By fhoorom, wo know fhaf,
t4, 4) t3, 4) t4, 3) 9 9 18 P P P + = + =
Now, wo havo fo show fhaf t4, 4) 1? P > . In ordor fo show fhIs, consIdor an arrangomonf oI 1?
poopIo sIffIng on a round fabIo such fhaf oach porson knows oxacfIy 6 poopIo: fho IIrsf, socond
and Iourfh porsons on ono`s IoIf and IIrsf, socond and Iourfh porsons on ono`s rIghf. If can bo
vorIIIod fhaf fhoro Is no subgroup oI 4 poopIo aII known fo ono anofhor or no subgroup oI 4
poopIo aII unknown fo ono anofhor.
Example 45 Show that R (2, 3) = 3.
Solution: By theorem, we know that,
(2, 3) (1, 3) (2, 2) 1 2 3 R R R + = + =
Now, we have show that (2, 3) 3 R . In order to show this, consider a complete graph with 3
vertices. Therefore, it is clear that we can not arbitrarily colour edges of a complete graph
with 2 vertices either blue or red and force either a blue complete graph with 2 vertices or a
red complete graph with 3 vertices. We might just have used red on the one edge.
Therefore, (2, 3) 3 R = .
EXERCISES
1. In how many ways can 5 letters be posted in three letter boxes?
2. How many 3 digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 2, 5, 6, 7 and 8, if repetition
of digits is not allowed?
3. If 5 candidates are contesting for the post of president of a college union and there are 200
voters, then in how many ways can the votes be given?
4. Evaluate the followings:
(i) P(15, 7) (ii) P(7, 3) (iii) P(6, 3)
(iv) C(18, 12) (v) C(11, 7) (vi) C(15, 15)
5. Determine the value of n, if
(i) C(n, 15) = C(n, 22)
(ii) 18 C(n, 3) = 5 C(n, 5)
(iii) C(2n, 3): C(n, 2) = 12: 1
6. In how many ways can the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI be rearranged?
7. Twelve boys compete in a race. In how many ways can the first three places be taken?
8. How many 2 digit odd numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 9 if repetition
of digits are not allowed?
9. There are 7 books in a shelf with different titles; 4 of these have green cover whereas
others have red cover. In how many ways can these be arranged so that the green books
are placed together?
10. A man has 7 friends. Find the number of ways that he can invite three or more to a dinner
party.
11. In how many ways can a student of computer science choose 5 courses out of the courses
1 2 3 7
CS ,CS , CS , , CS if
1 2
CS , CS are compulsory and
6 7
CS , CS cannot be taken together?
12. How many 5-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 3, 5, 7, 8 and 9 if repetition of
digits is not allowed?
13. Prove the followings
(i) P(n+1, r+1) = (n+1) P(n, r)
(ii) P(n, n) = P(n, n 1)
(iii) P(n 1, r) + r P(n 1, r 1) = P(n, r)
14. A box contains 9 red and 6 black balls. In how many ways can 7 balls be drawn? Find out
the number of cases in which one gets 4 red and 3 black balls.
CombInaforIcs 169
15. !Ind ouf fho numbor oI Iacfors oI 210.
16. !Ind ouf fho numbor oI dIagonaIs oI an ocfagon.
1?. Show fhaf P t2, 4) = 4.
18. !orfy poInfs IIo on a pIano, ouf oI whIch no fhroo poInfs aro coIIInoar. !Ind fho numbor oI
sfraIghf IInos fhaf can bo Iormod by joInIng paIrs oI poInfs.
19. A commIffoo oI 4 IadIos and 2 gonfIomon Is fo bo Iormod Irom ? IadIos and 6 gonfIomon. In
how many ways can fho commIffoo bo Iormod7
20. II a sof X has n numbor oI oIomonfs and anofhor sof Y has n numbor oI oIomonfs, fhon
IInd ouf fho numbor oI roIafIons Irom X fo Y.
21. How many numbors can bo Iormod bofwoon 3000 and 4000 by usIng fho dIgIfs 1, 2, 4, 6, 9
wIfhouf ropoafIng any dIgIf7
22. In how many ways can fho Ioffors oI fho word 'MATHMATICS` bo arrangod II fho vowoIs
aro fo rofaIn fhoIr pIacos7
23. In how many ways 9 cards aro drawn Irom a pack oI 52 cards such fhaf 4 acos aro IncIudod7
24. An oxamInafIon quosfIon papor consIsfs oI Group A and Group B. Group A confaIns 8
quosfIons and Group B confaIns 6 quosfIons. A sfudonf Is roquIrod fo affompf 8 quosfIons
soIocfIng af Ioasf fwo quosfIons Irom oach Group. !Ind fho numbor oI ways fhaf fho
candIdafo soIocf quosfIon.
25. How many Iacfors doos 1155 havo fhaf aro dIvIsIbIo by 37
26. How many 4 Ioffor words can bo IormuIafod Irom fho word 'MATHMATICS` II no Ioffor Is
ropoafod7
2?. In how many ways can a crIckof foam oI 11 pIayors bo choson Irom 9 bafsman and 5
bowIors so as fo IncIudo af Ioasf 5 bafsmon7
28. An urn confaIns 5 rod, 3 bIuo, 6 bIack and 2 groon baIIs. In how many ways can fho baIIs bo
roarrangod7
29. A crIckof foam oI 11 Is fo bo choson Irom 8 bafsman and 6 bowIors. In how many ways fho
soIocfIon Is mado so as fo IncIudo af Ioasf 4 bafsman and 5 bowIors7
30. !Ind fho vaIuo oI r, II
ta) C tn, r) = C tn, n ?)
tb) F tn, r) = C tn, r)
tc) C tn, r) + C tn, r 1) = C t1?, 6)
31. How many numbors can bo Iormod Irom fho dIgIfs 2, 4, 5, 8, 9 and 0 fhaf aro dIvIsIbIo by 5,
II no dIgIfs aro ropoafod In a numbor7
32. !Ind fho vaIuo oI r, II Pt20, r) = 13. Pt20, r 1).
33. !Ind fho vaIuo oI fho IoIIowIngs:
ti) Ct8, 2) + Ct8, 1) + Ct9, 3) + Ct10, 4)
tii) Ct8, 5) + Ct?, 4) + Ct6, 3) + Ct5, 2) + Ct5, 1)
34. In how many ways can Iour mon and 4 womon sIf af a round fabIo Ior a dInnor so fhaf no
fwo mon can occupy adjaconf posIfIons7
35. How many dIIIoronf words wIfh fwo Ioffors can bo Iormod by usIng fho Ioffors oI fho word
NGIN, oach confaInIng ono vowoI and ono consonanf7
1?0 !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs
36. How many fhroo Ioffor words can bo Iormod Irom fho Ioffors oI fho word S!CCSS such
fhaf
ta) fhoy aIways confaIn fho Ioffor S
tb) fhoy do nof confaIn fho Ioffor C7
3?. In an oIocfIon fhoro aro ? candIdafos Ior fho posf oI socrofary. How many ways can fhoIr
namos aro prInfod on fho baIIof papor7
38. !Ind fho vaIuo oI n, II
ta) Ftn, 5) = 42 Ftn, 3) provIdod fhaf n > 4
tb) 30 Ftn, 6) = Ftn + 2, ?)
tc) 3 Ft?, n) = ? Ft6, n)
tJ) Ft6, n) = 360
39. How many nafuraI numbors boIow 1600 can bo Iormod Irom fho dIgIfs 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ? and
9 II
ta) No dIgIf Is ropoafod.
tb) RopofIfIon oI a dIgIf Is aIIowod7
40. How many frIangIos can bo Iormod by joInIng fho anguIar poInfs oI a docagon7
41. Lof fhoro bo fhroo fowns X, Y and Z. Thoro aro 5 busos runnIng bofwoon fowns X and Y
whoroas 8 busos bofwoon Y and Z. In how many ways can ono porson fravoI Irom X fo Z7
42. !our Ioffors aro wrIffon and Iour onvoIops aro addrossod. In how many ways can aII Ioffors
bo pIacod In wrong onvoIops7
43. Lof n Is a posIfIvo Infogor and tx+1)
n
Is oxpandod In docroasIng powors oI x. II fho
consocufIvo cooIIIcIonfs aro In fho rafIon 2:15:?0, fhon IInd fho vaIuo oI n.
44. !Ind fho 4
fh
form In fho oxpansIon oI
10
3
2
3x
x

+

usIng ruIos oI PascaI`s frIangIo.
45. xpand fho IoIIowIng by usIng bInomIaI fhoorom.
( ) ( )
+

+ +

5 ?
2 3 2 3
5
6
2
2
3 2
t ) 3 2 t ) 4 2
3
t ) 2 t )
a x y b x x
a
c x J x
x y
46. !Ind fho mIddIo formts) In fho IoIIowIng oxpansIons.
( ) ( )

+ + +

+ + +

10
8 13
3 5
2 2
20
2
9
15
2 2 3
3
4
t ) t ) t )
t ) 3 2 t ) t ) 4 2
a b
a b x c x y
b a x
b
J x y e x j a b
y
4?. !Ind fho 6
fh
form In fho oxpansIon
8
2
3
3
x
y

+

.
CombInaforIcs 1?1
48. Is fhoro any form Indopondonf oI x In fho IoIIowIng oxpansIons7 II yos, fhon compufo fho
samo.

+ +

10 12 8
3 ? 2
3
5 2
4
t ) 5 t ) t )
3
a b x
a x b x c
x x x
49. !Ind fho cooIIIcIonf oI x
4
In fho oxpansIon oI
10
2
1
t1 2 3 ) x x x
x

+ + +

.
50. Lof fhoro aro 'n` dIIIoronf baIIs. Provo fhaf fho numbor oI ways In whIch baIIs can bo
arrangod so fhaf fwo parfIcuIar baIIs shaII nof bo fogofhor Is tn1)!tn 2).
51. Try fo show fhaf t3, 6) 18 P = and t3, 5) 14 P = .
52. Provo fhaf t , ) t , ). P n n P n n =
53. Compufo fho squaro roof oI 2 and 3 up fo fhroo docImaI pIacos.
54. II Ctn, r) = C
r
, fhon provo fho IoIIowIngs:
1
0 1 2
0 1 1 2 2
0 1 1 2 2 3 1
1
2 3 4
0 1 2
0 1 2
t ) 2 3 t 1) 2 2
t ) t2 , )
t ) t2 , 1)
t ) 2 3 t 1) 1 t 2) 2
t ) 3 5 t2 1) 2 2
t ) 2 3 t 1) t 1)
+ +
+ + + + + = +
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
+ + + + = +
+ + + + + = +
+ + +
n n
n
r r r n r n
n n
n
n
n n
n
n
a C C C n C n
b C C C C C C C C C n n r
c C C C C C C C C C n n
J C C C n C n
e C C C n C n
j C C C n
3 1 2
0 1 2 1
0
3 2 t 1)
t ) .
2
=
+
+ + + + =
n
n
n
C
C nC C C n n
g
C C C C
55. Show fhaf
99 99 99 99 99
1 2 3 4 5 + + + +
Is dIvIsIbIo by bofh 3 and 5. !so bInomIaI fhoorom fo
provo fhIs.
56. II fhroo consocufIvo cooIIIcIonfs oI t1+x)
n
aro 35, 21 and ?, fhon compufo fho vaIuo oI n.
This page
intentionally left
blank
/HKF 6DAHO
%
7.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
In fhIs chapfor wo wIII sfudy fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro known as group whIch Is fho buIIdIng
bIock oI Absfracf AIgobra. Group Is a ono oporafIonaI sysfom. i.e., If has ono bInary oporafIon
usIng whIch wo can combIno fwo oIomonfs oI a sof fo gof fho fhIrd oIomonf. In fhIs chapfor wo
wIII dIscuss doIInIfIon oI group, subgroup, cycIIc group, group homomorphIsm and ofc. Group
fhoory has aIso wIdo appIIcafIon In fho aroas oI Compufor ScIonco spocIaIIy In fho IIoId oI
bInary codIng.
7.1 8lNAkY 0PEkATl0N 0N A 5ET
Lof A bo a non-ompfy sof. II j bo a IuncfIon Irom tA A) A, fhon j Is saId fo bo a bInary
oporafIon on fho sof A. So fho bInary oporafIon musf safIsIy fho IoIIowIng fwo condIfIons, i.e.,
j assIgns an oIomonf j ta, b) oI A fo ovory ordorod paIr ta, b) In tA A) and onIy ono oIomonf oI
A Is assIgnod fo oach ordorod paIr; as fho oporafIon Is a IuncfIon.
GonoraIIy wo uso fho symboIs +, , `, o ofc. Ior roprosonfIng fho bInary oporafIon on a sof.
So 'o` wIII bo fho bInary oporafIon In A II and onIy II
ta) ta
o
b) e A V a, b e A
tb) ta
o
b) Is unIquo.
Wo wIII uso fho symboI t
o
) fo roprosonf fho bInary oporafIon In pIaco oI j and fho oIomonf
assIgnod fo ta, b) by ta
o
b). If Is cIoar fhaf bInary oporafIon IuncfIon Is a spocIaI caso oI bInary
oporafIon.
Lof us consIdor fho oporafIon addIfIon In fho sof oI NafuraI numbors N.
Lof a, b e N; i.e., a and b aro fwo nafuraI numbors. Buf wo know fhaf sum oI any fwo
nafuraI numbors Is agaIn a nafuraI numbor and Is unIquo i.e., ta + b) e N Ior aII a, b e N.
Honco, + Is a bInary oporafIon.
7.2 AL0E8kAlC 5TkUCTUkE
A non-ompfy sof A aIong wIfh ono or moro bInary oporafIons Is caIIod an aIgobraIc sfrucfuro.
So II A Is a non-ompfy sof and o Is a bInary oporafIon fhon tA, o) Is a aIgobraIc sfrucfuro.
ConsIdor fho oxampIos oI aIgobraIc sfrucfuros as tN, +), tR, ) and tI, +).
7.2.1 5eml 0roup
An aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is saId fo bo a somI group II fho bInary oporafIon to) Is
assocIafIvo In G.
i.e., a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c , a, b, c e G.
Lof us consIdor fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tN, o), whoro o Is a usuaI producf. Wo know fhaf Ior
any fhroo nafuraI numbors a, b, c e N, wo havo a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c, as producf Is assocIafIvo
In N. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf tN, o) Is a somI group.
7.2.2 Monold
An aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is saId fo bo a monoId II fho bInary oporafIon to) Is assocIafIvo
In G wIfh an IdonfIfy oIomonf e In G.
i.e., a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c and a
o
e = e
o
a = a V a, b, c e G, whoro e Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G.
Lof us consIdor fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tZ, +), whoro Z Is fho sof oI posIfIvo Infogors and fho
bInary oporafIon Is an addIfIon. If wIII bocomo monoId II fhoro oxIsfs an IdonfIfy oIomonf e In
Z such fhaf
a + e = a V a e Z
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf e = 0, buf 0 e Z. Honco, tZ, +) Is nof a monoId.
7.3 0k0UP
A non-ompfy sof G Is saId fo bo a group undor fho bInary oporafIon 'o` II fho IoIIowIng condIfIons
aro safIsIIod. If Is aIso fo bo nofod fhaf a group Is a monoId wIfh unIf oIomonf e.
ta) CIosuro Law: !or aII a, b e G; ta
o
b) e G
tb) AssocIafIvo Law: !or aII a, b, c e G, a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c
tc) IdonfIfy: !or aII a e G, fhoro oxIsfs an IdonfIfy oIomonf e e G such fhaf
ta
o
e) = a = te
o
a), whoro e Is caIIod fho IdonfIfy oIomonf.
tJ) Invorso: !or aII a e G, fhoro oxIsfs an oIomonf a
1
e G such fhaf ta
o
a
1
) = e = ta
1

o
a).
7.3.1 Commutatlve 0roup
A group G Is saId fo bo a commufafIvo group or aboIIan group II fho commufafIvo Iaw hoIds. i.e.,
ta
o
b) = tb
o
a) V a, b e G
7.3.2 Flnlte and lnflnlte 0roup
II fho numbor oI oIomonfs In a group G Is IInIfo, fhon If Is caIIod a IInIfo group. OfhorwIso If Is
caIIod an InIInIfo group.
7.3.3 0rder of a 0roup
Tho numbor oI oIomonfs In a IInIfo group G Is caIIod fho ordor oI fho group and Is donofod by
OtG).
Lof us consIdor fho group G =a, e, fhon OtG)= 2 i.e., G Is a group oI ordor 2.
7.3.4 0rder of an Element
Lof G bo a group and a e G, fhon fho ordor oI an oIomonf a Is fho Ioasf posIfIvo Infogor n such
fhaf a
n
= e. II fhoro oxIsfs no such n, fhon fho ordor oI a Is InIInIfy or zoro.
Group Thoory 1?5
Lof us consIdor fho sof oI Infogors G wIfh fho bInary oporafIon addIfIon.
ta) C/osure Lau. Wo know fhaf fho sum oI fwo Infogors Is aIso an Infogor,
i.e., ta + b) e G V a, b G.
tb) Associatioe Lau. Wo know fhaf fho addIfIon oI Infogors Is assocIafIvo,
i.e., a + tb + c) = ta + b) + c V a, b, c G.
tc) Existence oj lJentity. !or ovory Infogor a G fhoro oxIsfs IdonfIfy oIomonf 0 e G such
fhaf
a + 0 = 0 + a = a
tJ) Existence oj lnoerse. !or ovory Infogor a G, fhoro oxIsfs Invorso oIomonf a G such
fhaf a + t a) = t a) + a = 0. So ovory oIomonf oI G has an addIfIvo Invorso.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf fho sof oI Infogors G fogofhor wIfh fho bInary oporafIon addIfIon t+) Is a
group.
Note
1. SInco addIfIon oI Infogors Is CommufafIvo i.e., ta + b) = tb + a) Ior aII a, b G, fho group G Is an
aboIIan or commufafIvo group.
2. SInco G confaIns InIInIfo oIomonf, S
o
G Is a commufafIvo group oI InIInIfo ordor.
7.3.5 Theorem
II G bo a group, fhon
ta) Tho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is unIquo.
tb) vory a e G has an unIquo Invorso In G.
tc) !or ovory a e G; ta
1
)
1
= a
tJ) !or aII a, b e G; ta
o
b)
1
= b
1
o
a
1
ProoI: ta) II nof and II possIbIo Iof e and j bo fho fwo IdonfIfy oIomonfs oI group G. Thus
wo havo
e
o
j = j tTakIng e as IdonfIfy)
and e
o
j = e tTakIng j as IdonfIfy).
Now te
o
j ) Is an unIquo oIomonf oI G as G Is a group. ThoroIoro j = e, i.e., IdonfIfy oIomonf
Is unIquo.
tb) Lof a e G and e e G bo fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G. II nof and II possIbIo Iof a
1
e G and
a
2
e G bo fwo Invorsos oI a e G. ThoroIoro
ta
o
a
1
) = ta
1

o
a) = e and ta
o
a
2
) = ta
2

o
a) = e.
Now a
2

o
ta
o
a
1
) = (a
2

o
e = a
2
. ti)
and ta
2

o

a)
o
a
1
= e
o
a
1
= a
1
. tii)
AgaIn by assocIafIvo proporfy a
2

o
ta
o
a
1
) = ta
2

o
a)
o
a
1
. ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons ti) and (ii)
wo gof a
1
= a
2
. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf fho Invorso oI an oIomonf Is unIquo.
tc) GIvon fhaf G Is a group. Lof a e G, fhIs ImpIIos a
1
e G. SImIIarIy ta
1
)
1
e G. Lof e bo
fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G. Honco, wo havo ta
1

o
a) = e
= ta
1
)
1

o
ta
1

o
a) = ta
1
)
1

o
e
= tta
1
)
1

o
a
1
)
o
a = ta
1
)
1
!sIng assocIafIvo and IdonfIfy Iaw
= e
o
a = ta
1
)
1
!sIng IdonfIfy Iaw
= a = ta
1
)
1
!sIng Invorso Iaw
So, ta
1
)
1
= a.
tJ) GIvon fhaf G Is a group. Lof a, b e G
Now ta
o
b)tb
1

o
a
1
) = tta
o
b) b
1
)
o
a
1
AssocIafIvo Iaw
= ta
o
tb
o
b
1
))
o
a
1
AssocIafIvo Iaw
= ta
o
e)
o
a
1
Invorso Iaw
= a
o
a
1
IdonfIfy Iaw
= e Invorso Iaw
So, ta
o
b)tb
1

o
a
1
)= e
SImIIarIy If can bo shown fhaf tb
1

o
a
1
)ta
o
b) = e.
Thus If Is cIoar fhaf tb
1

o
a
1
) Is fho Invorso oI ta
o
b).
i.e., ta

o
b)
1
= b
1

o
a
1
.
7.3.6 Theorem
Lof G bo a group and Ior aII a, b, c e G
ti) II ta
o
b) = ta
o
c), fhon b = c LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
tii II tb
o
a) = tc
o
a), fhon b = c RIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw
ProoI: ti) Lof G bo a group and a, b, c e G
Assumo fhaf ta
o
b) = ta
o
c)
= a
1

o
ta
o
b) = a
1

o
ta
o
c)
= ta
1

o
a)
o
b = ta
1

o
a)
o
c AssocIafIvo Iaw
= e
o
b = e
o
c xIsfonco oI Invorso
= b = c xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
So, II ta
o
b) = ta
o
c), fhon b = c. ThIs Is caIIod fho IoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw.
tii) Lof G bo a group and a, b, c e G
Assumo fhaf tb
o
a) = tc
o
a)
= tb
o
a)
o
a
1
= tc
o
a)
o
a
1
= b
o
ta
o
a
1
) = c
o
ta
o
a
1
) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= b
o
e = c
o
e xIsfonco oI Invorso
= b = c xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
So, II tb
o
a) = tc
o
a), fhon b = c. ThIs Is caIIod fho rIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw.
7.3.7 Theorem
Lof G bo a group and a, b bo fho oIomonfs oI G, fhon
ti) Tho oquafIon ax = b has unIquo soIufIon In G.
tii Tho oquafIon ya = b has unIquo soIufIon In G.
ProoI: ti) Lof G bo a group and Iof a, b e G.
AccordIng fo cIosuro Iaw ta
1
b) e G, as a
1
e G and b e G. Lof x = a
1
b. Now
ax = ata
1
b) = ta
o
a
1
) b = e
o
b = b
ThoroIoro, x = a
1
b Is fho soIufIon fo fho oquafIon ax = b.
Lof us assumo fhaf x
1
and x
2
bo fwo soIufIons fo fho oquafIon ax = b. Honco, wo havo
ax
1
= b and ax
2
= b.
Group Thoory 1??
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ax
1
= ax
2
. ThoroIoro, by IoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw x
1
= x
2
. Honco, fho soIufIon Is
unIquo.
tii) Lof G bo a group and Iof a, b e G.
AccordIng fo cIosuro Iaw tba
1
) e G, as a
1
e G and b e G. Lof y = ba
1
. Now
ya = tba
1
) a = b ta
1
o
a) = b
o
e = b
ThoroIoro, y = b a
1
Is fho soIufIon fo fho oquafIon ya = b.
Lof us assumo fhaf y
1
and y
2
bo fwo soIufIons fo fho oquafIon ya = b. Honco, wo havo
y
1
a = b

and y
2
a = b.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf y
1
a = y
2
a. ThoroIoro by rIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw y
1
= y
2
. Honco, fho soIufIon
Is unIquo.
7.3.8 Theorem
Tho ordor oI aII fho oIomonfs oI a IInIfo group Is IInIfo and Is Ioss fhan or oquaI fo fho ordor oI
fho group.
ProoI : Lof G bo a IInIfo group and fho composIfIon boIng muIfIpIIcafIon.
Lof a e G.
ThIs ImpIIos ta ` a) = a
2
e G.
= ta ` a
2
) = a
3
e G.
= ta ` a
3
) = a
4
e G and so on.
i.e., a, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, .. aro fho oIomonfs oI G. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf G has InIInIfo ordor.
Buf If Is gIvon fhaf G Is oI IInIfo ordor. So fhoro musf oxIsf fwo Infogors j and h such fhaf
a
j
= a
h
Ior j > h.
= a
j
a
h
= a
h
a
h
= e
= a
j

h
= e
= a
/
= e, whoro / = tj h) e I
+
tSof oI posIfIvo Infogors)
Now fho sof oI aII fhoso posIfIvo Infogors / safIsIyIng a
/
= e wIII havo a Ioasf mombor say n.
So, a
n
= e.
ThoroIoro, Ota) Is IInIfo. Lof Ota) = n.
Now wo havo fo show fhaf Ota) s OtG), i.e., n s OtG). II nof and II possIbIo Iof us assumo
fhaf n > OtG).
Lof a e G. ThoroIoro by cIosuro proporfy wo havo a, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, ., a
n
e G. II fhoy aro nof
dIsfIncf fhon fhoro oxIsfs fwo Infogors r and s such fhaf a
r
= a
s
, 1 s s < r s n
= a
r s
= e.
Thus, Ota) = tr s) as tr s) < n.
ThIs confradIcfs fo fho Iacf fhaf Ota) = n. Honco our supposIfIon Is wrong. SImIIarIy fhIs Is
nof possIbIo II n > OtG).
ThoroIoro, Ota) s OtG).
7.3.9 Theorem
Tho ordor oI any InfograI powor oI an oIomonf a can nof oxcood fho ordor oI a.
ProoI: Lof G bo a group and a e G. Lof us assumo fhaf fho ordor oI fho oIomonf a Is n i.e.,
Ota) = n. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
n
= e, whoro e Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G.
Supposo fhaf a
n
bo fho InfograI powor oI a.
AgaIn a
n
= e
= ta
n
)
n
= e
n
= e
= ta
nn
) = e
= ta
n
)
n
= e
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf fho ordor oI fho oIomonf a
n
can nof oxcood fho ordor oI a, i.e., Ota
n
) s n.
7.3.10 Theorem
Tho ordor oI an oIomonf a oI a group G Is fho samo as fho ordor oI Ifs a
1
, i.e., II G Is a group
and a e G, fhon Ota) = Ota
1
).
ProoI: Lof fho ordor oI an oIomonf a oI a group G bo n and fhaf oI a
1
bo n. i.e., Ota) = n and
Ota
1
) = n.
Now Ota) = n
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
n
= e
= ta
n
)
1
= e
= ta
1
)
n
= e
ThoroIoro ordor oI a
1
Is Ioss fhan or oquaI fo n, i.e., Ota
1
) s n. Thus, wo havo n s n .ti)
AgaIn Ota
1
) = n
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta
1
)
n
= e
= ta
n
)
1
= e
= ta
n
) = e 3 a
1
= e ImpIIos a = e
ThoroIoro, ordor oI a Is Ioss fhan or oquaI fo n i.e., Ota) s n. Thus wo havo n s n. .tii)
Honco Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) If Is cIoar fhaf n = n. ThoroIoro, fho ordor oI an oIomonf a
oI a group G Is fho samo as fho ordor oI Ifs Invorso a
1
.
7.4 5U80k0UP
A non-ompfy subsof H oI a group G Is saId fo bo subgroup oI G II H Iorms fho group undor fho
bInary oporafIon doIInod on G. As ovory sof Is subsof oI IfsoII, so G Is subsof oI IfsoII and honco
G Is subgroup oI G.
7.4.1 Theorem
A non-ompfy subsof H oI a group G Is saId fo bo subgroup oI G II and onIy II
ti) a, b e H ImpIIos ta
o
b) e H CIosuro Iaw and
tii) a e H ImpIIos a
1
e H Invorso Iaw
ProoI: Lof H bo a subgroup oI G. ThoroIoro, H safIsIIos aII proporfIos oI a group. Thus cIosuro
Iaw and oxIsfonco oI Invorso hoIds.
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf
ti) a, b e H ImpIIos ta
o
b) e H CIosuro Iaw and
tii) a e H ImpIIos a
1
e H Invorso Iaw
Group Thoory 1?9
Now wo havo fo show fhaf H Is a subgroup oI G i.e., xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy and assocIafIvo Iaw
hoIds In H.
Associatioe Lau: Lof a, b, c e H. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a, b, c e G as H _ G. Thus wo gof
a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c. ThoroIoro assocIafIvo Iaw hoIds In H.
Existence oj lJentity: GIvon fhaf a e H ImpIIos a
1
e H. So, by cIosuro Iaw ta
o
a
1
) e H. i.e.,
e e H. ThoroIoro, IdonfIfy oIomonf oxIsfs In H. Thus H Is a subgroup oI G.
7.4.2 Theorem
A non-ompfy subsof H oI a group G Is fho subgroup oI G II and onIy II ta
o
b
1
) e H Ior a, b e H.
ProoI: Lof H bo a subgroup oI G. ThoroIoro, H safIsIIos aII proporfIos oI a group G. Thus
cIosuro Iaw and oxIsfonco oI Invorso hoIds.
Lof a, b e H. AgaIn by oxIsfonco oI Invorso wo havo b
1
e H. ThoroIoro by cIosuro proporfy
ta
o
b
1
) e H as a e H, b
1
e H.
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf ta
o
b
1
) e H Ior a, b e H.
Now wo havo fo show fhaf H Is a subgroup oI G i.e., H safIsIIos aII fho Iour proporfIos oI fho
group G.
GIvon fhaf ta
o
b
1
) e H Ior a, b e H. Honco wo havo tb
o
b
1
) e H. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf e e H.
So, IdonfIfy oIomonf oxIsfs In H. AgaIn e e H and a e H ImpIIos fhaf te
o
a
1
) e H. i.e., a
1
e H.
Thus Invorso oIomonf Ior ovory oIomonf oxIsf In H.
AIso a e H, b
1
e H ImpIIos fhaf ta
o
tb
1
)
1
) e H. i.e., ta
o
b) e H. So, cIosuro Iaw hoIds In H.
As H Is a subsof oI G and G Is a group, so assocIafIvo Iaw aIso hoIds In H.
ThoroIoro, H Is a subgroup oI G.
7.4.3 Theorem
InforsocfIon oI fwo subgroups oI a group G Is aIso a subgroup oI G.
ProoI: Lof H and K bo fwo subgroups oI group G. So, H _ G and K _ G. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
tH K) Is aIso a subsof oI G.
Now our cIaIm Is fo show fhaf tH K) Is a subgroup oI G i.e., CIosuro Iaw and oxIsfonco oI
Invorso hoIds In tH K).
C/osure Lau: Lof a, b e tH K)
= a, b e H and a, b e K
= ta
o
b) e H and ta
o
b) e K 3 H and K aro subgroups
= ta
o
b) e tH K).
Existence oj lnoerse: Lof a e tH K).
= a e H and a e K.
= a
1
e H and a
1
e K 3 H and K aro subgroups
= a
1
e tH K)
ThoroIoro, tH K) safIsIIos bofh cIosuro Iaw and Invorso axIom. Honco, tH K) Is a
subgroup oI G.
7.4.4 Theorem
II H Is a non-ompfy IInIfo subsof oI a group G, fhon H Is a subgroup oI G II and onIy II H Is
cIosod undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
Proof: (Necessary Part). Let H be a multiplicative subgroup of the group G.
As H is a subgroup G so it satisfies all the properties of group, hence the closure properties.
i.e., a, b H implies (a
o
b) H.
(Sufficient Part) Let H be non-empty finite subset of group G and H is closed under multipli-
cation.
i.e., a, b H implies (a
o
b) H.
Now we have to show that every element of H has an inverse element in H i.e., a H
implies a
1
H.
Let a H. This implies that (a
o
a) = a
2
H. Similarly a
3
= (a
2

o
a) H and so on. Therefore
we get
H = {a, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, . , a
m
, . }
This indicates that H is an infinite set. But, it is given that H is a finite set. So, all the
elements of H listed above are not distinct. Thus there exists two integers j and k such that
a
j
= a
k
for j > k > 0.
This implies that a
j
a
k
= a
k
a
k
= e
i.e., a
j k
= e ...(i)
Now as j > k > 0 are two positive integers we have (j k) 1. i.e., (j k 1) 0.
So, a
(j k 1)
H, as H contains elements of type a
m
.
Again a H and a
(j k 1)
H implies that
(a
o
a
(j k 1)
) H [By closure law]
i.e., a
j k
= e H.
Therefore, (a
o
a
(j k 1)
) = e (ii)
From equation it is clear that a
(j k 1)
is the inverse element of a. i.e., a
1
= a
(j k 1)
. So,
inverse element exists in H. Therefore, H is a subgroup of G.
7.4.5 Definition
Let G be a group and H is subgroup of G. Now for a, b G we say a is congruent to b mod H
written as a b mod H if a b
1
H.
7.4.6 Theorem
Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. Then show that relation a b mod H is an
equivalence relation.
Proof: Given G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. We have to show that the relation
a b mod H is an equivalence relation.
Reflexive: Let a H. This implies that a
1
H.
Hence by closure axiom we have (a
o
a
1
) H.
i.e., a a mod H.
Symmetric: Suppose that a b mod H.
This implies that ab
1
H
(ab
1
)
1
H [By existence of inverse]
(b
1
)
1
a
1
H [By theorem]
Group Thoory 181
= ba
1
e H
= b a mod H.
Transitioe: Supposo fhaf a b mod H and b c mod H
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ab
1
e H and b c
1
e H
= tab
1
) tb c
1
) e H By cIosuro Iaw
= atb
1
b) c
1
e H By assocIafIvo Iaw
= tae) c
1
e H By oxIsfonco oI Invorso
= ac
1
e H By oxIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
i.e., a c mod H
ThoroIoro, fho roIafIon a b mod H Is an oquIvaIonco roIafIon.
7.5 CYCLlC 0k0UP
A group G Is caIIod fho cycIIc group II Ior any a e G aII ofhor oIomonfs aro oI fypo a
n
, whoro n
Is any Infogor. 'a` Is caIIod fho gonorafor oI G. A cycIIc group may havo moro fhan ono gonora-
for and fho gonorafor Is donofod by ta). ThoroIoro a cycIIc group G Is oI fho fypo
G = x | x = a
n
; n Is any Infogor
Tho oIomonfs oI G Is oI fho Iorm . , a
3
, a
2
, a
1
, a
0
= e, a, a
2
, a
3
, .
7.5.1 Theorem
vory cycIIc group Is an aboIIan group.
ProoI: Lof G bo a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a. Lof a
n
and a
n
bo fwo oIomonfs oI G, i.e., a
n
,
a
n
e G.
Now ta
n

o
a
n
) = a
n + n
= a
n + n
= ta
n

o
a
n
).
ThoroIoro, G Is an aboIIan group.
7.5.2 Theorem
G bo a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a, fhon a
1
Is aIso fho gonorafor.
ProoI: Lof G bo a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a. So, a
n
e G, whoro n Is somo Infogor.
Now a
n
= ta
1
)
n
; n e I
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf ovory oIomonf can bo oxprossod as somo powors oI a
1
. ThoroIoro, a
1
Is
aIso fho gonorafor oI G.
7.5.3 Theorem
Tho ordor oI cycIIc group Is samo as fho ordor oI Ifs gonorafor.
ProoI: Lof G bo a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a and Iof fho ordor oI a bo n, i.e., a
n
= e.
Now wo havo fo show fhaf fho ordor oI cycIIc group G Is n i.e., G confaIns oxacfIy n
oIomonfs.
Lof n bo an Infogor; n > n and a
n
e G.
As n > n, wo havo by dIvIsIon aIgorIfhm n = nh + r ; 0 s r < n .
ThoroIoro, a
n
= a
nh + r
= a
nh
a
r
= ta
n
)
h
a
r
= e
h
a
r
= a
r
. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
n
= a
r
, i.e., a
n
Is ono
oI fho oIomonf Irom a, a
2
, a
3
, . , a
n
. ThoroIoro, G can nof havo moro fhan n oIomonfs.
Now wo havo fo show G confaIns oxacfIy n oIomonfs i.e., aII fho oIomonfs a, a
2
, a
3
, . , a
n
aro
dIsfIncf.
II nof and II possIbIo, Iof fhoro bo ropofIfIon. i.e., a
n
= a
r
; 0 < r < n. Thus wo havo
a
n
a
r
= a
r
a
r
= e i.e., a
n r
= e wIfh 0 < tn r) < n.
ThIs confradIcfs fo fho Iacf fhaf fho ordor oI a Is n. So, our supposIfIon Is wrong. Honco aII
oIomonfs aro dIsfIncf. ThoroIoro, G confaIns oxacfIy n oIomonfs.
7.5.4 Theorem
A IInIfo group G oI ordor n confaInIng an oIomonf oI ordor n musf bo cycIIc.
ProoI: Lof us consIdor G bo a IInIfo group oI ordor n. Lof a bo an oIomonf oI G wIfh ordor n.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
a
n
= e.
Lof us consfrucf an cycIIc group G
1
wIfh gonorafor a. Thus wo havo G
1
= a, a
2
, a
3
, .. , a
n
= e
Buf wo know fhaf ordor oI group and ordor oI Ifs gonorafor Is samo. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
OtG
1
) = Ota) = OtG).
i.e., OtG
1
) = OtG)
AgaIn Iof a e G
1
= a
n
e G
1
= a
n
e G
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf G
1
_ G; buf OtG
1
) = OtG). ThoroIoro, G = G
1
. Honco G Is a cycIIc group.
7.5.5 Theorem
Subgroup oI a cycIIc group Is IfsoII a cycIIc group.
ProoI: Lof G bo a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a and Iof H bo fho subgroup oI G.
Now as H Is confaInod In G, fho oIomonfs oI H aro oI fho fypo a
h
. Lof n bo fho Ioasf posIfIvo
Infogor such fhaf
a
n
e H
Lof a
h
e H, whoro h Is an Infogor groafor fhan n i.e., h > n.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf h = nn + r; 0 s r s n a
nn
....ti)
Buf wo know fhaf fho oIomonfs oI H aro In fho Iorm oI InfograI powor oI a. ThoroIoro,
a
nn
e H. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
nn
e H.
Now a
h
e H and a

nn
e H. So by cIosuro proporfy wo havo a
h
. a
nn
e H
= a
h nn
e H
= a
nn + r

nn
e H
= a
r
e H
ThIs confradIcfs fo fho assumpfIon fhaf n Is fho Ioasf posIfIvo Infogor Ior whIch a
n
e H. So
a
r
e H Is possIbIo onIy II r = 0. Thus wo havo Irom oquafIon ti) h = nn.
Thus a
h
= a
nn
= ta
n
)
n
.
ThoroIoro, H Is a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a
n
.
Group Thoory 183
7.6 C05ET5
AssocIafod wIfh any subgroup fhoro aro fwo cosofs namoIy IoIf cosof and rIghf cosof. Lof G bo
a group and H bo any subgroup oI G and Iof a e G. Tho IoIf cosof oI H In G Is fho sof aH gIvon
by
aH = x | x = ah, V h e H
Tho rIghf cosof oI H In G Is fho sof Ha gIvon by
Ha = x | x = ha, V h e H
Tho cosofs aro nof nocossarIIy subgroup oI G. II G Is an aboIIan group, fhon fho IoIf cosof oI
H In G Is oquaI fo fho rIghf cosof oI H In G.
7.6.1 Theorem
II H Is subgroup oI a group G and h e H, fhon Hh = H = hH.
ProoI: GIvon fhaf H Is a subgroup oI group G and h e H.
Our cIaIm Is Hh = H i.e., Hh _ H and H _ Hh.
Lof h
1
e H. AgaIn h
1
e H and h e H ImpIIos fhaf th
1
h) e H.
Buf wo know fhaf boIng fho rIghf cosof th
1
h) e Hh.
Thus, th
1
h) e Hh = th
1
h) e H.
ThoroIoro, Hh _ H .ti)
Now h
1
e H
and h
1
= h
1
e
= h
1
th
1
h) By oxIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
= th
1
h
1
) h By assocIafIvo Iaw
ThoroIoro, h
1
= th
1
h
1
) h e Hh
Honco, wo gof h
1
e H = h
1
e Hh. Thus wo gof
H _ Hh . tii)
ThoroIoro, on combInIng oquafIons ti) and tii), wo gof Hh = H.
SImIIarIy If can bo shown fhaf hH = H.
ThoroIoro, wo havo Hh = H = hH.
7.7 H0M0M0kPHl5M
A mappIng o doIInod Irom a group G
1
wIfh bInary oporafIon to) fo fho group G
2
wIfh bInary
oporafIon t`) Is saId fo bo homomorphIsm II
o tx
o
y) = otx) ` oty) V x, y e G
1
7.7.1 Theorem
II o Is a homomorphIsm doIInod Irom G
1
fo G
2
, fhon
ti) o te
1
) = e
2
; e
1
Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G
1
and e
2
2
.
tii) o tx
1
) = to tx))
1
; V x e G
1
ProoI: ti) GIvon fhaf o Is a homomorphIsm Irom G
1
fo G
2
. AIso gIvon fhaf e
1
Is fho IdonfIfy
oIomonf oI G
1
and e
2
2
.
Lof x e G
1
. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf o tx) e G
2
. Now e
1
e G
1
such fhaf x e
1
= x.
ThoroIoro, o tx) = o tx e
1
)
= o tx) o te
1
) 3 o Is a homomorphIsm
i.e., o tx) = o tx) o te
1
) .ti)
AgaIn as e
2
2
, wo havo
o tx) = o tx) e
2
.tii)
Honco Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) If Is cIoar fhaf
o tx) o te
1
) = o tx) = o tx) e
2
= o te
1
) = e
2
LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
tii) GIvon fhaf o Is a homomorphIsm Irom G
1
fo G
2
. AIso gIvon fhaf e
1
Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf
oI G
1
and e
2
2
.
Lof x e G
1
such fhaf tx x
1
) = e
1
= o ttx x
1
)) = o te
1
)
= o tx) otx
1
) = o te
1
) o Is a homomorphIsm
= o tx) otx
1
) = e
2
Honco, If Is cIoar fhaf otx
1
) Is fho Invorso oIomonf oI o tx).
Thus wo havo o tx
1
) = to tx))
1
; V x e G
1
i.e., Invorso oIomonf corrosponds fo fho Invorso oIomonf.
7.7.2 Theorem
II o : G
1
G
2
Is a homomorphIsm, fhon o tG
1
) Is a subgroup oI G
2
.
ProoI: GIvon o : G
1
G
2
Is a homomorphIsm. Thon Ior x, y e G
1
wo havo o tx y) = o tx) o ty).
AgaIn o tx) e o tG
1
), o ty) e o tG
1
) such fhaf
o tx) o ty) = o tx y) e o tG
1
).
ThoroIoro fho cIosuro proporfy Is safIsIIod.
AIso y e G
1
ImpIIos y
1
e G
1
such fhaf ty y
1
) = e
1
, whoro e
1
1
.
Thus wo havo
o ty y
1
) = o te
1
)
= o ty) o ty
1
) = o te
1
) 3 o Is a homomorphIsm
= o ty) o ty
1
) = e
2
; whoro e
2
IdonfIfy oIomonf oI o tG
1
).
ThoroIoro, to ty))
1
= o ty
1
).
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf Ior ovory oIomonf o ty) e o tG
1
) fhoro oxIsf Invorso oIomonf o ty
1
) In
o tG
1
).
Honco, o tG
1
) Is a subgroup oI G
2
.

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 8hou that the subtraction is not a binary operation on the set oj natura/ nunbers N.
Solution: Wo know fhaf 'o` wIII bo a bInary oporafIon In N II and onIy II ta
o
b) e N V a, b e N
and ta
o
b) Is unIquo. Horo fho bInary oporafIon Is subfracfIon t). If Is cIoar fhaf Ior a, b e N,
ta b) may or may nof boIongs fo N. Lof us fako a = 5 and b = 10, so ta b) = 5 e N. Honco,
fho subfracfIon Is nof a bInary oporafIon.
Example 2 The operation 'o` JejineJ by the re/ation (a
o
b =
a
b
is not a binary operation in the
set oj rea/ nunber P.
Group Thoory 185
Solution: Wo know fhaf 'o` wIII bo a bInary oporafIon In R II and onIy II ta
o
b) e R V a, b e R
and ta
o
b) Is unIquo. Horo fho bInary oporafIon 'o` doIInod by fho roIafIon ta
o
b) =
a
b
. If Is cIoar
fhaf
a
b
Is nof doIInod Ior b = 0. Lof us fako a = 5 and b = 0, buf
5
0
Is nof doIInod. Honco fho
oporafIon 'o` doIInod by fho roIafIon ta
o
b) =
a
b
Is nof a bInary oporafIon on R.
Example 3 ls the jo//ouing a oa/iJ Jejinition oj binary operation.
(a (a
o
b = a b + 2b on P
(b (a
o
b = a
b
on l
+
(c (a
o
b = Min (a, b on P
Solution: ta) Lof a, b e R
= tab) e R Producf oI fwo roaI numbors Is aIso a roaI numbor
AgaIn, b e R ImpIIos fhaf 2b e R.
Wo know fhaf addIfIon oI fwo roaI numbors Is aIso a roaI numbor, so tab + 2b) e R and If Is
unIquo. Honco, fho oporafIon ta
o
b) = ab + 2b on R safIsIIos fho doIInIfIon oI bInary oporafIon.
tb) Lof a, b e I
+
tSof oI posIfIvo Infogors)
GIvon fhaf ta
o
b) = a
b
. Wo know fhaf a posIfIvo Infogor raIsod fo fho powor by a posIfIvo
Infogor wIII aIways rosuIf on a posIfIvo Infogor and If Is unIquo aIso.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
b
Is a unIquo posIfIvo Infogor. Honco ta
o
b) = a
b
Is a bInary oporafIon.
tc) Lof a, b e R tSof oI roaI numbors)
GIvon fhaf ta
o
b) = MIn ta, b). WhIch Is oquaI fo oIfhor a or b e R. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
ta
o
b) = MIn ta, b) Is a bInary oporafIon In R.
Example 4 Let A = /0, 1/, then Jejine the binary operations jor anJ ( anJ or (.
Solution: GIvon fhaf A = 0, 1. Tho bInary oporafIons Ior and tr) and or tv) Is gIvon as boIow.
v 1 0 r 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
Example 5 Conp/ete the jo//ouing tab/e so that the binary operation (o is connutatioe.
o a b c
a b
b c b a
c a c
Solution: A bInary oporafIon to) In sof G Is saId fo bo commufafIvo II ta
o
b) = tb
o
a). SInco
bInary oporafIon to) Is commufafIvo wo havo fho IoIIowIngs.
ta
o
b) = tb
o
a) = c
ta
o
c) = tc
o
a) = a
tc
o
b) = tb
o
c) = a
Thus fho compIofo fabIo Is gIvon boIow.
o a b c
a b c a
b c b a
c a a c
Example 6 For the a/gebraic structure (O, o, JejineJ by (a
o
b = a + b ab, a, b O. 8hou
that O is a seni group, nonoiJ anJ a/so shou that connutatioe property ho/Js.
Solution: GIvon fhaf Ior aII a, b e G, ta
o
b) = a + b ab.
SomI group: Lof a, b, c e G
Now a
o
tb
o
c) = a
o
tb + c bc)
= a + tb + c bc) atb + c bc)
= a + b + c bc ab ac + abc
AgaIn ta
o
b)
o
c = ta + b ab)
o
c
= ta + b ab) + c c ta + b ab)
= a + b + c ab ca bc + abc
ComparIng fho abovo fwo wo soo a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf tG, o) Is a somI
group.
MonoId : Wo know fhaf fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is monoId II If Is a somI group and has
an IdonfIfy oIomonf. Wo havo aIroady shown fhaf tG, o) Is a somI group.
Lof us now fry fo IInd fho unIf oIomonf e e G such fhaf ta
o
e) = a
i.e., a + e ae = a
= a + e t1 a) = a
= e t1 a) = a a = 0
= e = 0
So, fho unIf oIomonf 0 tZoro) oxIsf In G.
CommufafIvo Law: G Is saId fo bo commufafIvo II ta
o
b) = tb
o
a).
Now ta
o
b) = a + b ab and tb
o
a) = b + a ba . ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta
o
b) = tb
o
a), honco
commufafIvo.
Example 7 A set O = /a, b, c, J/, the binary operation (o on this set is JejineJ by the jo//ouing
jigure. FinJ the jo//ouings.
(a (a
o
b anJ (b
o
a
(b ls binary operation (o connutatioe.
(c ls binary operation (o associatioe.
o a b c J
a a c b J
b J a b c
c a J a a
J J b a c
Group Thoory 18?
Solution: GIvon fhaf G = a, b, c, J. Tho bInary oporafIon to) on fhIs sof Is doIInod by fho
IoIIowIng IIguro.
o a b c J
a a c b J
b J a b c
c c J a a
J J b a c
ta) ta
o
b) = c and tb
o
a) = J
tb) As ta
o
b) = tb
o
a), so fho bInary oporafIon as doIInod Is nof commufafIvo.
tc) Now a
o
tb
o
c) = a
o
tb) = c and
ta
o
b)
o
c = c
o
c = a
So, a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf fho bInary oporafIon doIInod abovo Is nof assocIafIvo.
Example 8 Oioen the a/gebraic structure (O, o, JejineJ by the jo//ouing tab/e. 8hou that O is
a seni group, nonoiJ anJ jinJ the unit e/enent.
o a b c
a c b a
b b c b
c a b c
Solution: GIvon fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o), doIInod by fho IoIIowIng fabIo as
o a b c
a c b a
b b c b
c a b c
SomI group: Lof a, b, c e G
Now a
o
tb
o
c) = a
o
b = b and ta
o
b)
o
c = b
o
c = b
b
o
ta
o
c) = b
o
a = b and tb
o
a)
o
c = b
o
c = b
c
o
ta
o
b) = c
o
b = b and tc
o
a)
o
b = a
o
b = b
ThoroIoro, fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is a somI group.
MonoId: Wo know fhaf fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is monoId II If Is a somI group and has
an IdonfIfy oIomonf.
Wo havo aIroady shown fhaf tG, o) Is a somI group.
Lof us now fry fo IInd fho unIf oIomonf e e G. If Is vory cIoar Irom fho fabIo fhaf
ta
o
c) = a = tc
o
a)
tb
o
c) = b = tc
o
b) and
tc
o
c) = c = tc
o
c)
ThoroIoro, fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is gIvon as e = c.
Thus fho aIgobraIc sfrucfuro tG, o) Is a monoId.
Example 9 O contains rea/ nunbers 1, 1 unJer the usua/ nu/tip/ication. Then shou that O
is a connutatioe group oj orJer 2.
Solution: GIvon G = 1, 1 and fho bInary oporafIon to) Is muIfIpIIcafIon t`). Lof us consfrucf
fho fabIo.
` 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
C/osure Lau. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho bInary oporafIon wIfh any fwo
oIomonf rosuIfs oIfhor 1 or 1. So fho cIosuro proporfy Is safIsIIod.
Associatioe Lau. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho assocIafIvo proporfy Is aIso safIsIIod.
Existence oj lJentity. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is 1 e G.
Existence oj lnoerse. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf t1 ` 1) = 1 and t1 ` 1) = 1.
ThoroIoro, 1 and 1 aro fhoIr own Invorsos.
Connutatioe Lau. !rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf 1 ` t1) = t1) ` 1. So, commufafIvo
proporfy Is aIso safIsIIod.
ThoroIoro, G Is an aboIIan group oI ordor 2.
Example 10 8hou that the set O = /1, M, M
2
/ is a group uith respect to binary operation
nu/tip/ication, uhere M is the cube root oj unity.
Solution: GIvon u Is fho cubo roof oI unIfy. Thus wo havo u
3
= 1 and 1 + u + u
2
= 0. If Is aIso
gIvon fhaf fho bInary oporafIon to) Is aIso a muIfIpIIcafIon. Lof us consfrucf fho fabIo.
` 1 u u
2
1 1 u u
2
u u u
2
1
u
2
u
2
1 u
C/osure Lau. As soon Irom fho fabIo aII fho oIomonfs boIongs fo fho Sof G. So, CIosuro Iaw
Is safIsIIod.
Associatioe Lau. Tho oIomonfs oI G aro compIox numbors and wo know fhaf compIox
numbor muIfIpIIcafIon Is assocIafIvo. Thus assocIafIvo Iaw Is safIsIIod.
Existence oj lJentity. !rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf 1 e G Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf.
Existence oj lnoerse. !rom fho fabIo If Is aIso cIoar fhaf 1 ` 1 = 1; u ` u
2
= u
3
= 1
and u
2
` u = u
3
= 1.
Honco, If Is cIoar fhaf u Is fho Invorso oIomonf oI u
2
, u
2
Is fho Invorso oIomonf oI u and 1 Is
fho Invorso oIomonf oI 1. So, ovory oIomonf oI G has Ifs Invorso In G.
ThoroIoro, fho sof G = 1, u, u
2
Is a group wIfh rospocf fo bInary oporafIon muIfIpIIcafIon.
Example 11 Oioe an exanp/e oj a group oj seconJ orJer such that eoery e/enent is its oun
inoerse.
Solution: Lof us consIdor fho sof G = 1, 1 and fho bInary oporafIon to) Is muIfIpIIcafIon t`).
Lof us consfrucf fho fabIo.
` 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
C/osure Lau. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho bInary oporafIon wIfh any fwo oIo-
monf rosuIfs oIfhor 1 or 1. So fho cIosuro proporfy Is safIsIIod.
Associatioe Lau. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho assocIafIvo proporfy Is aIso safIsIIod.
Existence oj lJentity. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is 1 e G.
Existence oj lnoerse. !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf t1 ` 1) = 1 and t 1 ` 1) = 1.
ThoroIoro, 1 and 1 aro fhoIr own Invorsos.
ThoroIoro, G Is a group oI socond ordor. i.e., OtG) = 2.
Group Thoory 189
Example 12 O is a set oj a// non-:ero rea/ nunbers anJ /et (a
o
b =
ab
2
. 8hou that (O, o is an
abe/ian group.
Solution: GIvon fhaf G Is a sof oI roaI numbors.
C/osure Lau. Lof a, b e G. Wo know fhaf producf oI any fwo roaI numbors Is a roaI numbor.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf tab) e G. SImIIarIy
ab
2
e G. ThoroIoro, ta
o
b) e G.
Associatioe Lau. Lof a, b, c e G.
Now a
o
tb
o
c) = a
o

bc
2
.
0
/
1
=
abc
4
and ta
o
b)
o
c =
ab
2
.
0
/
1

o
c =
abc
4
. ThoroIoro, a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c
Existence oj lJentity. Lof a e G and e e G bo fho IdonfIfy oIomonf such fhaf ta
o
e) = a.
i.e.,
ae
2
= a. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf e = 2 e G. So ovory oIomonf oI G has 2 as fho IdonfIfy oIomonf.
Existence oj lnoerse. Lof a e G and a
1
e G bo fho Invorso oIomonf oI a.
Thus wo havo ta
o
a
1
) = e = 2. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a
1
=
4
a
e G as 4 e G, a e G and rafIo oI fwo
non-zoro roaI numbor Is a roaI numbor.
Connutatioe Lau. Now ta
o
b) =
ab ba
2 2
= tb
o
a). ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta
o
b) = tb
o
a).
ThoroIoro, commufafIvo Iaw aIso hoIds In G.
Thus tG, o) Is an aboIIan group.
Example 13 Let O be the set oj a// (2 2 rea/ natrices
a b
c J
.
0
/
1
uhere (aJ bc 0 is a rationa/

nunber. Frooe that O jorns a group unJer nu/tip/ication.
Solution: Lof us consIdor G bo fho sof oI aII t2 2) roaI mafrIcos
a b
c J
.
0
/
1
whoro taJ bc) = 0 Is

a rafIonaI numbor.
C/osure Lau. Lof A, B e G. i.e., A and B aro fwo mafrIcos oI ordor t2 2). ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
tA B) Is aIso a roaI mafrIx oI ordor t2 2).
!rom fho doIInIfIon If Is cIoar fhaf|A|= 0 and B = 0, honco, |A B|= |A| |B| = 0. Thus
tA B) Is a mafrIx oI ordor t2 2) and |A B| = 0. So, tA B) e G. ThoroIoro, cIosuro Iaw Is
safIsIIod.
Associatioe Lau. Wo know fhaf mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon Is assocIafIvo. So, Ior A, B, C e G wo
havo A tB C) = tA B) C. ThoroIoro, assocIafIvo Iaw Is safIsIIod.
Existence oj lnoerse. Tho mafrIx I =
1 0
0 1
.
0
/
1
e G, sInco |I|= 1 = 0, wIII acf as fho IdonfIfy

oIomonf sInco

a b
c J
a b
c J
.
0
/
1
.
0
/
1

.
0
/
1
1 0
0 1
Existence oj lnoerse. !or ovory A e G, fhoro oxIsfs Invorso A
1
e G such fhaf tA A
1
) = I,
whoro
A
1
=
Adj A
A A
> C
| | | |
.
0
/
1
1
11 12
21 22
c c
c c
; c
ij
Is fho coIacfor oI a
ij
.
ThoroIoro, G Iorms a group undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
Example 14 Let O be the set /a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, .. , a
6
/.The binary operation (o is JejineJ as be/ou.
Chech uhether (O, o is a group or not.
ta
i

o
a
j
) =
( )
i j
i j 7
a ij (i j 7
a ij i j 7
+
+
+ <
Solution: Lof G = a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, .. , a
6
. Tho bInary oporafIon to) Is doIInod as
ta
i

o
a
j
) =
( )
?
II t ) ?
II ?
i j
a i j
a i j
+
+ <
i j +
Basod on fho bInary oporafIon doIInod abovo wo havo
ta
0

o
a
0
) = a
0
; ta
0

o
a
1
) = a
1
; ta
5

o
a
1
) = a
6
;
ta
5

o
a
2
) = a
?

?
= a
0
;ta
6

o
a
3
) = a
9 ?
= a
2
; and so on. Thus wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo.
0 a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
1
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
2
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
1
a
3
a
3
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
4
a
4
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
5
a
5
a
6
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
6
a
6
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
C/osure Lau. !rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf aII fho oIomonfs aro In G. So, cIosuro proporfy
Is safIsIIod.
Associatioe Lau. Lof a
i
, a
j
, a
h
e G. Now If Is ovIdonf Irom fho fabIo fhaf
a
i

o
ta
j

o
a
h
) =
t )
t ?)
t 14)
II t ) ?
II ? t ) 14
II t ) 14
i j h
i j h
i j h
a i j h
a i j h
a i j h
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + <
< + + <
+ +
Samo doIInIfIon hoIds Ior ta

i

o
a
j
)
o
a
h
. So, assocIafIvo proporfy Is safIsIIod.
Existence oj lJentity. !rom fho IIrsf row oI fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf a
0
e G Is fho IdonfIfy
oIomonf as ta
0

o
a
j
) = a
j
Ior aII j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Existence oj lnoerse. !rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf a
0
Is fho Invorso oI a
0
and a
j
Is fho
Invorso oIomonf oI a
t? j)
Ior J = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, ovory oIomonf has Ifs Invorso In G.
ThoroIoro, G Is a group undor fho bInary oporafIon doIInod abovo.
Example 15 lj O is a group oj eoen orJer then there exists an e/enent a e such that a
2
= e.
Solution: GIvon G Is a group oI ovon ordor.
Lof fhoro bo n oIomonfs and Ifs n numbor oI Invorsos. So aIfogofhor fhoro aro 2n numbor oI
oIomonfs. AgaIn In fhIs 2n numbor oI oIomonfs fhoro Is an IdonfIfy oIomonf e e G and e
1
= e.
ThIs ImpIIos G confaIns t2n 1) numbor oI oIomonfs, buf If Is gIvon fhaf G Is oI ovon ordor.
So, fhoro musf oxIsf af Ioasf ono oIomonf whIch Is Ifs own Invorso.
Group Thoory 191
i.e., a e G = a
1
= a
= ta
o
a
1
) = ta
o
a)
= e = a
2
i.e., a
2
= e.
Example 16 8uppose that O is a group anJ a
2
= a, a O. Frooe that a = e.
Solution: GIvon fhaf a
2
= a
= ta
o
a) = ta
o
e).
So, by IoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw a = e.
Example 17 lj eoery e/enent oj the group O is its oun inoerse, then it is an abe/ian group.
Solution: GIvon ovory oIomonf oI group G Is Ifs own Invorso.
Lof a, b e G ImpIIos fhaf a
1
= a and b
1
= b.
AgaIn by cIosuro Iaw a, b e G ImpIIos fhaf ta
o
b) e G and ta
o
b)
1
= ta
o
b) .
= tb
1

o
a
1
) = ta
o
b) By fhoorom
= tb
o
a) = ta
o
b) a
1
= a and b
1
= b
Example 18 lj O is a group uith (a
o
b
n
= a
n
b
n
jor three consecutioe integers, then O is an
abe/ian group.
Solution: GIvon G Is a group and ta
o
b)
n
= a
n
b
n
Ior fhroo consocufIvo Infogors.
Lof fho fhroo consocufIvo Infogors bo n, tn + 1) and tn + 2). So, by doIInIfIon wo havo
ta
o
b)
n
= a
n
b
n
; ta
o
b)
n + 1
= a
n + 1
b
n + 1
and
ta
o
b)
n + 2
= a
n + 2
b
n + 2
Now ta
o
b)
n + 2
= ta
o
b)
n + 1
ta
o
b)
= a
n + 2
b
n + 2
= ta
n + 1
b
n + 1
) ta
o
b)
= ta
n + 1
a) b
n + 2
= ta
n + 1
) tb
n + 1
a)
o
b
= ta
n + 1
) ta b
n + 2
) = ta
n + 1
) tb
n + 1
a)
o
b
= tab
n + 2
) = tb
n + 1
a)
o
b LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
= tab
n + 1
) b = tb
n + 1
a)
o
b
= tab
n + 1
) = tb
n + 1
a) RIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw
= a
n
tab
n + 1
) = a
n
tb
n + 1
a)
= ta
n + 1
b
n + 1
) = ta
n
b
n
) tb
o
a)
= ta
o
b)
n + 1
= ta
o
b)
n
tb
o
a)
= ta
o
b)
n
ta
o
b) = ta
o
b)
n
tb
o
a)
= ta
o
b) = tb
o
a) LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf G Is an aboIIan group.
Example 19 O is the set oj a// integers anJ the binary operation (o is JejineJ by
(a
o
b = a b. Test uhether O is a group.
Solution: GIvon fhaf G Is fho sof oI aII Infogors and fho bInary oporafIon to) Is doIInod by
ta
o
b) = a b.
C/osure Lau . Wo know fhaf dIIIoronco oI fwo Infogors Is an Infogor. So, Ior a, b e G, wo
havo ta b) e G. Thus ta
o
b) e G. ThoroIoro cIosuro Iaw Is safIsIIod.
Now a
o
tb
o
c) = a
o
tb c)
= a tb c)
= a b + c .ti)
AgaIn ta
o
b)
o
c = ta b)
o
c
= ta b) c
= a b c . tii)
!rom fho oquafIons ti) and tii) If Is cIoar fhaf a
o
tb
o
c) = ta
o
b)
o
c. ThoroIoro, assocIafIvo Iaw
Is nof safIsIIod. Honco G Is nof a group.
Example 20 Let O = /1, 1, i, i / be a group unJer the binary operation nu/tip/ication. FinJ the
orJer oj e/enents.
Solution: GIvon G = 1, 1, i, i bo a group undor fho bInary oporafIon muIfIpIIcafIon.
ThoroIoro, fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is 1.
Now Ot1) = 1 3 t1)
1
= 1
Ot1) = 2 3 t1)
2
= 1
Oti) = 4 3 ti)
4
= ti
2
)
2
= t1)
2
= 1
Ot i) = 4 3 t i)
4
= ti)
4
= ti
2
)
2
= t1)
2
= 1
Example 21 O is the set oj positioe integers anJ the binary operation (o is JejineJ by
(a
o
b = ab. Test uhether O is a group.
Solution: G Is fho sof oI posIfIvo Infogors and fho bInary oporafIon to) Is doIInod by
ta
o
b) = ta b).
C/osure Lau. Wo know fhaf producf oI fwo posIfIvo Infogors Is a posIfIvo Infogor. So, Ior
a, b e G, wo havo ta b) e G. Thus ta
o
b) e G.
ThoroIoro, cIosuro Iaw Is safIsIIod.
Now a
o
tb
o
c) = ta b c) = ta
o
b)
o
c. ThoroIoro assocIafIvo Iaw Is safIsIIod.
Existence oj lJentity. G Is fho sof oI posIfIvo Infogor. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf 1 e G and t1
o
a) =
ta
o
1) = a Ior aII a e G. ThoroIoro 1 Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf oI G.
Existence oj lnoerse . Lof a e G and Iof b bo fho Invorso oI a. Thus wo havo ta
o
b) = 1. ThIs
ImpIIos fhaf b =
1
a
e G. SInco
1
a
Is nof a posIfIvo Infogor. So, Invorso oIomonf doos nof oxIsf In G.
ThoroIoro, G Is nof a group.
Example 22 Let O = /a, a
2
, a
J
, a
4
, a
6
, a
6
= e / be a group unJer the binary operation nu/tip/i-
cation. FinJ the orJer oj e/enents.
Solution: Lof G = a, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
= e bo a group undor fho bInary oporafIon muIfIpIIcafIon.
Now Ota) = 6 3 a
6
= e
Ota
2
) = 3 3 ta
2
)
3
= a
6
= e
Ota
3
) = 2 3 ta
3
)
2
= a
6
= e
Ota
4
) = 3 3 ta
4
)
3
= a
12
= ta
6
)
2
= e
Ota
5
) = 6 3 ta
5
)
6
= a
30
= ta
6
)
5
= e
Ota
6
) = 1 3 ta
6
)
1
= e
Example 23 Let O = /0, 1, 2, J, 4, 6/ be a group unJer the binary operation aJJition noJu/o 6.
FinJ the orJer oj e/enents oj the group.
Solution: GIvon G = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 bo a group undor fho bInary oporafIon addIfIon moduIo 6.
Horo fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Is 0 tZoro). i.e., Ot0) = 1 as 0
1
= 0. Lof us now IInd ouf fho ordor oI 1.
1
1
= 1
1
2
= 1
6
1 = 2
1
3
= 1
6
1
2
= 1
6
2 = 3
Group Thoory 193
1
4
= 1
6
1
3
= 1
6
3 = 4
1
5
= 1
6
1
4
= 1
6
4 = 5
1
6
= 1
6
1
5
= 1
6
5 = 0
ThoroIoro, Ot1) = 6
SImIIarIy Ot2) = 3; Ot3) = 2; Ot4) = 3; Ot5) = 6.
Example 24 Let O is a group anJ orJer oj eoery e/enent a e oj the group O is tuo. 8hou that
O is an abe/ian group.
Solution: GIvon G Is a group and ordor oI ovory oIomonf a = e oI fho group G Is fwo.
Lof a e G. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf Ota) = 2. i.e., a
2
= e
= ta
o
a) = e
= ta
o
a)
o
a
1
= e
o
a
1
= a
1
xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
= a
o
ta
o
a
1
) = a
1
AssocIafIvo Iaw
= a
o
e = a
1
xIsfonco oI Invorso
= a = a
1
xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
So, ovory oIomonf oI G Is Ifs own Invorso. i.e., !or a, b e G wo havo a = a
1
and b = b
1
.
AgaIn by cIosuro Iaw ta
o
b) e G and ta
o
b)
1
= ta
o
b). ThIs ImpIIos fhaf tb
1

o
a
1
) = ta
o
b)
i.e., tb
o
a) = ta
o
b).
Example 25 8hou that in a aJJitioe group oj integers O the orJer oj eoery e/enent except
0 (:ero is injinite.
Solution: GIvon G Is fho addIfIvo group oI Infogors. Tho IdonfIfy oIomonf In caso oI addIfIvo
group oI Infogors Is 0 tzoro). ThIs ImpIIos fhaf Ot0) = 1 as 0
1
= 0. Lof us consIdor fho noxf
oIomonf 1.
Now 1
1
= 1
1
2
= 1 + 1 = 2
1
3
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
and so on. !rom fhIs If Is cIoar fhaf fhoro oxIsfs no such n Ior whIch 1
n
= 0. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
ordor oI 1 Is InIInIfo. Tho samo argumonf aIso hoIds Ior ofhor Infogors.
Example 26 Let O be a group anJ the orJer oj a, b anJ (a
o
b be tuo. 8hou that O is an
abe/ian group.
Solution: GIvon G bo a group and fho ordor oI a, b and ta
o
b) bo fwo. i.e., a
2
= e; b
2
= e
and ta
o
b)
2
= e.
Now ta
o
b)
2
= e
= ta
o
b) ta
o
b) = e
= ta
o
b) ta
o
b) = e
o
e = a
2

o
b
2
= a
o
tb
o
a)
o
b = ta
o
a)
o
tb
o
b)
= a
o
tb
o
a)
o
b = a
o
ta
o
b)
o
b AssocIafIvo Iaw
= tb
o
a) = ta
o
b) CancoIIafIon Iaw
Example 27 ls union oj tuo subgroups oj a group O is a subgroup oj O: lj no then exp/ain uith
the he/p oj a counter exanp/e.
Solution: Tho unIon oI fwo subgroups oI a group G Is nof a subgroup oI G.
Lof us consIdor fho group G = . 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . wIfh fho bInary oporafIon
addIfIon. Lof us doIIno fwo subgroups H
1
and H
2
oI G as
H
1
= 0, 2, 4, 6, .. and H
2
= 0, 3, 6, 9, .. Honco, tH
1
. H
2
) = 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, ..
!rom fhIs If Is cIoar fhaf 2, 3 e tH
1
. H
2
) ImpIIos fhaf t2 + 3) = 5 e tH
1
. H
2
). ThoroIoro, cIosuro
Iaw Is nof safIsIIod.
Honco, tH
1
. H
2
) Is nof a subgroup oI G.
Example 28 8uppose O = /. , 2
J
, 2
2
, 2
1
, 1, 2, 2
2
, 2
J
, . / is the nu/tip/icatioe group. Let
H = /1, 2, 2
2
, 2
J
, ./ be the subset oj O. Test uhether H is a subgroup oj O or not.
Solution: GIvon G = . , 2
3
, 2
2
, 2
1
, 1, 2, 2
2
, 2
3
, . Is fho muIfIpIIcafIvo group.
Lof H = 1, 2, 2
2
, 2
3
, . bo fho non-ompfy subsof oI G and a, b e H ImpIIos fhaf ta
o
b) e H. So,
H Is cIosod undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
AgaIn 2 e H ImpIIos 2
1
e H. Thus Invorso axIom Is nof safIsIIod. ThoroIoro, H Is nof fho
subgroup oI G.
Example 29 Let O be a group oj integers unJer aJJition anJ H is the subset oj O consisting oj
a// nu/tip/es oj n N. 8hou that H is a subgroup jor eoery oa/ue oj n.
Solution: GIvon G bo a group oI Infogors undor addIfIon and H Is fho subsof oI G consIsfIng
oI aII muIfIpIos oI n e N.
Lof a, b e H. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a and b aro bofh muIfIpIos oI n. ThoroIoro ta + b) Is aIso a
muIfIpIo oI n. So, ta
o
b) = ta + b) e H. AgaIn a e H ImpIIos a e H. ThoroIoro, H Is a subgroup oI G.
Example 30 8uppose that O be the set oj a// orJereJ pairs (a, b oj Pea/ nunbers, a 0. The
binary operation (o is JejineJ by (a, b
o
(c, J = (ac, bc + J. 8hou that (O, o is a non-abe/ian
group. Let H be a subset oj O containing e/enents oj the jorn (1, b. Does H is a subgroup oj O.
Solution: GIvon G bo fho sof oI aII ordorod paIrs ta, b); a, b e R, a = 0. Tho bInary oporafIon Is
doIInod as ta, b)
o
tc, J) = tac, bc + J).
Wo havo fo show fhaf G Is a group. i.e., G safIsIIos aII fho Iour proporfIos oI fho group.
C/osure Lau. Lof ta, b), tc, J) e G; ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a = 0 and c = 0.
Now ta, b)
o
tc, J) = tac, bc + J) e G ac = 0; ac, bc + J e R
Associatioe Lau. Lof ta, b), tc, J), te, j ) e G.
Now ta, b)
o
tc, J)
o
te, j ) = ta, b)
o
tce, Je + j )
= tace, bce + Je +j ) . ti)
AgaIn ta, b)
o
tc, J)
o
te, j ) = tac, bc + J)
o
te, j )
= tace, bce + Je + j ) . tii)
So, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo havo
ta, b)
o
tc, J)
o
te, j ) = ta, b)
o
tc, J)
o
te, j )
Existence oj lJentity. Lof ta, b) e G. Lof tu, o) bo fho IdonfIfy oIomonf. Thus wo havo
ta, b)
o
tu, o) = ta, b)
i.e., tau, bu + o) = ta, b)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf au = a and bu + o = b i.e., u = 1 and o = 0. So, fho IdonfIfy oIomonf
tu, o) = t1, 0) e G.
Existence oj lnoerse. Lof ta, b) e G and Iof tu, o) bo fho Invorso oIomonf oI ta, b). Thus, wo havo
ta, b)
o
tu, o) = t1, 0) 3 t1, 0) Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf
i.e., tau, bu + o) = t1, 0)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf au = 1 and bu + o = 0 i.e., u =
1
a
and o =
b
a
.
So, fho Invorso oIomonf oI ta, b) Is
1
a
b
a
,
.
0
/
1
e G. Thus G safIsIIos aII fho Iour proporfIos oI

group and honco G Is a group.
Group Thoory 195
Connutatioe Lau. Lof ta, b), tc, J) e G.
Thus wo havo ta, b)
o
tc, J) = tac, bc + J) and
tc, J)
o
ta, b) = tca, Ja + b).
Honco If Is cIoar fhaf ta, b)
o
tc, J) = tc, J)
o
ta, b). ThoroIoro, G Is nof an aboIIan group.
Lof H bo a subsof oI G confaInIng oIomonfs oI fho Iorm t1, b). Now wo havo chock whofhor
H Is subgroup or nof.
Lof t1, b), t1, c) e H. Such fhaf t1, b)
o
t1, c) = t1, b + c) e H. Honco cIosuro Iaw hoIds In H.
Lof t1, b) e H. Tho Invorso oI t1, b) Is t1, b) e H. Honco ovory oIomonf oI H has an Invorso
oIomonf.
ThoroIoro, H Is a subgroup oI G.
Example 31 The set oj a// integers unJer aJJition is a cyc/ic group uith generator 1.
Solution: Lof G bo fho sof oI aII Infogors.
Now 1
0
= 0 3 1
0
= e = 0 1
1
= 1; 1
2
= 1 + 1 = 2; 1
3
= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 and so on ... 1
1
= 1;
1
2
= t1
2
)
1
= 2; 1
3
= t1
3
)
1
= 3 and so on.. . So, aII fho oIomonfs oI G can bo oxprossod
as somo powors oI 1.
Example 32 Let O = /0, 1, 2, J, 4, 6/. 8hou that O is the cyc/ic group uith generator 1 unJer
aJJition noJu/o 6.
Solution: GIvon fhaf G = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Horo fho gonorafor Is 1. AgaIn 1
1
= 1
1
2
= 1
6
1 = 2
1
3
= 1
6
1
2
= 1
6
2 = 3
1
4
= 1
6
1
3
= 1
6
3 = 4
1
5
= 1
6
1
4
= 1
6
4 = 5
1
6
= 1
6
1
5
= 1
6
5 = 0
1
?
= 1
6
1
6
= 1
6
0 = 1
ThoroIoro, wo gof, G = 1, 1
2
, 1
3
, 1
4
, 1
5
, 1
6
= 0. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf G Is fho cycIIc group wIfh
gonorafor 1.
Example 33 Frooe that any group oj orJer J is cyc/ic.
Solution: GIvon G Is a group oI ordor 3. So G confaIns 3 oIomonfs and ono oI fhIs oIomonf Is
e whoroas fho ofhor fwo aro dIsfIncf oIomonfs. Lof fho dIsfIncf oIomonfs oI G bo a and b.
i.e., G = a, b, e
Now by cIosuro proporfy a e G, b e G ImpIIos ta
.
b) e G. As G has onIy fhroo oIomonfs, wo
havo fho IoIIowIng possIbIIIfIos.
ti) ta
.
b) = a; tii) ta
.
b) = b or tiii) ta
.
b) = e.
Supposo fhaf ta
.
b) = a
= ta
.
b) = a
.
e
= b = e LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
Supposo fhaf ta
.
b) = b
= ta
.
b) = b
.
e = e
.
b xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
= a = e RIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw
Wo havo fakon fhaf a and b aro fwo dIsfIncf oIomonfs ofhor fhan e. Honco, bofh ta
.
b) = a
and ta
.
b) = b aro nof possIbIo. Thus wo musf havo ta
.
b) = e.
SImIIarIy a e G ImpIIos a
2
e G. Honco fhoro arIsos fhroo casos. i.e., ti) a
2
= e; tii) a
2
= a or tiii)
a
2
= b.
Supposo fhaf a
2
= e
= a
2
= ta
.
b) ta
.
b) = e
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a = b. ThIs Is nof possIbIo as a and b aro dIsfIncf.
Supposo fhaf a
2
= a
= ta
.
a) = a
.
e
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a = e. ThIs Is aIso nof possIbIo as a Is ofhor fhan e. Honco wo musf havo
a
2
= b. Thus wo gof
G = e, a, b = e, a, a
2
ThoroIoro, G Is a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a.

Example 34 Let O be the aJJitioe group oj integers. i.e., O = /. , J, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, J, ./.
Let H be the subgroup oj O gioen by H = / . , 0, 6, J, 0, J, 6, 0, . /. Forn the right cosets
anJ /ejt cosets.
Solution: GIvon fhaf G = . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
H = . , 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, .
Lof us now Iorm fho rIghf cosofs.
Now 0 e G, so
H = H + 0 = . , 9 + 0, 6 + 0, 3 + 0, 0 + 0, 3 + 0, 6 +0, .
= . , 9, 6, 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, .
AgaIn 1 e G, so
H + 1 = . , 9 + 1, 6 + 1, 3 + 1, 0 + 1, 3 + 1, 6 + 1, .
= . , 8, 5, 2, 1, 4, ?, 10, .
SImIIarIy 2 e G, so
H + 2 = . , 9 + 2, 6 + 2, 3 + 2, 0 + 2, 3 + 2, 6 + 2, .
= . , ?, 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, .
Example 35 Let B . O O JejineJ by B (x = e, jor a// x O, uhere e is the iJentity e/enent.
8hou that o is a hononorphisn.
Solution: GIvon fhaf o : G G doIInod by o tx) = e V x e G, whoro e Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf.
Lof x, y e G
= o tx) = e and o ty) = e
Now x, y e G ImpIIos fhaf tx y) e G
ThoroIoro, o tx y) = e
= e
.
e = o tx) o ty)
i.e., o tx y) = o tx) o ty)
Honco o Is a homomorphIsm.
In fhIs way wo can Iorm fho rIghf cosofs and fho IoIf cosofs.
Example 36 Let B . O
1
O
2
JejineJ by B (x = 2
x
, uhere O
1
is a group oj Pea/ nunbers unJer
aJJition anJ O
2
is a group oj non-:ero Pea/ nunbers unJer nu/tip/ication. 8hou that B is a
hononorphisn.
ProoI: GIvon fhaf G
1
Is a group oI RoaI numbors undor addIfIon and G
2
Is a group oI non-zoro
RoaI numbors undor muIfIpIIcafIon. Lof x, y e G
1
ThIs ImpIIos o tx) = 2
x
e G
2
and o ty) = 2
y
e G
2
Now x, y e G
1
ImpIIos fhaftx + y) e G
1
ThoroIoro, o tx + y) = 2
x + y
= 2
x
2
y
= o tx) o ty)
i.e., o tx + y) = o tx) o ty)
Honco, o Is a homomorphIsm.
Group Thoory 19?

EXEkCl5E5
1. oIIno fho bInary oporafIon. Show fhaf fho bInary oporafIon muIfIpIIcafIon Is cIosod on
fho sof A = 1, 1.
2. Show fhaf fho addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon aro assocIafIvo bInary oporafIon In fho sof oI
rafIonaI numbors.
3. Show fhaf tI, +) and tR, +) aro somI group.
4. Show fhaf fho sof oI Infogors and roaI numbors aro aboIIan group undor ordInary addI-
fIon buf Is nof a group undor ordInary muIfIpIIcafIon.
5. Show fhaf G = . , 3
3
, 3
2
, 3
1
, 1, 3, 3
2
, 3
3
, . Iorms an InIInIfo aboIIan group undor
ordInary muIfIpIIcafIon.
6. Is fho sof oI aII ovon nafuraI numbors Iorms a group
ti) undor addIfIon tii) undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
?. IsfInguIsh bofwoon aboIIan and non-aboIIan group. xpIaIn wIfh fho hoIp oI oxampIos.
8. Lof G Is a somI-group and Ior any a, b e G; a
2
b = b = b a
2
. Show fhaf G Is an aboIIan
group.
9. IsfInguIsh bofwoon fho ordor oI an oIomonf oI a group and ordor oI fho group.
10. Show fhaf ovory IInIfo group oI ordor Ioss fhan sIx t6) musf bo aboIIan.
11. II G bo a cycIIc group oI ordor 10, fhon IInd ouf how many gonorafors aro fhoro In G.
12. Show fhaf a cycIIc group Is aboIIan. Show by an oxampIo fhaf fho convorso Is nof fruo.
13. G Is a group oI aII roaI numbors undor addIfIon and H Is fho sof oI aII Infogors. Thon
show fhaf H Is a subgroup oI G.
14. Can an aboIIan group havo non-aboIIan subgroup7
15. Can a non-aboIIan group havo an aboIIan subgroup7
16. Can a non-aboIIan group havo a non-aboIIan subgroup7
1?. Show fhaf homomorphIc Imago oI an aboIIan group Is aboIIan.
18. Show fhaf G = 1, u, u
2
Is fho cycIIc group undor muIfIpIIcafIon , whoro u Is fho cubo
roof oI unIfy.
19. Show fhaf G = 1, 1, i, i Is fho cycIIc group undor muIfIpIIcafIon, whoro i Is fho
ImagInary quanfIfy such fhaf i
2
= 1.
20. !orm fwo cycIIc subgroups oI a cycIIc group G = a, a
2
, a
3
, . , a
8
= eand how many
gonorafors aro fhoro In G.
21. Lof G
1
bo a group oI non zoro RoaI numbors undor muIfIpIIcafIon and G
2
= 1 , 1bo a
group undor muIfIpIIcafIon. Lof o : G
1
G
2
doIInod by
o tx) =
1 II 0
1 II 0
x
x
>
<
4
5
6
Show fhaf o Is a homomorphIsm.
22. Lof o: G
1
G
2
doIInod by o tx) = Iog
10
tx), whoro G
1
Is a group oI posIfIvo RoaI numbors
undor muIfIpIIcafIon and G
2
Is a group oI aII RoaI numbors undor addIfIon. Show fhaf o
Is homomorphIsm.
23. Lof o: G
1
G
2
doIInod by o
a b
c J
.
0
/
1
= aJ bc, whoro G
1
bo a group oI aII t2 2) mafrIx
a b
c J
.
0
/
1
: aJ bc = 0 undor mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon and G

2
bo a group oI non zoro RoaI
numbors undor muIfIpIIcafIon. Show fhaf o Is a homomorphIsm.
24. Show fhaf homomorphIc Imago oI an aboIIan group Is aboIIan.
This page
intentionally left
blank
+@AI =@ /HKF +@AI
&
8.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
Whon wo wanf fo sond a mossago fo somoono, wo sond If fhrough somo communIcafIon chan-
noI. ThIs fransmIssIon oI mossago ovor a channoI onfaIIs somo chancos oI undosIrabIo Infor-
Ioronco In fho channoI somofImos doIIborafo and somofImos duo fo random doIocfs In fho
channoI. ThIs Ioads fo codIng probIom. Tho codIng probIom Is fo roprosonf dIsfIncf mossagos
by dIsfIncf soquonco oI Ioffors Irom a gIvon aIphabof sof.
!or oxampIo, In a Morso codo wo roprosonf a mossago by dofs and dashos. SImIIarIy ovor
aIphabof can bo 0, 1 i.e., bInary aIphabof.
Whon a mossago Is fo bo fransmIffod, fhon fho mossago Is IIrsf gIvon by fho sourco fo fho
oncodor, fho oncodor convorfs fho mossago Info fho codo word. Tho oncodod mossago Is fhon
sonf fhrough fho channoI, whoro noIso may occur and chango fho mossago. Whon fhIs mos-
sago arrIvos af fho docodor af fho rocoIvors ond, If Is oquafod fo mosf IIkoIy codo word.
Channel Decoder
Transmitted
Noise
Code Word
Receiver Encoder
Message
Source
Communication Channel with Noise
8.1 TEkMlN0L00lE5
Wo wIII uso fho IoIIowIng forms In our dIscussIon.
Word: A word Is fho soquonco oI Ioffors drawn Irom fho aIphabof sof.
Code: Codo Is fho coIIocfIon oI words fo roprosonf a dIsfIncf mossago.
Code word: A word roprosonfod by a codo Is caIIod fho codo word.
Block Code: A codo consIsfIng oI words fhaf aro oI samo Iongfh Is caIIod BIock codo. Ono oI
fho advanfagos oI usIng fho BIock Codo Is Ifs abIIIfy fo corrocf orrors.
8.2 Ekk0k C0kkECTl0N
Whon wo fransmIf a mossago Irom fho sourco fo fho dosfInafIon, duo fo fho prosonco oI noIso
In fho communIcafIon channoI fho mossago may gof aIforod, i.e., somo oI fho 1`s fransmIffod
may bo rocoIvod as 0`s and somo oI fho 0`s may bo rocoIvod as 1`s. So fho rocoIvod mossago Is
no moro Is fho fransmIffod mossago. Now wo wouId wanf fo rocovor fho fransmIffod mossago
Irom fho rocoIvod mossago. ThIs Is caIIod orror corrocfIon.
8.3 0k0UP C0DE5
Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Lof us doIIno a bInary oporafIon In A such
fhaf X, Y A ImpIIos tX Y) A i.e., a soquonco oI Iongfh n. Whoro
tX Y ) =
1
0
II X, Y dIIIors In posIfIon
II X, Y aro samo In posIfIon
4
5
6
Tho sof A fogofhor wIfh fho bInary oporafIon , i.e., tA, ) Iorms a group and a subsof G oI
A Is caIIod fho group codo II tG, ) Is a subgroup oI tA, ).
Lof us consIdor X = 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 and Y = 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. ThoroIoro, wo havo
tX Y) = 1 1 0 0 0 0 0.
8.4 WEl0HT 0F C0DE W0kD
Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Lof X bo a codo word In A, fho woIghf oI X
donofod by MtX) Is fho numbor oI 1`s In X.
Lof us consIdor fho codo words X = 10101 and Y = 00011. Tho numbor oI 1`s prosonf In X aro
fhroo whoroas fho numbor oI 1`s prosonf In Y aro fwo. So, fho woIghf oI X Is 3 and fho woIghf
oI Y Is 2.
i.e., M tX) = 3 and M tY) = 2.
8.5 Dl5TANCE 8ETWEEN THE C0DE W0kD5
Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Lof X and Y bo fwo codo words In A, fho
dIsfanco bofwoon X and Y donofod by J tX, Y) and Is doIInod as fho woIghf oI M tX Y).
i.e., JtX, Y) = M tX Y)
Tho dIsfanco bofwoon fho fwo codo words gIvos fho numbor oI posIfIons In whIch fhoy
dIIIor.
Lof us consIdor codo words X = 01011 and Y = 10101. Now fho dIsfanco bofwoon X and Y Is
doIInod as M tX Y). Now
X = 01011
Y = 10101

tX Y) = 11110
ThoroIoro, JtX, Y) = M tX Y) = 4
Codos and Group Codos 201
8.5.1 Theorem
Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Tho dIsfanco bofwoon fwo codo words X and
Y safIsIIos fho IoIIowIng proporfIos.
ta) CommufafIvo Iaw i.e., JtX, Y) = JtY, X)
tb) TrIangIo`s InoquaIIfy i.e.,JtX, Y) J tX, Z) + JtZ, Y).
ProoI: ta) Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Lof X and Y bo fwo codo words
In A.
ThoroIoro, X Y = Y X
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf M tX Y) = M tY X)
Thus, JtX, Y) = JtY, X)
tb) Lof A bo fho sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n. Lof X ,Y and Z bo fhroo codo words In A.
Wo know fhaf MtX) Is fho numbor oI 1`s In X and tX X) = 0. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf
M t! V) M t!) + MtV) . t1)
Now, M tX Y) = M tX Z Z Y) 3 tZ Z) = 0
M tX Z) + M tZ Y) By oquafIon t1)
ThoroIoro, JtX, Y) JtX, Z) + JtZ, Y).
8.6 Ekk0k C0kkECTl0N F0k 8L0CK C0DE
Wo know fhaf bIock codo Is a codo consIsfIng oI words fhaf aro oI samo Iongfh. Tho advanfago
oI usIng bIock codo Is Ifs abIIIfy fo corrocf fho orrors.
Lof G bo a BIock codo, fho dIsfanco oI G Is doIInod as fho mInImum dIsfanco bofwoon any
paIr oI dIsfIncf codo words In G. Tho abIIIfy oI BIock codos fo corrocf fho orrors doponds on Ifs
dIsfanco.
Lof a word has boon fransmIffod and wo rocoIvod a word Y tsay). Now fhoro Is a IIkoIIhood
oI rocoIvod word confaInIng an orror. Now wo wIII IIko fo havo fho fransmIffod word corro-
spondIng fo fho rocoIvod word Y.
Wo can uso fwo mofhods. i.e., MaxImum IIkoIIhood docodIng crIforIon and MInImum dIs-
fanco docodIng crIforIon.
8.6.1 Maxlmum Llkellhood Crlterlon
Lof X
1
, X
2
, ..... ..., X
n
bo fho codo words In G. Ono oI fhIs Is fransmIffod and wo havo rocoIvod
fho codo word Y. Tho rocoIvod word may confaIn orror and wo aro Inforosfod fo IInd fho word
fransmIffod. MaxImum IIkoIIhood crIforIon says fhaf compufo fho condIfIonaI probabIIIfIos
PtX
1
Y), PtX
2
Y), . PtX
n
Y). Whoro PtX
i
Y) moans fho probabIIIfy fhaf X
i
Is fransmIffod
whon fho rocoIvod word Is Y. Lof
PtX
h
| Y) = Max PtX Y)
i
i
| ; G i = 1, 2, .........., n
Thon X
h
Is fho fransmIffod word.
8.6.2 Mlnlmum DlStance Decodlng Crlterlon
In fho mInImum dIsfanco docodIng crIforIon wo compufo J tX
1
, Y), J tX
2
, Y), J tX
3
, Y), .......,
J tX
n
,Y). Lof us doIIno
JtX
h
, Y) = MIn X Y
i
i
J , ; > C H
i = 1, 2, 3,.........., n
Thon, X
h
Is fakon as fho fransmIffod word whon fho rocoIvod word Is y.
8.7 C05ET5
Lof tG, ) bo a group codo. Lof a word y Is rocoIvod. Thon fho cosof wIfh rospocf fo y donofod
by tG y) Is doIInod as
tG y) = X
i
y | X
i
G, i N
AgaIn JtX
i
, Y) = M tX
i
y). So fho woIghfs oI fho words In fho cosof tG y) aro fho dIsfancos
bofwoon fho codo words In G and y.
Tho docodIng procoduro IncIudos fho IoIIowIngs:
1. oformIno aII cosofs oI G.
2. !or oach cosof, chooso fho cosof Ioador, i.e., fho word oI smaIIosf woIghf.
3. !or fho rocoIvod word y, te y) Is fho fransmIffod word.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 Let X = 0101011 anJ Y = 1010101. FinJ (X Y.
Solution: GIvon fhaf X = 0101011 and Y = 1010101
Now X = 0101011
Y = 1010101

tX Y) = 1111110
ThoroIoro, tX Y) = 1111110.
Example 2 A is a set oj a// binary sequence oj /ength n. 8hou that (A, jorns a group.
Solution: GIvon fhaf Is aw sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI Iongfh n, say Ior our convonIonco wo
fako fho Iongfh fo bo 5.
CIosuro Law. Lof X = 01011 and Y = 10101
Now X Y = 01011 10101 = 11110
ThIs Is agaIn a codo word oI Iongfh 5.
ThoroIoro, X, Y A ImpIIos tX Y) A. So, cIosuro Iaw hoIds.
AssocIafIvo Law. Lof X = 10101, Y = 10000 and Z = 01010
Now tY Z) = 10000 01010 = 11010
ThoroIoro, X tY Z) = 10101 11010 = 01111
So, X tY Z) = 01111 ...ti)
AgaIn tX Y) = 10101 10000 = 00101
ThoroIoro, tX Y) Z = 00101 01010 = 01111
Codos and Group Codos 203
So, tX Y) Z = 01111 ...tii)
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof tX Y) Z = X tY Z). So, assocIafIvo Iaw
hoIds.
xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy: A codo word wIfh aII zoros oI spocIIIod Iongfh wIII acf as fho IdonfIfy
oIomonf.
Lof X = 10101 and Y = e = 00000 such fhaf
X Y = 10101 00000 = 10101 = X
ThoroIoro, tX Y) = X
So, Y = 00000 A acfs as an IdonfIfy oIomonf.
xIsfonco oI Invorso: A codo word IfsoII Is Invorso oI Ifs own.
Lof X = 10101 such fhaf tX X) = 10101 10101 = 00000 = e. ThoroIoro, tX X) = e. ThIs
ImpIIos fhaf ovory codo word Is Ifs own Invorso. So, tA, ) safIsIIos aII fho proporfIos oI group
and honco caIIod group codos.
Example 3 l//ustrate by exanp/e Jistance junction satisjies the connutatioe anJ triang/e`s
inequa/ity.
Solutlon: CommufafIvo Law: Lof X = 101010 and Y = 010101
So, tX Y) = 101010 010101 = 111111
ThoroIoro, JtX, Y) = M tX Y) = 6 .. ti)
AgaIn, tY X) = 010101 101010 = 111111
ThoroIoro, JtY, X) = M tY X) = 6 . tii)
So, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) If Is cIoar fhaf J tX, Y) = JtY, X).
TrIangIo's InoquaIIfy: Lof us fako X = 101010, Y = 100010 and Z = 101000. Now
tX Y) = 101010 100010 = 001000
tX Z) = 101010 101000 = 000010
tZ Y) = 101000 100010 = 001010
ThoroIoro, JtX, Y) = M tX Y) = 1
JtX, Z) = M tX Z) = 1
JtZ, Y) = M tZ Y) = 2
Thus, wo havo JtX, Z) + JtZ, Y) = 1 + 2 = 3 J tX, Y) = 1
i.e., J tX, Y) JtX, Z) + JtZ, Y)
Example 4 ln the nininun Jistance criterion, a coJe oj Jistance (2t + 1 can correct t or
jeuer transnission errors.
Solution: Lof X bo fho fransmIffod word and Y bo fho rocoIvod word.
Now II t or Ioss numbor oI orrors has occurrod durIng fho fransmIssIon wo wIII havo
JtX, Y) t . ti)
Now sInco fho dIsfanco Is t2t + 1), so Ior any codo word X
1
wo havo
JtX, X
1
) 2 t + 1 . tii)
SInco fho dIsfanco moans fho mInImum dIsfanco bofwoon any paIrs oI dIsfIncf codo words.
AgaIn Irom frIangIo's InoquaIIfy wo havo
J tX, X
1
) J tX, Y) + J tY, X
1
)
2t + 1 JtX, X
1
) t + J tY, X
1
)
2t + 1 t + J tY, X
1
)
JtY, X
1
) tt + 1) . tiii)
So, wo havo JtX, Y) t and JtY, X
1
) tt + 1)
!rom fho mInImum dIsfanco docodIng crIforIon X wIII bo soIocfod as fho fransmIffod word.
EXEkCl5E5
1. Lof X and Y bo fwo codo words. !Ind tX Y) In oach oI fho IoIIowIng casos.
ta) X = 11111 and Y = 11111
tb) X = 11111 and Y = 00000
tc) X = 1010101 and Y = 0101010
tJ) X = 00101101 and Y = 11101100
te) X = 1100110 and Y = 0011101
2. !Ind fho woIghf oI fho IoIIowIng codo words.
ta) X = 11111 tb) X = 11111
tc) X = 1010101 tJ) X = 00101101
te) X = 1100110
3. !Ind fho dIsfanco bofwoon fho codo words In oach oI fho IoIIowIng casos.
ta) X = 10011 and Y = 00000
tb) X = 01101 and Y = 10110
tc) X = 0011101 and Y = 0101010
tJ) X = 11101101 and Y = 10011101
te) X = 1100110 and Y = 1110110
4. IIIusfrafo by oxampIo dIsfanco IuncfIon safIsIIos fho assocIafIvo Iaw and frIangIo`s In-
oquaIIfy.
5. IIIusfrafo by oxampIo tA, ) Iorms a group, whoro A Is a sof oI aII bInary soquonco oI
Iongfh ?.
4EC 6DAHO
'
9.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
As wo havo dIscussod group as an aIgobraIc sfrucfuro, In fhIs chapfor wo wIII dIscuss abouf
RIng whIch Is quIfo dIIIoronf Irom fho group In a way fhaf If Is fwo oporafIonaI sysfoms vIz;
addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon whoroas fho group Is a ono oporafIonaI sysfom. In rIng fhoory
many oI fho nofIons oI group fhoory wIII bo oxfondod fo fho sysfom wIfh fwo oporafIons.
9.1 klN0
A non-ompfy sof R wIfh fwo bInary oporafIons addIfIon t+) and muIfIpIIcafIon t.) doIInod In If Is
saId fo bo assocIafIvo rIng II If safIsIIos fho IoIIowIng proporfIos.
nder Addltlon
ta) CIosuro AxIom: !or a, b e R; a + b e R
tb) AssocIafIvo AxIom: !or a, b, c e R; ta + b) + c = a + tb + c)
tc) xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy: !or ovory oIomonf a e R, fhoro oxIsf an IdonfIfy oIomonf 0 e R
such fhaf
a + 0 = 0 + a = a V a e R
tJ) xIsfonco oI Invorso: !or ovory oIomonf a e R fhoro oxIsf an Invorso oIomonf a e R
such fhaf
a + t a) = 0
te) CommufafIvo AxIom: !or a, b e R; ta + b) = tb + a)
nder Multlpllcutlon
ta) CIosuro AxIom : !or a, be R; ta . b) e R
tb) AssocIafIvo AxIom : !or a, b, ce R; ta . b) . c = a . tb . c)
tc) IsfrIbufIvo AxIom : !or a, b, ce R wo havo
ti) a . tb + c) = a . b + a . c LoIf dIsfrIbufIvo Iaw
tii) tb + c) . a = b . a + c . a RIghf dIsfrIbufIvo Iaw
9.1.1 Theorem
II R Is a rIng, fhon Ior aII a, b, c e R
ti) a . 0 = 0 . a = 0
tii) a t b) = t a) b = tab)
tiii) t a) t b) = a b
tio) a . tb c) = a . b a . c
to) tb c) . a = b . a c . a
ProoI: (i) Wo know fhaf 0 = 0 + 0
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a . 0 = a . t0 + 0)
= a . 0 + a . 0 IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
So, a . 0 = a . 0 + a . 0 . t1)
AgaIn, a . 0 = a . 0 + 0 . t2) AddIfIvo IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons t1) and t2), wo havo
a . 0 + 0 = a . 0 + a . 0
= 0 = a . 0 LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
Thus, a . 0 = 0 ..t3)
SImIIarIy, 0 = 0 + 0
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf 0 . a = t0 + 0) . a
= 0 . a + 0 . a IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
So, 0 . a = 0 . a + 0 . a .t4)
AgaIn, 0 . a + 0 = 0 . a .t5) AddIfIvo IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons t4) and t5), wo havo
0 . a + 0 = 0 . a + 0 . a
= 0 = 0 . a .t6) LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
CombInIng oquafIons t3) and t6) wo gof
a . 0 = 0 . a = 0
tii) GIvon b e R, so by oxIsfonco oI addIfIvo Invorso t b) e R such fhaf b + t b) = 0
= a . tb + t b)) = a . 0
= a . b + a . t b) = 0 By provIous ti)
= a . t b) = ta b) .t1)
AgaIn a e R ImpIIos fhaf a e R such fhaf
a + t a) = 0
= ta + t a)) . b = 0 . b
= a . b + t a) . b = 0 By provIous ti)
= t a) . b = ta b) .t2)
CombInIng oquafIons t1) and t2), wo gof
a . t b) = ta . b) = t a) . b
tiii) GIvon a, b e R ImpIIos fhaf a, b e R.
Now, t a) t b) = t a) . x; x = b
= ta . x) By provIous tii)
= ta . t b))
= t ta . b)) By provIous tii)
= a . b
RIng Thoory 20?
ThoroIoro, t a) . t b) = a . b
tio) a . tb c) = a . tb + t c))
= a . b + a . t c) LoIf dIsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= a . b + t ta . c))
= a . b a . c
ThoroIoro, a . tb c) = a . b a . c
to) tb c) . a = tb + t c)) . a
= b . a + t c) . a RIghf dIsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= b . a + t tc . a)
= b . a c . a
ThoroIoro, tb c) . a = b . a c . a
9.1.2 Theorem
II R Is a rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf fhon
ti) t 1) . a = a
tii) t 1) t 1) = 1
ProoI: ti) GIvon R Is a rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf i.e., 1 e R.
Now 0 = 0 . a
= t1 + t 1)) . a
= 1 . a + t 1) . a
= a + t 1) . a
i.e., a + t 1) . a = 0
ThoroIoro, t 1) . a = a
tii) In fho provIous wo havo provod fhaf t 1). a = a.
Lof a = 1
So, t 1) t 1) = t1) = 1
ThoroIoro, t 1) t 1) = 1
9.2 5PEClAL TYPE5 0F klN0
In fhIs socfIon wo wIII dIscuss spocIaI fypos oI rIng. Thoso aro mosfIy usod In aIgobraIc
sfrucfuro. Horo, wo dIscuss fho basIc doIInIfIons In ordor fo gof a cIoar Idoa.
9.2.1 Commutatlve klng
A rIng R Is saId fo bo commufafIvo rIng II undor muIfIpIIcafIon
ta . b) = tb . a) V a, b e R.
9.2.2 klng wlth Unlt Element
A rIng R Is saId fo bo rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf II fhoro oxIsf an oIomonf 1 e R such fhaf
t1. a) = ta . 1) = a V a e R
9.2.3 Null klng
Tho sIngIofon sof 0 wIfh bInary oporafIon + and . doIInod as
0 + 0 = 0 and 0 . 0 = 0
Is caIIod a nuII rIng or zoro rIng.
9.2.4 8oolean klng
A rIng R Is saId fo bo BooIoan rIng II a
2
= a Ior aII a e R.
9.2.5 DlvlSlon klng
A rIng R Is saId fo bo dIvIsIon rIng II fho non-zoro oIomonfs oI R Iorms a group undor muIfIpII-
cafIon.
9.2.6 Zero DlvlSor
Lof R bo a commufafIvo rIng, an oIomonf a = 0 e R Is saId fo bo zoro dIvIsor II fhoro oxIsfs b =
0 such fhaf
ta . b) = 0; a, b e R
Lof us consIdor a sof R oI Infogors. !rom fho dIscussIon gIvon boIow If Is cIoar fhaf R Is a
commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf.
!ndor AddIfIon
ti) CIosuro AxIom: Wo know fhaf fho addIfIon oI fwo Infogor Is agaIn an Infogor.
i.e., a, b e R = ta + b) e R
tii) AssocIafIvo AxIom: Wo know fhaf addIfIon oI Infogors Is assocIafIvo.
i.e., a + tb + c) = ta + b) + c ; V a, b, c e R
tiii) xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy: !or aII a e R, fhoro oxIsfs 0 e R such fhaf
ta + 0) = t0 + a) = a
tio) xIsfonco oI Invorso: !or ovory a e R fhoro oxIsfs a e R such fhaf
a + t a) = t a) + a = 0.
to) CommufafIvo AxIom: !or any a, b e R wo know fhaf fho addIfIon oI Infogors Is commu-
fafIvo.
i.e., ta + b) = tb + a)
!ndor MuIfIpIIcafIon
ti) CIosuro AxIom: Wo know fhaf muIfIpIIcafIon oI fwo Infogors Is agaIn an Infogor.
i.e., ta . b) e R V a, b e R.
tii) AssocIafIvo AxIom: Wo know fhaf Infogor muIfIpIIcafIon Is assocIafIvo.
i.e., a . tb . c) = ta . b) . c V a, b, c e R.
tiii) IsfrIbufIvo Laws: Sof oI Infogors IoIIow bofh IoIf dIsfrIbufIvo and rIghf dIsfrIbufIvo
proporfy
i.e., a. tb + c) = ta . b) + ta . c)
and tb + c) . a = tb . a) + tc . a) V a, b, c e R
Ring Theory 209
(iv) Commutative Law: We know that multiplication of integers is commutative,
i.e., (a . b) = (b . a) for all a, b R.
(v) Unit Element: As R contains integers, so 1 R.
Again (a . 1) = (1 . a) = a " a R
Therefore, R is a commutative ring with unit element.
9.3 RING WITHOUT ZERO DIVISOR
A commutative ring R is said to be without zero divisor if for a, b R
a . b = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0 or both a and b are zero.
Set of integers I is a ring without zero divisor as product of integers is zero only if any one
of them is zero.
9.3.1 Theorem
A commutative ring R is without zero divisor if and only if the cancellation law holds.
Proof: (Necessary part) Let the commutative ring R does not have zero divisor.
Let a, b, c R, a 0 and ab = ac
ab - a c = 0
a (b - c) = 0
As a 0 and R does not have zero divisor, so we must have (b - c) = 0. This implies that b = c.
Hence left cancellation law holds.
Similarly it can be shown that right cancellation also holds.
(Sufficient part) Let the cancellation law holds in the ring R. We have to show that R has no
zero divisor.
If possible, let (a . b) = 0 with a 0 and b 0
(a . b) = (a . 0) [\ a . 0 = 0]
Hence by left cancellation b = 0. This contradicts to the fact that b 0.
Therefore, R is a ring without zero divisor.
9.4 INTEGRAL DOMAIN
A commutative ring without zero divisors is an integral domain. Set of integers is an integral
domain since it forms a commutative ring but does not have zero divisors.
9.5 DIVISION RING
If the non-zero elements of a ring R form a group under multiplication then the ring R is said
to be a division ring.
9.6 FIELD
A ring F is said to be a field if the non-zero elements form a multiplicative abelian group. It is
defined also as a commutative division ring. Besides this if, every element a 0 of an integral
domain has a multiplicative inverse a
-

1
, then the integral domain is called as a field.
9.6.1 Theorem
vory IIoId Is an InfograI domaIn.
ProoI: Supposo fhaf ! bo a IIoId. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf ! Is a commufafIvo dIvIsIon rIng.
i.e., Tho non-zoro oIomonfs oI ! Iorms a group undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
Our cIaIm Is fo show ! Is an InfograI domaIn. i.e., ! doos nof havo fho zoro dIvIsor.
Lof a, b e ! and a= 0 such fhaf
a . b = 0
= a
1
. ta . b) = a
1
. 0 3 a = 0 = a

1
e !
= ta
1
. a) . b = 0 AssocIafIvo Iaw
= 1 . b = 0
= b = 0
Thus, wo gof ta . b) = 0, a = 0 = b = 0
SImIIarIy, wo can show fhaf ta . b) = 0, b = 0 = a = 0
So, fho IIoId ! doos nof havo a zoro dIvIsor. Honco, ! Is an InfograI domaIn.
9.6.2 Theorem
A IInIfo InfograI domaIn Is a IIoId.
ProoI: Lof R bo a IInIfo InfograI domaIn.
Lof R = x
1
, x
2
, .., x
n
; whoro fho oIomonfs oI R aro dIsfIncf.
i.e., x
i
= x
j
Ior aII i = j; whoro i, j = 1, 2, .., n.
Now sInco R Is an InfograI domaIn, so R Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfhouf zoro dIvIsors.
Our cIaIm Is fo provo R Is a IIoId. i.e., If Is suIIIcIonf fo provo fhaf R confaIns fho unIf
oIomonf and ovory non-zoro oIomonf has muIfIpIIcafIvo Invorso.
tExistence oj unity) Lof a = 0 e R
Now, ax
1
, ax
2
, ax
3
, .., ax
n
e R and aII fhoso oIomonfs aro dIsfIncf. II nof,
Iof ax
i
= ax
j
Ior i = j
= ta x
i
a x
j
) = 0
= a tx
i
x
j
) = 0
= tx
i
x
j
) = 0 3 a = 0 Is fho addIfIvo IdonfIfy
= x
i
= x
j
ThIs confradIcfs fo fho sfafomonf x
1
, x
2
, ., x
n
aro aII dIsfIncf.
So, ax
1
, ax
2
, ax
3
, ., ax
n
e R and aro dIsfIncf. ThoroIoro ono oI fhoso oIomonfs musf bo
oquaI fo 'a` sInco a e R.
Lof a = ax
h
i.e., ax
h
= a = x
h
a R Is commufafIvo
Lof us fako any oIomonf x
n
e R. Now x
n
musf bo oquaI fo ta x
r
) Ior somo vaIuo oI r. 1 s r s n.
i.e., a x
r
= x
n
= x
r
.a
Now, x
h
. x
n
= x
h
ta x
r
)
= tx
h
. a) . x
r
AssocIafIvo Iaw
= a . x
r
= x
n
RIng Thoory 211
So, x
h
. x
n
= x
n
. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf 'x
h
` Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf and Is donofod by 1. Thus, wo
havo fho unIf oIomonf In R.
tMu/tip/icatioe lnoerse)
Wo havo provod fhaf 1e R. So 1 musf bo oquaI fo 'ax
i
` Ior somo i.
i.e., ax
i
= 1. ThoroIoro fhoro Is somo b e R such fhaf
a . b = 1 = b . a
Honco, b Is fho muIfIpIIcafIvo Invorso oI fho non-zoro oIomonf a.
9.6.3 Theorem
Tho commufafIvo rIng Z
p
= 0, 1, 2, .., p 1 undor fho oporafIon
p
and
p
Is a IIoId II and onIy
II p Is a prImo numbor.
ProoI: GIvon Z
p
= 0, 1, 2, ..., p 1 Is a commufafIvo rIng undor addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon
moduIo p.
Supposo fhaf p Is a prImo numbor.
Lof a, be Z
p
and a = 0, b = 0 and Iof ta . b) 0 mod p.
ThIs ImpIIos p ab. i.e., p a or p b. ThoroIoro, wo gof
a 0 mod p or b 0 mod p.
ThIs confradIcfs fo fho Iacf p Is a prImo numbor. Honco, Z
p
doos nof havo zoro dIvIsors.
ThoroIoro, Z
p
Is a IIoId.
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf Z
p
Is a IIoId. Wo havo fo show fhaf p Is a prImo numbor.
Supposo fhaf p Is nof a prImo numbor.
= p = n . n t1 < n, n < p)
= n . n 0 mod p ... t1)
Now n = 1 . n mod p
= tn
1
. n) n mod p 3 n
1
. n = 1
= n
1
tn n) mod p
= n
1
. 0 = 0
Thus, wo gof n = 0. ThIs Is a confradIcfIon.
ThoroIoro, p Is a prImo numbor.
9.7 THE Pl0E0NH0LE PklNClPLE
II n objocfs aro dIsfrIbufod ovor n pIacos and II tn > n) fhon somo pIacos wIII rocoIvo af Ioasf
fwo objocfs. So II n objocfs aro dIsfrIbufod ovor n pIacos In such a way fhaf no pIaco rocoIvos
moro fhan ono objocf, fhon oach pIaco wIII rocoIvo oxacfIy ono objocf. ThIs prIncIpIo Is known
as PIgoonhoIo prIncIpIo.
9.8 CHAkACTEkl5TlC5 0F A klN0
Lof tR, + , .) bo a rIng wIfh 0 as zoro oIomonf. II fhoro oxIsf a posIfIvo Infogor 'n` such fhaf
n . a = a + a + a + . + a tn fImos) = 0 V a e R.
Thon such smaIIosf posIfIvo Infogor 'n` Is caIIod fho characforIsfIc oI fho rIng. Thus, fho
characforIsfIc oI a rIng R Is doIInod as
ChtR) =
SmaIIosf posIfIvo Infogor such fhaf = 0, R
0 ofhorwIso
n n a a V e
II no such 'n` oxIsfs fhon fho rIng R Is saId fo havo a characforIsfIc zoro or InIInIfo.
Lof us consIdor fho rIng I
6
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 wIfh fho bInary oporafIons
6
,
6
. Thon fho
characforIsfIc oI fhIs rIng R wIII bo 6 sInco 6 . a = 0 Ior aII a e I
6
.
9.8.1 Theorem
Tho characforIsfIc oI a rIng wIfh unIfy Is 0 or n > 0 dopondIng on whofhor unIfy oIomonf Is
rogardod as fho mombor oI addIfIvo group has fho ordor 0 or 'n` rospocfIvoIy.
ProoI: Lof R bo a rIng wIfh unIfy 1. Honco, fhoro arIsos fwo casos.
Caso 1 : II fho ordor oI 1 Is zoro fhon obvIousIy fho characforIsfIc oI rIng Is zoro.
Caso 2 : II fho ordor oI 1 Is n tIInIfo), fhon
1 1 1 1 + + +
.....
n fImos
"" ! ""
= 0 V a e R
= n .1 = 0
Now Ior any a e R wo havo
na = a + a + ............ + a tn forms)
= 1 a + 1 a + ............ + 1 a 3 1 Is fho unIfy
= t1 + 1 +............ +1) a
= tn . 1) . a = t0 . a) = 0
i.e., na = 0
ThoroIoro, fho characforIsfIc oI R Is n.
9.8.2 Theorem
Tho characforIsfIc oI an InfograI domaIn Is oIfhor 0 or a prImo numbor.
ProoI: Lof R bo an InfograI domaIn. Wo havo fo show fhaf fho characforIsfIc oI R i.e.,
Ch tR) Is oIfhor 0 or a prImo numbor.
Lof Ch tR) = n
Lof II possIbIo assumo fhaf n = 0 and nof a prImo numbor. ThoroIoro, n = n
1
. n
2
wIfh n
1
, n
2
Ioss fhan n.
Now as fho characforIsfIc oI R Is n, wo havo fho ordor oI fho unIf oIomonf e Is 'n`. i.e., Ote) = n
= n . e = 0
= tn
1
. n
2
) e = 0
= n
1
. tn
2
. e) = 0 AssocIafIvo Iaw
= tn
1
. e) tn
2
. e) = 0 3 tn
1
. e) = n
1
As R doos nof havo zoro dIvIsor so n

1
. e = 0 or n
2
. e = 0. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf fho characforIsfIc
oI R Is oIfhor 'n
1
` or 'n
2
`.
ThIs Is a confradIcfIon fo fho assumpfIon fhaf characforIsfIc oI R Is 'n`. So, our assumpfIon
was wrong. ThoroIoro, 'n` Is zoro or a prImo numbor.
RIng Thoory 213
9.9 5U8 klN0
!or a rIng tR, +, .), a non-ompfy subsof S oI R Is caIIod a sub rIng oI R II tS,+, .) Iorms a rIng
undor fho bInary oporafIons doIInod In R.
!or fho rIng tI, +, .) fho subsof oI ovon Infogors Is a sub rIng.
9.9.1 Theorem
Tho nocossary and suIIIcIonf condIfIon Ior tS, +, .) fo bo a sub rIng oI fho rIng tR, +, .) Is
ti) a b e S V a, b e S
tii) a . b e S V a, b e S
Whoro S Is fho sub sof oI R.
ProoI: tNecessary part) Supposo fhaf tS, +, .) bo fho sub rIng oI fho rIng tR, +, .). ThIs ImpIIos
fhaf S Is a group wIfh rospocf fo addIfIon.
Now, Ior b e S wo havo t b) e S.
AgaIn sInco S Is cIosod undor addIfIon so, ta + t b)) e S Ior a e S, and t b) e S. i.e., ta b) e S.
SImIIarIy sInco S Is cIosod undor muIfIpIIcafIon wo havo
a e S, b e S
= a . b e S
t8ujjicient part) Supposo fhaf
ti) a b e S V a, b e S and
tii) a . b e S V a, b e S
Now a e S, a e S
= ta a) e S
= 0 e S . ti)
AgaIn, 0 e S, a e S
= t0 a) e S
i.e., a e S
AgaIn, a e S, b e S
= a t b) e S
i.e., ta + b) e S
Tho addIfIon and commufafIvo axIom undor addIfIon hoIds In R so If wIII hoId In S. Thoro-
Ioro, tS, +, .) Is an aboIIan group. Tho romaInIng posfuIafos wIII hoId In S as fhoy hoId In R.
9.10 H0M0M0kPHl5M
Lof R
1
and R
2
bo fwo rIngs, fhon fho mappIng
o: R
1
R
2
Is saId fo bo homomorphIsm II If safIsIIos fho IoIIowIng condIfIons.
ta) ota + b) = ota) + otb)
tb) ota . b) = ota) . otb) V a, b e R
9.10.1 Theorem
II o Is homomorphIsm Irom rIng R
1
Info RIng R
2
, fhon
ti) ot0) = 0
tii) ot a) = ota)
ProoI: ti) Lof a e R
1
. Thon fhoro oxIsfs an IdonfIfy oIomonf 0 e R
1
such fhaf ta + 0) = a
= ota + 0) = ota)
= ota) + ot0) = ota) o Is a homomorphIsm
= ota) + ot0) = ota) + 0 0 Is addIfIvo IdonfIfy oI R
2
= ot0) = 0 LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw

tii) !or fho rIng R
1
, ae R
1
ImpIIos a e R
1
Now, a + t a) = 0
= ota + t a)) = ot0)
= ota) + ot a) = 0 3 o t0) = 0
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf o t a) Is fho addIfIvo Invorso oI o ta) In R
2
.
ThoroIoro, ot a) = ota).
9.10.2 Theorem
Lof R
1
Is a rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf 1 and o Is a homomorphIsm oI R
1
Info R
2
, fhon o t1) Is fho
unIf oIomonf oI R
2
.
ProoI: GIvon fhaf fho mappIng o Is homomorphIsm Irom rIng R
1
Info R
2
.
i.e., o : R
1
R
2
Is homomorphIsm.
Lof 1e R
1
, fhIs ImpIIos fhaf o t1) e R
2
.
Now Ior any a
1
e R
2
, wo havo a
1
= ota) Ior somo a e R
1
.
ThoroIoro, ot1) . a
1
= ot1) . ota)
= ot1 . a) o Is a homomorphIsm
= ota) xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy
= a
1
ThoroIoro, o t1) . a
1
= a
1
. Honco, ot1) Is fho unIf oIomonf oI R
2
.
9.10.3 Theorem
vory homomorphIc Imago oI a commufafIvo rIng Is commufafIvo.
ProoI: Lof R bo a commufafIvo rIng and o Is a homomorphIc mappIng Irom R Info R. i.e., R
Is fho homomorphIc Imago oI fho commufafIvo rIng R.
Our cIaIm Is R Is commufafIvo.
Lof a, b e R. Honco fhoro oxIsfs a, b e R such fhaf
a = ota), and b = otb),
Now, a . b = ota) . otb)
= ota . b) o Is a homomorphIsm
= otb . a) R Is commufafIvo
= otb) . ota) o Is a homomorphIsm
ThoroIoro, a . b = otb) . ota) = b . a
Honco fho homomorphIc Imago R Is commufafIvo.
RIng Thoory 215
9.11 KEkNEL 0F H0M0M0kPHl5M 0F klN0
II o Is a homomorphIsm Irom rIng R Info R, fhon fho kornoI oI homomorphIsm Is a sof donofod
by I to) confaInIng oIomonfs oI R whIch aro mappod fo fho addIfIvo IdonfIfy oIomonf oI R.
i.e., I to) = x e R | otx) = 0; 0 e R
9.11.1 Theorem
II o Is homomorphIsm Irom R Info R wIfh kornoI Ito) fhon
ti) I to) Is a subgroup oI R undor addIfIon
tii) II a e Ito) and x e R, fhon tx . a) and ta . x) e Ito)
ProoI: ti) GIvon o Is homomorphIsm Irom R Info R wIfh kornoI Ito)
Our cIaIm Is Ito) Is a subgroup oI R undor addIfIon. i.e., Ito) safIsIIos fho cIosuro and Invorso
axIom.
Lof a, b e Ito)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ota) = 0 and otb) = 0
Now, ota + b) = ota) + otb) = 0 + 0 = 0
Honco, ota + b) = 0
ThoroIoro, ta + b) e Ito)
AgaIn ot a) = ota) = 0
Honco, ot a) = 0
ThoroIoro, a e I to)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf I to) Is subgroup undor addIfIon.
tii) Supposo fhaf a e I to) and x e R.
Now, ota . x) = ota) . o tx) o Is a homomorphIsm
= 0 . otx) a e I to) = o ta) = 0
= 0
So, ota . x) = 0
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta . x) e Ito)
SImIIarIy, If can bo shown fhaf tx . a) e Ito).
9.12 l50M0kPHl5M
A mappIng o Irom rIng R Info R Is saId fo bo IsomorphIsm II
ti) o Is homomorphIsm
tii) o Is ono-ono
i.e., A homomorphIsm o oI R Info R Is saId fo bo IsomorphIsm II If Is ono-fo-ono mappIng.
9.12.1 Theorem
Tho homomorphIsm o doIInod Irom fho rIng R Info R Is an IsomorphIsm II and onIy II Ito) = t0).
ProoI: tNecessary part) Lof o: R R Is an IsomorphIsm.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf o Is a homomorphIsm and ono-ono.
Lof a e Ito) = ota) = 0
$ !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs
Bta) = Bt0) B Is homomorphIsm; B t0) = 0
a = 0 B Is ono-ono
So, a ItB) a = 0 a R
ThoroIoro, ItB) = t0)
t8ujjicient part) Lof ItB) = t0)
Lof x, y R and Btx) = Bty)
Now, Btx) = Bty)
B tx) Bty) = 0
B tx y) = 0
tx y) ItB) = t0)
ThoroIoro, x y = 0, honco x = y.
So, Btx) = Bty) x = y
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf B Is ono-ono and honco B Is IsomorphIsm.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 8hou that the set oj a// square natrix oj orJer (n n unJer the binary opera-
tions aJJition anJ nu/tip/ication is a non-connutatioe ring.
Solution: Lof R bo a sof oI aII squaro mafrIcos oI ordor tn n).
Wo havo fo show fhaf R Is a rIng, i.e., R safIsIIos aII fho oIghf proporfIos oI rIng.
!ndor AddIfIon
CIosuro Law: Lof A and B bo fwo squaro mafrIcos oI ordor tn n).
So, tA + B) wIII bo a squaro mafrIx oI ordor tn n)
ThIs ImpIIos tA + B) R
i.e., A, B R tA + B) R
AssocIafIvo Law: Wo know fhaf mafrIx addIfIon Is assocIafIvo. i.e., A, B, C R ImpIIos fhaf
A + tB + C) = tA + B) + C
xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy: !or ovory squaro mafrIx A R, fhoro oxIsfs nuII mafrIx 0
n n
R
such fhaf
A + 0 = 0 + A = A
xIsfonco oI Invorso: !or ovory A R fhoro oxIsf Invorso oIomonf t A) R such fhaf
A + t A) = 0
CommufafIvo Law: Wo know fhaf mafrIx addIfIon Is commufafIvo, i.e., !or A, B R wo
havo
tA + B) = tB + A)
CIosuro Law: Lof A, B R. i.e., A and B aro fwo squaro mafrIcos oI ordor tn n). Now
muIfIpIyIng A and B wo wIII gof a mafrIx oI ordor tn n).
i.e., A B R
RIng Thoory %
AssocIafIvo Law: Wo know fhaf mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon Is assocIafIvo.
i.e., A tB C) = tA B) C A, B, C R
IsfrIbufIvo Law: Lof A, B, C R. i.e., A, B and C aro fhroo squaro mafrIcos oI ordor tn n).
AIso wo know fhaf
A tB + C) = A B + A C
ThoroIoro, R safIsIIos aII fho proporfIos oI RIng. Honco, R Is a rIng.
Example 2 lj P is a Boo/ean ring, then prooe that
(i a + a = 0 a P
(ii a + b = 0 inp/ies a = b a, b P
(iii P is a connutatioe ring.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R Is BooIoan rIng.
i.e., a
2
= a a R
ti) Lof a R, fhIs ImpIIos fhaf ta + a) R
ta + a)
2
= ta + a) 3 a
2
= a
ta + a) ta + a) = a + a
a ta + a) + a ta + a) = a + a IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
ta a + a a) + ta a + a a) = a + a IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
ta
2
+ a
2
+ a
2
+ a
2
) = a + a
a + a + a + a = a + a
a + a = 0 CancoIIafIon Iaw
tii) Supposo fhaf a + b = 0 a, b R
AgaIn, wo havo provod fhaf a + a = 0
Thus wo havo a + b = a + a
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf b = a CancoIIafIon Iaw
tiii) Lof a, b R, fhIs ImpIIos fhaf ta + b) R. As R Is a BooIoan rIng, so wo havo ta + b)
2
= a + b
ta + b) ta + b) = a + b
a ta + b) + b ta + b) = a + b IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
ta a + a b) + tb a + b b) = a + b IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
a
2
+ a b + b a + b
2
= a + b
a + a b + b a + b = ta + b)
a b + b a = 0
a b = b . a a + b = 0 ImpIIos a = b
ThoroIoro, R Is a commufafIvo rIng.
Example 3 lj P is a ring uith unity 1 = 0, then shou that P is a sing/eton set.
Solution: GIvon R Is a rIng wIfh unIfy 1 = 0 and Iof a R
Now a = 1 a = 0 a = 0
Tho abovo argumonf Is fruo Ior aII a R
ThoroIoro, R = 0
Honco R Is a sIngIofon sof wIfh 0 as Ifs oIomonf.
Example 4 Let P is a set satisjying a// the properties oj ring except the connutatioe axion
unJer aJJition. lj P has the unit e/enent, then prooe that P is a ring.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R Is a sof safIsIyIng aII fho proporfIos oI rIng oxcopf fho commufafIvo
axIom undor addIfIon.
i.e., a + b = b + a
If Is aIso gIvon fhaf R confaIns unIf oIomonf, i.e., 1 e R
Lof a, be R ImpIIos fhaf ta + b) e R CIosuro Iaw
AgaIn, 1 e R = t1 + 1) e R
Now, ta + b) . t1 + 1) = a . t1 + 1) + b . t1 + 1) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= a . 1 + a . 1 + b . 1+ b . 1 IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta + a) + tb + b) ..ti)
AgaIn, ta + b) . t1 +1) = ta + b) . 1 + ta + b) . 1 IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta + b) + ta + b) ..tii)
CombInIng oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof
ta + a) + tb + b) = ta + b) + ta + b)
= a + a + tb + b) = a + b + ta + b) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= a + tb + b) = b + ta + b) CancoIIafIon Iaw
= ta + b) + b = tb + a) + b AssocIafIvo Iaw
= ta + b) = tb + a) CancoIIafIon Iaw
ThoroIoro, R Is a rIng.
Example 5 Let P be a ring oj a// square natrices oj orJer (2 2. 8hou that P has :ero Jioisor.
Solution: Lof us consIdor fwo squaro mafrIcos A and B oI fho rIng R as
A =
5 0
0 0
and B =
0 0
5 0
Horo A = 0 and B = 0, buf

tA . B) =
5 0
0 0
0 0
5 0
=
0 0
0 0
e R
ThoroIoro, R Is a rIng wIfh zoro dIvIsor.
Example 6 Let P is a ring uith unity anJ (x . y
2
= x
2
. y
2
1 x, y c P. 8hou that P is a
connutatioe ring.
Solution: GIvon R Is a rIng wIfh unIfy, i.e., 1 e R. AIso gIvon fhaf tx . y)
2
= x
2
. y
2
V x, y e R.
AgaIn, ty + 1) e R as y e R and 1 e R
ThoroIoro, tx . ty + 1))
2
= x
2
. ty + 1)
2
= tx y + x)
2
= x
2
. ty
2
+ 2y + 1)
= tx y + x) . tx y + x) = x
2
. ty
2
+ 2y + 1)
= x y . x y + x y . x + x . x y + x
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2x
2
y + x
2
= tx y)
2
+ x y . x + x . x y + x
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2x
2
y + x
2
= x
2
y
2
+ tx y . x + x . x y) + x
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2x
2
y + x
2
= x y x + x x y = 2x
2
y LoIf and rIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw
= x y x + x
2
y = x
2
y + x
2
y
= x y x = x
2
y CancoIIafIon Iaw
RIng Thoory 219
Now on ropIacIng x by tx +1) wo havo
tx +1) y tx + 1) = tx + 1)
2
y
= tx y + y) tx + 1) = tx
2
+ 2x + 1) y
= x y x + x y + y x + y = x
2
y + 2 x y + y
= x
2
y + x y + y x + y = x
2
y + 2 x y + y 3 xy x = x
2
y
= x y + y x = 2xy LoIf and rIghf cancoIIafIon Iaw
= y x = x y
ThoroIoro, R Is commufafIvo rIng.
Example 7 Let P = /0, 1, 2, J, 4, 6/ be a ring unJer binary operations 0
6
anJ c
6
. 8hou that
P is a ring uith :ero Jioisor.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 bo a rIng undor bInary oporafIons
6
and
6
.
Horo 2 e R and 3 e R aro fwo non zoro oIomonfs such fhaf
2 3 = 0
ThoroIoro, R Is a rIng wIfh zoro dIvIsor.
Example 8 P is the set oj integer noJ 7 unJer aJJition anJ nu/tip/ication noJ 7. 8hou that
P is a connutatioe ring uith unit e/enent.
Solution: GIvon R Is fho sof oI Infogor mod ? undor addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon mod ?. Tho
oporafIon Is doIInod as
ti) a + b = c whoro c Is fho romaIndor oI a + b whon dIvIdod by ?.
tii) a . b = c whoro c Is fho romaIndor oI a . b whon dIvIdod by ?.
So, If Is cIoar fhaf R confaIns ? oIomonfs. i.e., R = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Tuble Ior uddltlon modulo ?
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
Tuble Ior multlpllcutlon modulo ?
. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1
!undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs
!ndor AddIfIon
CIosuro Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior addIfIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf Ior any
=, > R t= + >) R
AssocIafIvo Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior addIfIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf Ior any
= + t> + ?) = t= + >) + ? =, >, ? R.
Lof = = 1, > = 3, ? = 5.
ThoroIoro, wo havo
= + t> + ?) = 1 + t3 + 5) = 1 + 1 = 2
and t= + >) + ? = t1 + 3) + 5 = 4 + 5 = 2
ThoroIoro, = + t> + ?) = t= + >) + ?
xIsfonco oI IdonfIfy: !rom IIrsf row oI fho fabIo Ior addIfIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf 0 R
Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf.
EA 0 + = = = = R
xIsfonco oI Invorso: !rom fho fabIo Ior addIfIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf fho Invorso
oIomonfs oI 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 aro 0, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 R rospocfIvoIy. Tho Invorso oIomonf oI
3 Is 4 bocauso 3 + 4 = 0.
EA !or ovory = R fhoro oxIsfs an t =) R such fhaf = + t =) = 0.
CommufafIvo Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior addIfIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf
= + > = > + = =, > R
CIosuro Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior muIfIpIIcafIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf Ior aII
=, > R = > R
AssocIafIvo Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior muIfIpIIcafIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf
= t> ?) = t= >) ? =, >, ? R
Lof = = 3, > = 4, ? = 6.
ThoroIoro wo havo
= t> ?) = 3 t4 6) = 3 3 = 2 and
t= >) ? = t3 4) 6 = 5 6 = 2
ThoroIoro, wo gof = t> ?) = t= >) ?
IsfrIbufIvo Law:
Lof = = 1, > = 4, ? = 2.
Honco, wo havo
= t> + ?) = 1 t4 + 2) = 1 6 = 6 and
t= >) + t= ?) = t1 4) + t1 2) = 6
ThoroIoro, wo gof = t> + ?) = = > + = ?
CommufafIvo Law: !rom fho fabIo Ior muIfIpIIcafIon moduIo ? If Is cIoar fhaf
= > = > = =, > R
!nIf Iomonf: !rom fho fabIo Ior muIfIpIIcafIon moduIo ?, fho 2nd row or coIumn IndIcafos
fhaf 1 R Is fho IdonfIfy oIomonf Ior ovory oIomonf = R. Honco Ior ovory = R fhoro oxIsfs
unIf oIomonf 1 R such fhaf
t1 =) = = = R
ThoroIoro, R Is commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf.
RIng Thoory 221
Example 9 8hou that ij P is a ring uith unity, then any non-:ero e/enent uith nu/tip/icatioe
inoerse in P cannot be the :ero Jioisor.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R Is a rIng wIfh unIfy.
Lof a e R and a = 0.
AgaIn a = 0 ImpIIos a
1
e R
Supposo fhaf ta . b) = 0 wIfh b = 0 e R
= a
1
. ta . b) = a

1
. 0
= ta

1
. a) b = 0
= b = 0 ta

1
. a) = 1
ThIs Is a confradIcfIon. ThIs confradIcfs fo fho Iacf fhaf b = 0. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf, a Is nof
fho zoro dIvIsor.
Example 10 For the ring P = M
2 2
(l, shou that the subset 8 JejineJ as
8 =
x
x y
x y
x +
: x, y c l
is a sub ring.
Solution: GIvon R = M
2 2
tI) bo a rIng and
S =
x
x y
x y
x +
: x, y e I
PuffIng x = y = 0, wo havo

0 0
0 0
e S = S Is non-ompfy. i.e., S = .
To provo S Is a sub rIng wo havo fo show fhaf S safIsIIos fwo axIoms
ti) A B e S; A, B e S
tii) A . B e S; A, B e S
Lof A=
x
x y
x y
x +
and B =
u
u o
u o
u +
; u, o, x, y e I
Now, A B =
x u
x y u o
x y u o
x u
e S
and A . B =
x
x y
x y
x +
u
u u
u u
u +
=
xu x y u u x u u x y u
x y u x u u x y u u xu
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +

e S
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf aII fho onfrIos oI fho mafrIcos tA B) and A.B aro Infogors. ThoroIoro, S Is
a sub rIng.
Example 11 Let P = /0, 1, 2, J, 4/ be a connutatioe ring uith respect to the binary operations
0
6
anJ c
6
. 8hou that P is an integra/ Jonain.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 bo a commufafIvo rIng wIfh rospocf fo fho bInary
oporafIons
5
and
5
.
If Is aIso cIoar fhaf fhoro Is no such nonzoro oIomonf In R Ior whIch ta . b) = 0. Honco R Is an
InfograI domaIn.
Example 12 Let P = /0, 1, 2, J, 4, 6, 6, 7/ be a connutatioe ring unJer the binary operations
0
S
anJ c
S
8hou that P is not an integra/ Jonain.
Solution: GIvon fhaf R = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ? bo a commufafIvo rIng undor fho bInary
oporafIons
8
and
8
Now 2 e R and 4 e R such fhaf 2
8
4 = 0
ThoroIoro, R Is nof an InfograI domaIn.
Example 13 P = /u, o, u, t/ Jejine the operations + anJ . in such a uay that P ui// be a ring.
+ u o u t . u o u t
u u o u t u u u u u
o o u t u o u o
u u t u o u u o t
t t u o u t u u
ta) Using the associatioe anJ Jistributioe /au Jeternine the entries in the b/anh space.
tb) ls it a connutatioe ring :
tc) Does it haoe unity: lj yes, jinJ the unit e/enent.
tJ) ls the ring an integra/ Jonain or a jie/J.
Solution: ta) Now, tu . u) = u . to + t) 3 to + t) = u
= u . o + u . t IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= o + t = u
ThoroIoro, u . u = u
AgaIn, tt . o) = tu + o) . o 3 tu + o) = t
= u . o + o . o IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= o + o = u
ThoroIoro, t . o = u
AgaIn, tt . t) = t . to + u) 3 tu + o) = t
= t . o + t . u IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= u + u = u
ThoroIoro, tt . t) = u
SImIIarIy, to . u) = tt + u) . u 3 tt + u) = o
= t . u + u . u IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= u + u = u
ThoroIoro, to . u) = u
And o . t = tt + u) . t 3 tu + t) = o
= t . t + u . t IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= u + t = t
RIng Thoory 223
So, fho compIofo fabIo Is gIvon as
. u o u t
u u u u u
o u o u t
u u o u t
t u o u u
tb) !rom fho abovo fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf to . u) = u and tu . o) = o. ThIs ImpIIos to . u) = tu . o).
Thus, R Is nof a commufafIvo rIng.
tc) As If Is cIoar Irom fho fabIo, fho rIng doos nof confaIn unIfy and honco doos nof havo unIf
oIomonf.
tJ) SInco R Is nof commufafIvo, so If Is noIfhor InfograI domaIn nor IIoId.
Example 14 lj a, b, c, J c P anJ P is a ring then eoa/uate (a + b.(c + J.
Solution: GIvon R Is a rIng and a, b, c, J e R
Now, ta + b) . tc + J) = u . tc + J); Lof u = a + b
= u . c + u . J IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta + b) . c + ta + b) . J
= a . c + b . c + a . J + b . J IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
Example 15 lj P is a ring anJ (x + y
2
= x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
then prooe that P is connutatioe jor a//
x, y c P.
Solution: GIvon R Is a rIng and tx + y)
2
= x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
Ior x, y e R.
= tx + y) tx + y) = x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
= x tx + y) + y tx + y) = x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
= xx + x y + y x + y y = x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
= x
2
+ x y + y x + y
2
= x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
= x y + y x = 2xy CancoIIafIon Iaw
= x y + y x = x y + x y
= y x = x y CancoIIafIon Iaw
ThoroIoro, R Is commufafIvo rIng.
Example 16 For a connutatioe ring P uith characteristic 2 shou that
ta + b)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
= ta b)
2
V a, b e R
Solution: Lof R bo a commufafIvo rIng wIfh characforIsfIc 2. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf t2 . a) = 0 Ior
aII a e R.
Now, ta + b)
2
= ta + b) . ta + b)
= a a + a b + b a + b b
= a
2
+ a b + a b + b
2
R Is commufafIvo
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= a
2
+ 0 + b
2
2a = 0
= a
2
+ b
2
= ta + b)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
SImIIarIy, ta b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
= a
2
+ 0 + b
2
= a
2
+ b
2
= ta b)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
ThoroIoro, ta + b)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
= ta b)
2
Example 17 8hou that a Boo/ean ring P is a connutatioe ring uith characteristic 2.
Solution: GIvon R Is a BooIoan rIng. ThIs ImpIIos a
2
= a Ior aII a e R.
Lof a, b e R
= ta + b) e R
= ta + b)
2
= ta + b) 3 a
2
= a
= ta + b) . ta + b) = ta + b)
= a a + a b + b a + b b = a + b
= a
2
+ a b + b a + b
2
= ta + b) + 0
= a + a b + b a + b = ta + b) + 0
= ta + b) + ta b + b a) = ta + b) + 0 AssocIafIvo Iaw
= a b + b a = 0
= a b = b a 3 In BooIoan rIng ta + b) = 0 = a = b
ThoroIoro, R Is a commufafIvo rIng.
AgaIn, ta + a)
2
= ta + a)
= a
2
+ a
2
+ a
2
+ a
2
= a + a
= ta + a) + ta + a) = ta + a) + 0
= a + a = 0 LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw
= 2a = 0
Honco, R Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfh characforIsfIc 2.
Example 18 For the ring (l, , uith binary operation JejineJ as x 0 y = x + y 1 anJ
x y = x + y xy, shou that the subset 8 oj a// oJJ integers is a sub ring.
Solution: Supposo fhaf S bo fho sof oI aII odd Infogors. Lof a, b e S. ThIs ImpIIos a and b aro
odd Infogors.
Now, a b = a + b 1
AgaIn ta + b) Is ovon as sum oI odds Is ovon.
= a + b 1 Is odd
= a + b 1 e S
= a b e S
SImIIarIy, a b = a + b ab. Howovor, wo know fhaf ta + b) Is ovon and ta b) Is odd.
ThoroIoro ta + b a b) Is odd.
= a b e S
Lof a e S, fhon fho addIfIvo Invorso Is a whIch Is odd honco boIongs fo S, i.e., a e S.
ThoroIoro, S Is a sub rIng.
RIng Thoory 225
Example 19 8hou that isonorphic inage oj a Jioision ring is Jioision ring.
Solution: Lof R bo a dIvIsIon rIng. ThoroIoro, fho non zoro oIomonfs oI R Iorms a group
undor muIfIpIIcafIon.
Lof o bo an IsomorphIsm doIInod Irom R Info R. i.e., o: R R.
Lof a = 0 e R = a
1
= 0 e R.
As o Is IsomorphIsm, so o ta) = 0. Wo havo fo show fhaf o ta
1
) = ota)
1
.
AgaIn, ota) . ota

1
) = o ta . a

1
) = o t1) = 1 e R
= ota) . ota
1
) = 1
ThoroIoro, wo gof ota

1
) = ota)

1
.
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf ovory non-zoro oIomonf oI R has an Invorso. Thus R Is a dIvIsIon rIng.
Example 20 8hou that the isonorphic inage oj an integra/ Jonain is an integra/ Jonain.
Solution: Lof R bo an InfograI domaIn and o bo a IsomorphIsm Irom R Info R, i.e., o: R R.
SInco R Is an InfograI domaIn, so If Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfhouf zoro dIvIsors.
Lof a, b e R, a = 0 and b = 0 such fhaf ta . b) = 0.
= ota . b) = 0
= ota) . otb) = ot0)
= ota) . otb) = 0
SInco o Is an IsomorphIsm, a = 0, b = 0 ImpIIos fhaf ota) = 0, otb) = 0.
ThoroIoro, wo gof ota) = 0 and otb) = 0 ImpIIos ota) . otb) = 0. Honco, R Is wIfhouf zoro dIvIsor.
AgaIn wo know fhaf IsomorphIc Imago oI a commufafIvo rIng Is a commufafIvo rIng.
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf R Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfhouf zoro dIvIsor, fhus Is an InfograI
domaIn.
EXEkCl5E5
1. Provo fhaf fho sof oI RoaI numbors R Iorms a rIng undor ordInary addIfIon muIfIpIIca-
fIon.
2. Show fhaf fho sof oI RafIonaI numbors Q Iorms a commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf
undor ordInary addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon.
3. Lof S = a + b2 | a and b aro Infogors Iorms a rIng undor addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon.
4. Tho sof R = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf undor
6
and
6
.
5. Tho oporafIons a b = ta + b + 1) and a b = ta + b + ab) aro doIInod on fho sof oI
Infogors. Show fhaf I Iorms a commufafIvo rIng undor fho oporafIons doIInod. oos If
havo unIf oIomonf7
6. Show fhaf sof oI RoaI numbors oI fho fypo ta + b 2); a, b e R Is an InfograI domaIn.
?. Show fhaf rIng oI Infogors tI, +) Is an InfograI domaIn buf nof IIoId.
8. R
P
= 0, 1, 2, ., P 1, whoro P Is a prImo. Show fhaf R
P
Is an InfograI domaIn.
9. Show fhaf fho sof oI numbors gIvon by a + b 2; a, b e I Is a rIng undor ordInary addIfIon
and muIfIpIIcafIon.
10. Lof R = a, b, c, J, e. Tho oporafIons + and . on R Is doIInod as

+ a b c J e . a b c J e

a a b c J e a a a a a a

b b c J e a b a b c J e

c c J e a b c a c e b J

J J e a b c J a J b e e

e e a b c J e a e J c b

ta) Show fhaf tR, +, .) Is a commufafIvo rIng.
tb) Whaf Is fho addIfIvo IdonfIfy and unIfy 7
tc) Whaf aro fho Invorso oIomonfs oI a, b, c, J 7
11. Show fhaf sof oI aII rafIonaI numbors Is a commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIfy undor ordInary
addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon.
12. o fho IoIIowIng sofs Iorms an InfograI domaIn wIfh rospocf fo ordInary addIfIon and
muIfIpIIcafIon7 II yos, fhon fosf whofhor fhoy aro IIoId.
ta) I 2
,
= x | x = b 2 : b Is rafIonaI
tb) Sof oI ovon Infogors
tc) Sof oI posIfIvo Infogors.
13. Show fhaf tI, +, .) Is a sub rIng oI tQ, +, .) whIch Is a sub rIng oI tR, +, .) whIch Is a sub rIng
oI tC, +, .). Whoro
I : Sof oI Infogors
Q : Sof oI rafIonaI numbors
R : Sof oI roaI numbors
C : Sof oI compIox numbors
14. GIvo an oxampIo oI oach oI fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) A non-commufafIvo rIng tb) RIng wIfhouf zoro dIvIsor
tc) IvIsIon rIng tJ) A rIng whIch Is nof an InfograI domaIn.
15. Show fhaf sof oI aII squaro mafrIx oI ordor tn n) Is a non-commufafIvo rIng wIfh unIfy
undor fho mafrIx addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon.
16. Show fhaf sof oI ovon Infogors undor ordInary addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon Is a commufa-
fIvo rIng wIfhouf unIf oIomonf.
1?. Tho sof oI rafIonaI numbors undor usuaI addIfIon and muIfIpIIcafIon Is a IIoId.
18. Lof R bo a rIng. Provo fhaf tn a) tn b) = tn n) ta b) Ior aII a, b e R and n, n e I.
19. GIvo an oxampIo oI a rIng whIch confaIns an oIomonf a = 0 such fhaf a
3
= 0. Is If an
InfograI domaIn7
20. GIvon a, b bo fwo oIomonfs oI a IIoId ! wIfh characforIsfIc 3. Show fhaf ta + b)
3
= a
3
+ b
3
.
21. Provo fhaf Ior a IIoId
ta)
a
b
c
J
aJ bc . tb) t a)

1
= ta

1
)
tc)
a
b
c
J
aJ bc
bJ

tJ)

a
b
a
b
22. R Is a rIng wIfh unIf oIomonf 1 and o Is a homomorphIsm oI R onfo R
1
. Thon provo fhaf
o t1) Is fho unIf oIomonf oI R
1
.
Boolean Algebra
10.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
!or confurIos mafhomafIcIans IoIf fhoro was a connocfIon bofwoon mafhomafIcs and IogIc,
buf no ono couId IInd fhIs mIssIng IInk boIoro Goorgo BooIo. In 1854 ho Infroducod symboIIc
IogIc known as BooIoan AIgobra, BooIoan IuncfIon, BooIoan oxprossIon, BooIoan rIng and many
moro honour fho nInofoonfh confury mafhomafIcIan Goorgo BooIo. ach varIabIo In BooIoan
aIgobra has oIfhor oI fwo vaIuos: fruo or IaIso. Tho purposo oI fhIs fwo - sfafo aIgobra was fo
soIvo IogIc probIoms.
AImosf aIfor a confury oI BooIo`s work, If was obsorvod by C.. Shannon In 1938, fhaf
BooIoan aIgobra couId bo usod fo anaIyzo oIocfrIcaI cIrcuIfs. ThIs was dovoIopod by Shannon
whIIo ho anaIyzod foIophono swIfchIng cIrcuIfs. Bocauso oI Shannon`s work, ongInoors roaI-
Izod fhaf BooIoan aIgobra couId bo appIIod fo Compufor oIocfronIcs.
ThIs chapfor Infroducos fho Gafo, CombInaforIaI CIrcuIfs, BooIoan xprossIon, BooIoan
AIgobra, BooIoan !uncfIons and VarIous NormaI !orms.
10.1 0ATE5
In IogIc wo havo dIscussod abouf fho IogIcaI connocfIvos , r and v. Tho connocfIvos r and v
can bo consIdorod as cIrcuIfs connocfod In sorIos and paraIIoI rospocfIvoIy. A cIrcuIf wIfh ono
or moro Inpuf sIgnaIs buf onIy ono oufpuf sIgnaI Is known as a gafo. Gafos aro dIgIfaI cIrcuIfs
bocauso oI Inpuf and oufpuf sIgnaIs, whIch aro oIfhor Iow or hIgh. Gafos aro aIso caIIod IogIcaI
cIrcuIfs bocauso fhoy can bo anaIyzod wIfh BooIoan aIgobra. In gafos, fho connocfIvos , r
and v aro usuaIIy donofod by fho symboIs , . and + rospocfIvoIy. Tho bIock dIagrams Ior
dIIIoronf gafos aro dIscussod boIow.
10.1.1 A N0T 0ate
A NOT gafo rocoIvos Inpuf x, whoro x Is a bIf tbInary dIgIf) and producos oufpuf x whoro
x =
1 II =
0 II =
x
x
0
1
4
5
6
The output state is always the opposite of the input state. The output is sometimes called
the complement of the input. A NOT gate is drawn as shown in the following figure.
10.1.2 An AND Gate
An AND gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
, where x
1
and x
2
are bits, and produces output (x
1
x
2
),
where
(x
1
x
2
) =
1 2
1 if = 1
0 otherwise
x x =
An AND gate may have more inputs also but the output is always one. An AND gate is
drawn as shown in the following figure.
(2 input AND gate) (3 input AND gate)
10.1.3 An OR Gate
An OR gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
, where x
1
and x
2
1
x
2
),
where
(x
1
x
2
) =
1 2
1 if = 1 or 1
0 otherwise
x x =
An OR gate may have more inputs also but the output is always one. An OR gate is drawn as
shown in the following figure.
s
(2 input OR gate) (3 input OR gate)
The logic tables for the basic AND, OR and NOT gates are given below.
x
1
x
2
(x
1
x
2
) x
1
x
2
(x
1
x
2
) x x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
Boolean Algebra 229
10.2 MORE LOGIC GATES
There are some other types of gates which are useful and frequently used in computer science.
These are called NAND, NOR, XOR and XNOR gates. The block diagrams for these different
gates are given below.
10.2.1 NOR Gate
A NOR gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
where x
1
and x
2
1
x
2
),
where
(x
1
x
2
) =
=
1 2
1 if = 0
0 otherwise
x x
A NOR gate may have more inputs also, but the output is always one. A NOR gate is drawn
as shown in the following figure.
(x x )
1 2

(2 input NOR gate)
According to de Morgans first theorem, we have
(x
1
x
2
) = x
1
x
2
i.e., (x
1
+ x
2
) = x
1
. x
2
10.2.2 NAND Gate

A NAND gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
, where x
1
and x
2
1
x
2
),
where
(x
1
x
2
) =
1 2
1 if = 0 or 0
0 otherwise
x x =
A NAND gate may have more inputs also, but the output is always one. A NAND gate is
drawn as shown in the following figure.
According to the de Morgans second theorem we have
(x
1
x
2
) = x
1
+ x
2
i.e., (x
1
. x
2
) = x
1
+ x
2
10.2.3 XOR Gate (Exclusive OR Gate)

A XOR gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
, where x
1
and x
2
1
x
2
)
or (x
1
x
2
), where
(x
1
x
2
) =
1 2
1 if = 1 or 1 but not both
0 otherwise
x x =

From the definition, it is clear that, the Exclusive OR gate, i.e. XOR gate produces 1 that
have an odd number of 1s. A XOR gate may have more inputs also, but the output is always
one. A XOR gate is drawn as shown in the following figure.
10.2.4 XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR Gate)
A XNOR gate receives inputs x
1
and x
2
, where x
1
and x
2
are bits, and produces output x
1
XNOR
x
2
where
x
1
XNOR x
2
=
1 2
1 if and are same bits
0 otherwise
x x
XNOR gate may have more inputs also, but the output is always one. In this case it recog-
nizes even-parity words. Even parity means a word has an even number of 1s. For example
11100111 has even parity because it contains six 1s. Odd parity means a word has an odd
number of 1s. For example 1101 has odd parity because it contains three 1s.
A XNOR gate is drawn as shown in the following figure.
x
1
x
2
x
1
NOR x
2 X
The logic tables for the above NOR, NAND, XOR and XNOR gates are given below.
1
0
1
x
1
x
2 (x
1
x
2
)
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0 0
1
0
1
x
1
x
2 (x
1
x
2
)
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0 0
Boolean Algebra 231
1
0
1
x
1
x
2 (x
1
x
2
)
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0 0
1
0
1
x
1
x
2
(x
1
XNOR x
2
)
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0 0
10.3 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUIT
In digital computer electronics, there are only two possibilities, i.e., 0 and 1, for the smallest,
indivisible object. These 0 and 1 are known as binary digits (bit). A bit in one part of a circuit
is transmitted to another part of the circuit as a voltage. Thus two voltage levels are needed.
i.e., high voltage level and low voltage level. A high voltage level communicates 1 whereas a
low voltage level communicates 0.
A combinatorial circuit is a circuit which produces an unique output for every combination
of inputs. A combinatorial circuit has no memory, previous inputs and the state of the system
do not affect the output of a combinatorial circuit. These circuits can be constructed using
gates which we have already discussed.
Let us consider the circuit
x
1
x
2
x
3
y
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
The logic table for the above circuit is given in the above table. From the table it is clear
that the output y is uniquely defined for each combination of inputs x
1
, x
2
and x
3
. Therefore,
the circuit is a combinatorial circuit.
If x
1
= 1 and x
2
= 1, then the output of OR gate is 1. Now the input for AND gate is 1 and 0,
so the output of AND gate is 0. Since the input to the NOT gate is 0, the output y = 1.
Consider another circuit as
The above circuit is not a combinatorial circuit, as the output y is not defined uniquely for
every combination of inputs x
1
, x
2
and x
3
.
10.4 BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
Any expression built up from the variables x
1
, y
1
, z
1
, x
2
, y
2
, z
2
, by applying the operations ,
and a finite number of times. If X
1
and X
2
are Boolean expressions, then (X
1
), X
2
, (X
1
X
2
)
and (X
1
X
2
) are also Boolean expressions. The output of a combinatorial circuit is also a
Boolean expression.
Let us consider the combinatorial circuit as
The Boolean expression to the above circuit is given as ((x
1
x
2
) (x
3
x
4
)) .
10.4.1 Theorem
If , and are connectives defined earlier, then the following properties hold.
(i) Associative Laws: For all a, b, c {0, 1}
(a b) c = a (b c) and
(a b) c = a (b c)
(ii) Identity Laws: For all a {0, 1}
(a 1) = a and (a 0) = a
(iii) Commutative Laws: For all a, b {0, 1}
(a b) = (b a) and
(a b) = (b a)
(iv) Complement Laws: For all a {0, 1}
(a a) = 0 and
(a a) = 1
(v) Distributive Laws: For all a, b, c {0, 1}
a (b c) = (a b) (a c) and
a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
Boolean Algebra 233
Proof: Proofs of (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are immediate consequences of the definitions. We prove
only the first distributive law. Here we simply evaluate both sides of law for all possible values
of a, b, c {0, 1} and verify that in each case we obtain the same result.
We must show that a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
a b c (b c) a (b c) (a b) (a c) (a b) (a c)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Therefore, a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
10.4.2 de Morgan's Laws
If x
1
, x
2
are bits, i.e., x
1
, x
2
{0, 1}, then
(i) (x
1
x
2
) = x
1
x
2
(ii) (x
1
x
2
) = x
1
x
2
Proof: We prove only the first de Morgans Law.

i.e., (x
1
x
2
) = x
1
x
2
Construct the logical table.

x
1
x
2
(x
1
x
2
) x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
Therefore, (x
1
x
2
) = x
1
x
2
.
10.5 EQUIVALENT COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS
Two combinatorial circuits, each having inputs x
1
, x
2
, . , x
n
are said to be equivalent if they
produce the same outputs for same inputs i.e., the output for both the circuits remains same
if the circuits receive same inputs.
Consider the following combinatorial circuits.
1
2
Figure 1 Figure 2
Tho IogIc fabIos Ior bofh fho cIrcuIfs aro gIvon boIow, whIch aro IdonfIcaI.
x x y
1 2 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
x x y
1 2 2
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
!rom fho IogIc fabIos If Is cIoar fhaf bofh fho combInaforIaI cIrcuIfs aro oquIvaIonf.
10.6 800LEAN AL0E8kA
A BooIoan aIgobra B consIsfs oI a sof S fogofhor wIfh fwo bInary oporafIons r and v on S, a
sInguIar oporafIon on S and fwo spocIIIc oIomonfs 0 and 1 oI S such fhaf fho IoIIowIng Iaws
hoId. Wo wrIfo B = S, r, v, , 0, 1.
ta) AssocIafIvo Laws: !or aII a, b, c e S
ta r b) r c = a r tb r c)
and ta v b) v c = a v tb v c)
tb) CommufafIvo Laws: !or aII a, b e S
ta r b) = tb r a)
and ta v b) = tb v a)
tc) IsfrIbufIvo Laws: !or aII a, b, c e S
a r tb v c) = ta r b) v ta r c)
and a v tb r c) = ta v b) r ta v c)
tJ) IdonfIfy Laws: !or aII a e S
ta r 1) = a and ta v 0) = a
te) CompIomonf Laws: !or aII a e S
ta r a )= 0 and ta v a ) = 1
10.6.1 Theorem
In a BooIoan aIgobra; II ta v b) = 1 and ta r b) = 0, fhon b = a , i.e., fho compIomonf Is unIquo.
ProoI: Supposo fhaf ta v b) = 1 and ta r b) = 0
Now b = tb v 0) IdonfIfy Iaw
= b v ta r a) CompIomonf Iaw
= tb v a) r tb v a) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
Boolean Algebra 235
= t= >) t> =) CommufafIvo Iaw
= 1 t> =) GIvon condIfIon
= t> = ) IdonfIfy Iaw
ThIs ImpIIos > = t> =) .tE)
AgaIn = = t= 0) IdonfIfy Iaw
= = t= >) GIvon condIfIon
= t= =) t= >) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= 1 t= >) CompIomonf Iaw
= t= >) IdonfIfy Iaw
= t> =) CommufafIvo Iaw
ThIs ImpIIos = = t> =) = > quafIon 1
10.6.2 Theorem
In a BooIoan aIgobra B = tS, , , , 0, 1) fho IoIIowIng proporfIos hoId.
t=) Idompofonf Laws: !or aII N S
tN N) = N and tN N) = N
t>) Bound Laws: !or aII N S
tN 1) = 1 and tN 0) = 0
t?) AbsorpfIon Laws: !or aII N, O S
N tN O) = N and N tN O) = N
t@) InvoIufIon Laws: !or aII N S
tN) = N
tA) 0 and 1 Laws: 0 = 1and 1 = 0
tB ) do Morgan`s Laws: !or aII N, O S
tN O) = N O
and tN O) = N O
2HB t=) N = N 0 IdonfIfy Iaw
= N tN N) CompIomonf Iaw
= tN N) tN N) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tN N) 1 CompIomonf Iaw
= tN N) IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro, tN N) = N
AgaIn N = N 1 IdonfIfy Iaw
= N tN N) CompIomonf Iaw
= tN N) tN N) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tN N) 0 CompIomonf Iaw
= tN N) IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro, tN N) = N
t>) tN 1) = tN 1) 1 IdonfIfy Iaw
= tN 1) tN N) CompIomonf Iaw
= ttN 1) N) ttN 1) N) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ttx r x) v t1 r x)) v ttx r x) v t1r x))
= tx v t1 r x)) v ttx r x) v t1r x)) Idompofonf Iaw
= tx v x) v ttx r x) v x)) IdonfIfy Iaw
= tx v x) v t0 v x) CompIomonf Iaw
= x v t0 v x) Idompofonf Iaw
= tx v x) IdonfIfy Iaw
= 1 CompIomonf Iaw
ThoroIoro, tx v 1) = 1
AgaIn, tx r 0) = tx r 0) v 0 IdonfIfy Iaw
= tx r 0) v tx r x) CompIomonf Iaw
= ttx r 0) v x) r ttx r 0) v x) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ttx v x) r t0 v x)) r ttx v x) r t0 v x))
= ttx v x) r x) r ttx v x) r x) IdonfIfy Iaw
= tx r x) r ttx v x) r x) Idompofonf Iaw
= tx r x) r ttx r x)v txr x)) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= x r ttx r x)v txr x)) Idompofonf Iaw
= x r t0 v txr x)) CompIomonf Iaw
= x r t0 v x) Idompofonf Iaw
= x rx IdonfIfy Iaw
= 0 CompIomonf Iaw
ThoroIoro, tx r 0) = 0
tc) x r tx v y) = tx v 0) rtx v y) IdonfIfy Iaw
= x v t0 r y) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= x v ty r 0) CommufafIvo Iaw
= x v 0 Bound Iaw
= x IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro, x r tx v y) = x
AgaIn, x v tx r y) = tx r 1) v tx r y) IdonfIfy Iaw
= x r t1v y) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= x r ty v 1) CommufafIvo Iaw
= x r 1 Bound Iaw
= x IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro, x v tx r y) = x
tJ) x v x = x v x CommufafIvo Iaw
= 1 CompIomonf Iaw
i.e., x v x = 1
AIso, x r x = x rx CommufafIvo Iaw
= 0 CompIomonf Iaw
i.e., x r x = 0
Thus wo havo x v x = 1 and x r x = 0
Boolean Algebra 237
ThoroIoro, x = tx) i.e., tx) = x
te) Wo know fhaf t0 v 1) = t1v 0) = 1
i.e., t0 v 1) = 1
AgaIn by Thoorom t0 r 1) = t1 r 0) = 0
Thus wo havo t0 v 1) = 1 and t0 r 1) = 0
ThoroIoro, 1 = 0 and 0 = 1
SImIIarIy wo aIso havot1v 0) = 1 and t1 r 0) = 0
ThoroIoro, 0 = 1 and 1 = 0
tj) Lof a= tx r y) and b = txv y)
Now ta v b) = tx r y) v b
= tx v b) r ty v b) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tx v txv y )) r ty v txv y))
= ttx v x)v y ) r ty v txv y)) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= t1 v y) r ty v txv y)) CompIomonf Iaw
= t1 v y) r ty v ty v x)) CommufafIvo Iaw
= t1 v y ) r tty v y) v x) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= t1 v y) r t1v x) CompIomonf Iaw
= 1 r 1 Bound Iaw
= 1 Idompofonf Iaw
AgaIn, ta r b) = tx r y) r txv y)
= ttx r y) r x) v ttx r y) r y) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tty rx) r x) v ttx r y) r y) CommufafIvo Iaw
= ty r tx r x)) v tx r ty r y)) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= ty r 0) v tx r 0) CompIomonf Iaw
= 0 v 0 Bound Iaw
= 0 Idompofonf Iaw
ThoroIoro, ta v b) = 1 and ta r b) = 0
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf b = a i.e., a = b
i.e., tx r y) = txv y)
SImIIarIy fho ofhor do Morgan`s Iaw tx vy) = tx r y) can bo provod.
10.7 DUAL 0F A 5TATEMENT
Tho duaI oI a sfafomonf InvoIvIng BooIoan oxprossIons Is obfaInod by ropIacIng 0 by 1, 1 by 0,
r by v, and v by r. Two BooIoan oxprossIons aro saId fo bo duaI oI oach ofhor II ono oxprossIon
Is obfaInod Irom ofhor by ropIacIng 0 by 1, 1 by 0, r by v, and v by r.
ConsIdor fho sfafomonf tx r y) = xv y. Tho duaI oI abovo sfafomonf Is tx v y) = x r y.
SImIIarIy fho BooIoan oxprossIons tx r 1) = x and tx v 0) = x aro duaI oI oach ofhor.
10.7.1 Theorem
In BooIoan aIgobra, fho duaI oI a fhoorom Is aIso a fhoorom.
Proof: Suppose that T is a theorem in Boolean algebra. Then there is a proof P of T
involving definitions of a Boolean algebra. Let P
1
be the sequence of statements obtained by
replacing 0 by 1, 1 by 0, by and by . Then P
1
is a proof of the dual of T.
10.8 BOOLEAN FUNCTION
Let B = (S, , , , 0, 1) be a Boolean algebra and let X (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
) be a Boolean
expression in n variables. A function f : B
n
B is called a Boolean function if f is of the form
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
) = X (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, ., x
n
)
Let us consider the example of a Boolean function f: B
3
B; B = {0, 1} defined by
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
(x
2
x
3
)
The inputs and outputs are given in the following table.
x
1
x
2
x
3
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
10.8.1 Representations of Boolean Functions
We have seen that Boolean functions are nothing but the evaluation functions of Boolean
expressions. It is also to be noted that two Boolean expressions give rise to the same evalua-
tion function if and only if they are equivalent. Therefore, we identify a Boolean function with
any of the equivalent Boolean expressions, whose evaluation function gives it.
This gives rise to the representation of a Boolean function. There are several ways for
representing Boolean functions. These are
(a) Tabular Representation
(b) n Space Representation
(c) Cube Representation
Here we will discuss only tabular representation.
Tabular Representation: We know that, a Boolean function is completely determined by
its evaluation over any Boolean algebra. In tabular representation, the procedure is very
clear. We consider a row R of the table where the output is 1. We then form the combination
(x
1
x
2
x
3
. x
n
) and place a bar over each x
i
whose value is 0 in row R. The combination
formed is 1 if and only if x
i
have the values given in row R. We thus OR the terms to obtain the
Boolean expression.
To clear the procedure let us consider the Boolean function given by the following table.
Boolean Algebra 239
x
1
x
2
x
3
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
1 1 1 1 Row 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 Row 3
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 Row 6
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
From the table it is clear that, the output is 1 for the rows 1, 3 and 6. Consider the first row
of the table and the combination is (x
1
x
2
x
3
) as x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= 1. Similarly for third row of
the table we may construct the combination ( ) x x x
1 2 3
as x
1
=1, x
2
= 0, x
3
= 1. Thus for sixth
row the combination is ( ) x x x
1 2 3
.
Therefore, the Boolean function f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) is given as
f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
x
2
x
3
) ( ) x x x
1 2 3
( ) x x x
1 2 3
.
10.9 VARIOUS NORMAL FORMS
In this section we will discuss about two normal forms i.e., disjunctive normal form and
conjunctive normal form.
10.9.1 Disjunctive Normal Form
A Boolean function f: B
n
B which consists of a sum of elementary products is called the
disjunctive normal form of the given function f.
Let f : B
n
B is a Boolean function. If f is not identically zero, let A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . , A
k
denote
the elements A
i
of B
2
n
, for which f (A
i
) = 1,
where, A
i
= (a
1
,a
2
,..., a
n
).
For each A
i
set m
i
= (y
1
y
2
y
3
. y
n
)
where, y
i
=
x a
x a
i i
i i
if
if
Z
Z
R
S
T
1
0
Then, f (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, , x
n
) = m
1
m
2
m
3
. m
k
. This representation of a Boolean
function is called the disjunctive normal form.
Let us consider the Boolean function (x
1
x
2
). The truth table for this function is given
below.
x
1
x
2
(x
1
x
2
)
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Tho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI fhIs IuncfIon Is gIvon as
tx
1
x
2
) = t ) t ) x x x x
1 2 1 2

10.9.2 Conjunctlve Normal Form
A BooIoan IuncfIon j:B
n
B whIch consIsfs oI a producf oI oIomonfary sums Is caIIod fho
conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI fho gIvon IuncfIon j.
Lof j: B
n
B Is a BooIoan IuncfIon. II j Is nof IdonfIcaIIy ono, Iof A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, .. , A
h
donofo
fho oIomonfs A
i
oI B
2
n
, Ior whIch j tA
i
) = 0,
whoro, A
i
= ta
1
, a
2
, a
3
, ..., a
n
).
!or oach A
i
sof
M
i
= ty
1
y
2
y
3
.. y
n
)
whoro, y
i
=
x a
x a
i i
i i
II
II
=
=
4
5
6
0
1
Thon, j tx
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . , x
n
) = M
1
M
2
M
3
.. M
h
. ThIs roprosonfafIon oI a BooIoan
IuncfIon Is caIIod fho conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm.
Lof us consIdor fho BooIoan IuncfIon tx
1
x
2
). Tho frufh fabIo Ior fhIs IuncfIon Is gIvon
boIow.
x
1
x
2
tx
1
x
2
)
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
!rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf, fho oufpuf Is 0 Ior fho rows 1 and 4. ConsIdor fho IIrsf row oI
fho fabIo and fho combInafIon Is t ) x x
1 2
. SImIIarIy Ior fho Iourfh row fho combInafIon Is
tx
1
x
2
). So fho conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm Ior fhIs IuncfIon Is gIvon as
tx
1
x
2
) = t ) x x
1 2
tx
1
x
2
)
JA A form oI fho Iorm ty
1
y
2
y
3
.. y
n
), whoro oach y
i
Is oIfhor x
I
or x
i
Is caIIod a mInform whoro
as a form oI fho Iorm ty
1
y
2
y
3
.. y
n
), whoro oach y
i
Is oIfhor x
I
or x
i
Is caIIod a maxform.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 Construct an AND gate using three NOP gates.
Solution: Tho oufpuf fo an AN gafo Is tx y), II fho Inpufs aro x and y. Tho oufpuf fo a
NOR gafo Is x y
A
, II fho Inpufs aro x and y. Tho gafIng nofwork Is gIvon Iurfhor:
Boolean Algebra 241
!rom fho dIagram gIvon abovo If Is cIoar fhaf fho oufpuf fo fho IIrsf NOR gafo Is x x v
A
= x.
SImIIarIy fho oufpuf fo fho socond NOR gafo Is y y v
A
= y . ThoroIoro, fho oufpuf fo fho IInaI
NOR gafo Is tx r y).
Example 2 Construct an OP gate using three NAND gates.
Solution: Tho oufpuf fo an OR gafo Is tx v y), II fho Inpufs aro x and y. Tho oufpuf fo an
NAN gafo Is x y r
A
, II fho Inpufs aro x and y. Tho gafIng nofwork Is gIvon as boIow.
Example 3 Describe a gating netuorh corresponJing to the statenent (x y + (y : + (: x
Solution: GIvon sfafomonf Is tx . y) + ty . :) + t: . x). Tho gafIng nofwork Is gIvon as
Example 4 Describe a gating netuorh corresponJing to the statenent
x y : u x y : u + + +
A
> C
A
> C . .
Solution: GIvon sfafomonf Is x y : u x y : u + + +
A
> C
A
> C . . . Tho gafIng nofwork Is gIvon as
boIow.
Example 5 Describe the output oj the jo//ouing gating netuorh.
Solution: ConsIdor fho gafIng nofwork gIvon abovo. Tho oufpuf fo fho abovo gafIng nofwork
Is gIvon as
t ) tt ) ) y : x y : . . + + = y: x y : + + + t ) do Morgan`s Iaw
+ + y: x y : . do Morgan`s Iaw
= y : + xy + :
Example 6 Construct a gating netuorh using inoerter anJ OP gate corresponJing to the
statenent (x y + (y : + (: x.
Solution: GIvon sfafomonf Is tx . y) + ty . :) + t: . x). Tho gafIng nofwork Is gIvon Iufhor.
Boolean Algebra 243
Example 7 Find the value of the Boolean expression given below for x = 1, y = 1 and z = 0.
(x (y (x y))) ((x y) ( x z ))
Solution: Given that the value of the inputs are x = 1, y = 1 and z = 0. Now, the value of
(x y ) is 0.
The value of (y (x y )) is 1
The value of (x (y (x y ))) is 1
Similarly, the value of the ( ) x z is 0
The value of ((x y ) ( ) x z ) is 0
So, the value of the Boolean expression
(x (y (x y ))) ((x y ) ( ) x z ) is 1.
Example 8 Construct an AND gate using inverters and three NOR gates.
Solution: Output to an AND gate is (x y) or xy, if the inputs are x and y. The output to a
NOR gate is ( ) x y , if the inputs are x and y. The gating network is given below.
Example 9 Write the Boo/ean expression that represents the conbinatoria/ circuit, urite the
/ogic tab/e anJ urite the output oj each gate synbo/ica//y.
Solution: GIvon fho gafIng nofwork as boIow.
Tho BooIoan oxprossIon fhaf roprosonfs fho combInaforIaI cIrcuIf Is ttx r y) v:). Tho IogIc
fabIo Is gIvon as boIow.
x y : (x y (x y :
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
Example 10 lj (x + y = (x + : anJ (x+ y = (x + :, then y = :.
Solution: GIvon fhaf tx + y) = tx + :) i.e., tx v y) = tx v :)
And tx+ y) = tx + :) i.e., tx v y) = tx v :)
Now, y = y v 0 IdonfIfy Iaw
= y v tx r x) CompIomonf Iaw
= ty v x) r ty v x) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tx v y) r txv y) CommufafIvo Iaw
= tx v :) r txv z) GIvon condIfIon
= t: v x) r t: v x) CommufafIvo Iaw
= : v tx r x) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= : v0 CompIomonf Iaw
= : IdonfIfy Iaw
ThoroIoro, y = :.
Boolean Algebra 245
Example 11 Oioen the Boo/ean junction j, urite j in its Jisjunctioe norna/ jorn.
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Solution: !rom fho fabIo gIvon boIow If Is cIoar fhaf, fho oufpuf Is 1 Ior fho rows 1, 2, 6 and 8.
!or fho IIrsf row fho combInafIon Is tx r y r :) . SImIIarIy Ior rows 2, 6 and 8 fho combInafIons
aro tx r y r:), t ) x y : r r and t ) x y : r r rospocfIvoIy.
Thus, fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm fo fho abovo IuncfIon j Is gIvon as
jtx, y, :) = tx r y r :) v tx r y r :) v t x r y r :) v t x r y r :)
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 1 Row 1
1 1 0 1 Row 2
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 Row 6
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 Row 8
Example 12 8hou that the conbinatoria/ circuits (a anJ (b are equioa/ent.
ta)
y
1
tb)
y
2
Solution: GIvon combInaforIaI cIrcuIfs aro
ta)
y
1
tb)
y
2
Tho oufpuf y
1
Ior combInaforIaI cIrcuIf ta) Is gIvon as
y
1
= x x x x x x x x x
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
v v v v r v t ) t )
A
Tho oufpuf y
2
Ior combInaforIaI cIrcuIf tb) Is gIvon as y
2
= x x x
1 2 3
r v
A
. Honco, fho combI-
naforIaI cIrcuIfs ta) and tb) aro oquIvaIonf.
Example 13 PeJuce the jo//ouing Boo/ean proJucts to either 0 or a junJanenta/ proJuct.
ta) x y x: tb) x y :y x
Solution: ta) x y x: = x x y : CommufafIvo Iaw
= 0 y : CompIomonf Iaw
= 0 Bound Iaw
i.e., x y x: = 0
tb) x y :y x = x y y : x CommufafIvo Iaw
= x y : x Idompofonf Iaw
= x y x : CommufafIvo Iaw
= x x y : CommufafIvo Iaw
= x y : Idompofonf Iaw
i.e., x y :y x = x y :
Example 14 Oioen the Boo/ean junction j, urite j in its conjunctioe norna/ jorn.
x y : j (x, y, :
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Solution: GIvon fho BooIoan IuncfIon j as boIow.
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 Row 3
0 1 1 0 Row 4
ContJ...
Boolean Algebra 247
1 0 0 0 Row 5
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 Row ?
0 0 0 1
!rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf, fho oufpuf Is 0 Ior fho rows 3, 4, 5 and ?. !or fho fhIrd row
fho combInafIon Is t ) x y : v v . SImIIarIy Ior rows 4, 5 and ? fho combInafIons aro t ) x y : v v ,
t ) x y : v v and t ) x y : v v rospocfIvoIy.
Thus, fho conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm fo fho abovo IuncfIon Is gIvon as
jtx, y, :) = t ) t ) t ) t ) x y : x y : x y : x y : v v r v v r v v r v v .
Example 15 Design a conbinatoria/ circuit that conputes exc/usioe OP, XOP oj x anJ y.
Solution: Lof fho Inpufs fo fho XOR gafo bo x and y. Tho IogIc fabIo Ior XOR gafo Is gIvon
boIow.
x y x y
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
So, fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI fhIs IuncfIon Is gIvon as
x y = tx r y ) v tx r y)
Tho combInaforIaI cIrcuIf corrospondIng fo tx y) Is gIvon boIow.
Example 16 FinJ the Jisjunctioe anJ conjunctioe norna/ jorn oj the gioen junction anJ
Jrau the conbinatoria/ circuit corresponJing to the Jisjunctioe norna/ jorn.
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
Solution: GIvon BooIoan IuncfIon Is
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1Row 4
0 1 1 1 Row 5
0 1 0 1 Row 6
0 0 1 1 Row ?
0 0 0 0
!rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho oufpuf Is 1 Ior rows 4, 5, 6 and ?. !or fho Iourfh row fho
combInafIon Is tx r yr z). SImIIarIy fho combInafIons tx r y r :), tx r y r :), and tx r yr :)
aro Ior rows 5, 6 and ? rospocfIvoIy. So, fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm fo fho abovo IuncfIon Is
gIvon as
jtx, y, :) = tx r yr :) v tx r y r :) v tx r y r z) v tx r yr :).
SImIIarIy, corrospondIng fo fho oufpuf 0 Ior rows 1, 2, 3 and 8, fho conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm
fo fho abovo IuncfIon Is gIvon as
jtx, y, :) = txv yv :) r tx v yv :) r tx v y v :) r tx v y v :).
Tho combInaforIaI cIrcuIf corrospondIng fo fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm Is gIvon boIow.
Example 17 FinJ the Jisjunctioe norna/ jorn oj the junction using a/gebraic technique.
j(x, y = (x y (x y
Solution: jtx, y) = tx v y) r tx v y )
= tx r txv y)) v ty r txv y) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tx r x)v tx r y)v ty r x)v ty r y) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= 0 v tx r y)v ty r x)v 0 CompIomonf Iaw
= tx r y)v ty r x) IdonfIfy Iaw
Boolean Algebra 249
i.e., jtx, y) = tx r y)v ty r x)
WhIch Is fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI fho IuncfIon j tx, y).
Example 18 FinJ the Jisjunctioe norna/ jorn jor the jo//ouing conbinatoria/ circuit.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho combInaforIaI cIrcuIf as
Tho oufpuf oI fho abovo combInaforIaI cIrcuIf Is gIvon as jtx, y, :) = tx r y) r ty v :). Tho
IogIc fabIo Ior fho abovo oxprossIon Is gIvon boIow. !rom fho fabIo If Is cIoar fhaf fho IuncfIon
has oufpuf 1 Ior rows 1 and 2. !or fho IIrsf row fho combInafIon Is tx r y r :) whoroas Ior
socond row fho combInafIon Is tx r y r :). Thus, fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm Ior fho abovo
IuncfIon Is gIvon as
j tx, y, :) = tx r y r :) v tx r y r :)
x y : (x y (y : (x y (y :
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
EXEkCl5E5
1. !Ind fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI oach IuncfIon usIng aIgobraIc fochnIquo.
ta) jtx, y) = x v tx r y)
tb) jtx, y, :) = x v y r tx v :)
tc) jtx, y, :) = x v ty v tx y v x :))
2. Roduco fho IoIIowIng BooIoan producfs fo oIfhor 0 or a IundamonfaI producf.
ta) x y : y tb) x y : y x : tc) x y : x y tJ) x y : t y t
te) x y x :t y
3. WrIfo fho IogIc fabIo Ior fho cIrcuIf gIvon boIow.
4. !Ind fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI a BooIoan oxprossIon havIng a IogIc fabIo fho samo
as fho gIvon fabIo and draw fho combInaforIaI cIrcuIf corrospondIng fo fho dIsjuncfIvo
normaI Iorm.
x y : j
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
5. Aro fho combInaforIaI cIrcuIfs oquIvaIonf7 xpIaIn.
ti)
tii)
tb)
tb)
ta)
ta)
Boolean Algebra 251
tiii)
6. !Ind fho BooIoan oxprossIon In dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm Ior fho cIrcuIf gIvon boIow.
?. !Ind fho dIsjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI oach IuncfIon corrospondIng fo fho IogIc fabIos
gIvon boIow.
ta)
x y j (x, y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
tb) x y j (x, y
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
tb)
ta)
tc) x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
tJ) x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
8. !Ind fho conjuncfIvo normaI Iorm oI oach IuncfIon gIvon In quosfIon ?.
9. raw fho IogIc cIrcuIf tCombInaforIaI cIrcuIf) wIfh Inpufs x, y, : and oufpuf Y whIch
corrosponds fo oach BooIoan oxprossIon.
ti) Y = xy : + xy : + x y :
tii) Y = x y : + x : + y :
10. Consfrucf a combInaforIaI cIrcuIf fhaf roprosonfs fho IoIIowIng BooIoan IuncfIon.
x y : j(x, y, :
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
11. WrIfo fho duaI oI oach BooIoan oquafIon.
ta) ta r 1) v t0 v a) = 0
tb) a r tav b) = a r b
tc) a v tar b) = a v b
tJ) ta v 1) r ta v 0) = a
te) ta r a) v ta r 0) = a
Boolean Algebra 253
tj) ta v b) r tb v c) = ta r c) v b
Hlnt: To obfaIn fho duaI oquafIon, Inforchango vand r, and Inforchango 0 and 1
12. Iscuss a XOR gafo wIfh Iour Inpufs x, y, : and t.
13. xpross fho IoIIowIng BooIoan oxprossIon jtx, y, :) as a sum oI producfs and fhon In Ifs
compIofo sum- oI- producfs Iorm.
ta) jtx, y, :) = x tx y + xy + y :)
tb) jtx, y, :) = tx+ y) + y :
tc) jtx, y, :) = tx + y :) ty + :)
14. xpross fho oufpuf Y as a BooIoan oxprossIon In fho Inpufs x, y, :, t and u Ior fho IogIc
cIrcuIfs gIvon boIow.
ta)
tb)
tc)
Y
This page
intentionally left
blank
InIroducIion Io LaIIices
11.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
In fhIs chapfor, wo shaII Infroduco fho IundamonfaI concopfs oI LaffIcos. AIfor doIInIng fhom
as parfIcuIar kInd oI posof tparfIaI ordorod sofs) wo shaII show fhaf fhoy couId bo Infroducod
as aIgobraIc sysfoms possossIng somo spocIIIc proporfIos. Horo wo wIII dIscuss LaffIcos, uaI-
Ify prIncIpIo, IsfrIbufod IaffIcos, Boundod IaffIcos, CompIomonfod IaffIcos and somo spocIaI
kInd oI IaffIcos.
11.1 LATTlCE5
LaffIcos Is a parfIaIIy ordorod sof tposof) In whIch ovory fwo oIomonfs havo a unIquo Ioasf
uppor bound tL.!.B.) and a unIquo groafosf Iowor bound tG.L.B.) i.e., a IaffIco Is a posof ( L , s)
In whIch ovory subsof a, b has a Ioasf uppor bound and groafosf Iowor bound. Whoro
L.!.B ta, b) = a v b tjoIn oI a and b)
G.L.B ta , b) = a r b tmoof oI a and b)
Lof us consIdor fho posof tN, s); whoro N Is a sof oI nafuraI numbors and s Is fho ordInary
Ioss fhan or oquaI fo roIafIon. To show tN, s) Is a IaffIco, If Is suIIIcIonf fo doIIno fho L.!.B.
and G.L.B. In N.
Now, Lof a, b e N
L.!.B. ta, b) = ta v b) = Max ta, b) and
G.L.B. ta, b) = ta r b) = MIn ta, b)
ThoroIoro, tN, s) Is a IaffIco.
11.1.1 Theorem
!or a IaffIco tB, s); a , b e B
a s ta v b) and ta r b) s a.

ProoI: GIvon tB, s) Is a IaffIco and a , b e B
Now, ta v b) = L.!.B. ta, b)
i.e., ta v b) Is an uppor bound oI bofh a and b.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a s ta v b).
AgaIn, ta r b) = G.L.B. ta, b)
i.e., ta r b) Is fho Iowor bound oI bofh a and b.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta r b) s a.
11.2 HA55E DlA0kAM
In prIncIpIo, If Is possIbIo fo draw a dIagram whIch shows fho ordor roIafIon on a IInIfo posof.
Lof tB, s) bo a posof. oIIno fho roIafIon s on B by x R y II and onIy II x s y buf x = y Ior x, y e B.
GIvon a parfIaI ordor s on B, 'y` Is saId fo covor 'x` II x < y and fhoro Is no oIomonf ':` In B such
fhaf x R : and : R y.
A Hasso dIagram oI a posof tB, s) Is a graphIcaI roprosonfafIon consIsfIng oI poInfs IaboIod
by fho mombors oI B, wIfh a IIno sogmonf dIrocfod gonoraIIy upward Irom x fo whorovor y
covors x.
Lof us consIdor B = t12); sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsors oI 12. ThoroIoro, B = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
Lof us doIIno fho roIafIon x R y moans x Is a dIvIsor oI y Ior x, y e B. Thus wo gof
R = t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 4), t1, 6), t1, 12), t2, 4), t2, 6), t2, 12), t3, 6), t3, 12), t4, 12), t6, 12)
!rom fho abovo roIafIon If Is cIoar fhaf 4 doos nof covor 1 bocauso fhoro oxIsfs 2 such fhaf
1 R 2 and 2 R 4. SImIIarIy, 6 doos nof covor 1, 12 doos nof covor 1, 12 doos nof covor 2 and 12
doos nof covor 3. AgaIn If Is aIso cIoar fhaf 2 covors 1, 3 covors 1, 6 covors bofh 2 and 3 and 12
covors bofh 4 and 6. ThoroIoro, fho Hasso dIagram Is gIvon boIow.
Note: Wo can dIsfInguIsh IaffIcos by IookIng af fhoIr Hasso dIagrams. Bocauso any fwo oIomonfs
havo a common prodocossor and a common succossor, fho Hasso dIagram oI a IaffIco aIways Is
mado up as a combInafIon oI cIosod poIygons and fhus Ifs namo IaffIco. A posof whIch has
poIygons opon abovo or boIow Is nof a IaffIco bocauso oI Iack oI supromum or InIImum.
Introduction to Lattices 257
Consider the following Hasse diagram.
Figure 1 Figure 2
The above Hasse diagrams are posets, but figure 1 which is open above as well as open below
is not a lattice whereas figure 2 is a lattice.
11.3 PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
Given a valid statement for a lattice we can obtain another valid statement by replacing the
relation with , join with meet and meet with join operation. This is known as the princi-
ples of duality in lattices.
11.3.1 Theorem
Let B be a lattice with a, b, c B, then following properties holds.
1. Idempotent Properties
(a) (a a) = a
(b) (a a) = a
2. Commutative Properties
(a) (a b) = (b a)
(b) (a b) = (b a)
3. Associative Properties
(a) a (b c) = (a b) c
(b) a (b c) = (a b) c
4. Absorption Properties
(a) a (a b) = a
(b) a (a b) = a
Proof:
1. Idempotent Properties
(a) We know that (a b) = L.U.B. ({a , b})
This implies that a (a a) (i)
Again, a a
This implies (a a) a (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii) we will get
(a a) = a
(b) Applying the principle of duality, we have,
(a a) = a
2. Commututlve Propertles
ta) Wo know fhaf ta v b) = L.!.B. ta , b)
and tb v a) = L.!.B. tb , a)
= L.!.B. ta , b)
= ta v b)
ThoroIoro, ta v b) = tb v a)
tb) AppIyIng fho prIncIpIo oI duaIIfy, wo havo
ta r b) = tb r a)
3. Assoclutlve Propertles
ta) Lof a v tb v c) = J
and ta v b) v c = e
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a s J and tb v c) s J 3 a s ta v b); b s ta v b)
= a s J, b s J, c s J
= ta v b) s J and c s J
= ta v b) v c s J
i.e., e s J . ti)
AgaIn, ta v b) v c = e
= ta v b) s e, c s e
= a s e, b s e, c s e
= a s e, tb v c) s e
= a v tb v c) s e
= J s e . tii)
ThoroIoro Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo havo J = e
i.e., a v tb v c) = ta v b) v c
a r tb r c) = ta r b) r c
4. Absorptlon Propertles
ta) Wo know fhaf a v ta r b) = L.!.B. ta, a r b)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a s a v ta r b) . ti)
AgaIn, a s a and ta r b) s a 3 ta r b) = G.L.B. ta, b)
= a v ta r b) s ta v a) = a
= a v ta r b) s a . tii)
CombInIng oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof
a = a v ta r b)
a r ta v b) = a
InfroducfIon fo LaffIcos 259
11.3.2 Theorem
Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco. !or any a, b, c, J In LaffIco B II a s b and c s J, fhon ta v c) s tb v J) and
ta r c) s tb r J).
ProoI: GIvon tB, s) Is a IaffIco and a, b, c, J e B.
Supposo fhaf, a s b and c s J
Wo know fhaf tb v J) = L.!.B. tb, J)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf b s tb v J) and J s tb v J)
= a s tb v J) and c s tb v J) 3 a s b and c s J
So, tb v J) Is an uppor bound oI a and c. AgaIn ta v c) Is fho Ioasf uppor bound oI a and c.
ThoroIoro,
ta v c) s tb v J)
AgaIn, wo know fhaf ta r c) = G.L.B. ta, c)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf ta r c) s a and ta r c) s c
= ta r c) s b and ta r c) s J 3 a s b and c s J
ThoroIoro, ta r c) Is fho Iowor bound oI b and J. AgaIn tb r J) Is fho groafosf Iowor bound oI
b and J. Honco, wo gof
ta r c) s tb r J)
11.3.3 Theorem
Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco. !or any a, b, c e B wo havo
ta) II a s b, a s c,
fhon a s tb v c) and a s tb r c)
tb) II a > b, a > c,
fhon a > tb r c) and a > tb v c)
ProoI: ta) GIvon fhaf tB, s) bo a IaffIco and a, b, c e B.
Supposo fhaf a s b, a s c. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf a Is a Iowor bound oI b, c.
ThoroIoro, a s G.L.B. tb, c) = tb r c)
i.e., a s tb r c)
AgaIn, tb v c) = L.!.B. tb, c)
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf b s tb v c)
AIso by hypofhosIs a s b
ThoroIoro, wo havo a s b s tb v c)
i.e., a s tb v c)
i.e., a s b, a s c,
= a s tb v c) and a s tb r c)
tb) On appIyIng fho prIncIpIo oI duaIIfy wo can provo fhaf II a > b, a > c,
fhon a > tb r c) and a > tb v c)
11.4 Dl5Tkl8UTlVE LATTlCE
A IaffIco B Is saId fo bo dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco II Ior a, b, c e B, If safIsIIos fho IoIIowIng dIsfrIbufIvo
Iaws.
ta) a r tb v c) = ta r b) v ta r c)
tb) a v tb r c) = ta v b) r ta v c)
II a IaffIco Is nof dIsfrIbufIvo fhon If Is caIIod non dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco.
11.4.1 Theorem
II fho moof oporafIon Is dIsfrIbufIvo ovor fho joIn oporafIon In a LaffIco, fhon fho joIn opora-
fIon Is aIso dIsfrIbufIvo ovor fho moof oporafIon and vIco vorsa.
ProoI: Lof tB, s) bo a LaffIco and fho moof oporafIon Is dIsfrIbufIvo ovor fho joInf oporafIon.
i.e., a r tb v c) = ta r b) v ta r c); a, b, c e B
Now, ta v b) r ta v c) = ta v b) r a v ta v b) r c
= a v ta v b) r c AbsorpfIon Iaw
= a v ta r c) v tb r c)
= a v ta r c) v tb r c) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= a v tb r c) AbsorpfIon Iaw
ThoroIoro, a v tb r c) = ta v b) r ta v c)
11.4.2 Theorem
In any dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco tB, s), fho joInf cancoIIafIon Iaw hoIds.
i.e., II ta v b) = ta v c) and ta r b) = ta r c)
fhon b = c
ProoI: Supposo fhaf ta v b) = ta v c) and ta r b) = ta r c)
Now, b = b v ta r b) AbsorpfIon Iaw
= b v ta r c) HypofhosIs
= tb v a) r tb v c) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta v b) r tb v c) CommufafIvo Iaw
= ta v c) r tb v c) HypofhosIs
= ta r b) v c IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta r c) v c HypofhosIs
= c AbsorpfIon Iaw
ThoroIoro, b = c
11.4.3 Theorem
In a dIsfrIbufod IaffIco tB, s) fho IoIIowIng oquaIIfy hoIds Ior aII a, b, c e B
ta r b) v tb r c) v tc r a) = ta v b) r tb v c) r tc v a)
ProoI: Supposo fhaf B bo a dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco wIfh a, b, c e B.
Now, ta r b) v tb r c)v tc r a) = ta r b) v b r ta r b) v cv tc r a)
= b rta r b) v c v tc r a) AbsorpfIon Iaw
= b r ta v c) r tb v c) v tc r a) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta v c) r b r tb v c) v tc r a) AssocIafIvo Iaw
= ta v c) r b v tc r a) AbsorpfIon Iaw
= ta v c) v tc r a) rb v tc r a) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= tc v a) r tb v c) r tb v a) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta v b) r tb v c) r tc v a)
ThoroIoro,
ta r b) v tb r c) v tc r a) = ta v b) r tb v c) r tc v a).
11.5 80UNDED LATTlCE
A IaffIco B Is saId fo bo boundod II If has a Iowor bound and an uppor bound. Tho unIvorsaI
Iowor bound and fho unIvorsaI uppor bound aro donofod by 0 and 1 rospocfIvoIy In a boundod
IaffIco.
11.5.1 UnlverSal Lower 8ound
Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco. An oIomonf a e B Is saId fo bo unIvorsaI Iowor bound II
a s b V b e B.
11.5.2 UnlverSal Upper 8ound
Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco. An oIomonf a e B Is saId fo bo unIvorsaI uppor bound II
b s a V b e B.
11.5.3 Theorem
Tho unIvorsaI Iowor bound and fho unIvorsaI uppor bound aro unIquo.
ProoI: Lof us IIrsf show fhaf fho unIvorsaI Iowor bound Is unIquo. Supposo fwo fho confrary
fhoro oxIsfs fwo unIvorsaI Iowor bound a and b oI fho IaffIco tB, s).
ThoroIoro, a, b e B
Now as 'a` Is fho unIvorsaI Iowor bound wo havo
a s b .ti)
SImIIarIy, as 'b` Is fho unIvorsaI Iowor bound wo havo
b s a ...tii)
Honco, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii), wo gof
a = b
ThoroIoro, our supposIfIon Is wrong. Thus, fho unIvorsaI Iowor bound Is unIquo.
SImIIarIy, If can bo shown fhaf fho unIvorsaI uppor bound Is aIso unIquo.
11.5.4 Theorem
In a boundod IaffIco tB, s), fho unIvorsaI uppor and Iowor bounds 1 and 0 cIoarIy safIsIy fho
IoIIowIngs Ior any oIomonf a e B.
ti) a v 1 = 1 tii) a r 1 = a
tiii) a v 0 = a tio) a r 0 = 0
ProoI: ti) Wo know fhaf Ior any IaffIco tB , s)
a s ta v b) Ior a , b e B
So, 1 s ta v 1) . ti)
AgaIn, sInco 1 Is fho unIvorsaI uppor bound
ta v 1) s 1 . tii)
CombInIng ti) and tii) wo gof ta v 1) = 1
tii) Wo know fhaf Ior any IaffIco tB, s)
ta r b) s a Ior a, b e B
So, ta r 1) s a .ti)
AgaIn, sInco 1 Is fho unIvorsaI uppor bound wo havo a s 1. AIso wo know fhaf a s a.
ThoroIoro,
ta r a) s ta r 1)
i.e., a s ta r 1) ... tii)
CombInIng ti) and tii) wo gof ta r 1) = a
SImIIarIy, tiii) and tio) can bo provod.
11.6 C0MPLEMENTED LATTlCE
A IaffIco tB, s) Is saId fo bo compIomonfod IaffIco II ovory oIomonf In fho IaffIco has a
compIomonf. Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco wIfh 0 and 1 as Ifs unIvorsaI Iowor bound and uppor bound
rospocfIvoIy. An oIomonf b Is saId fo bo compIomonf oI a e B II
ta v b) = 1 and ta r b) = 0
!rom fho commufafIvo proporfy, II 'b` Is compIomonf oI 'a` fhon 'a` Is aIso compIomonf oI 'b`.
11.6.1 Theorem
In a boundod dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco, II a compIomonf oxIsfs fhon If Is unIquo.
ProoI: Lof tB, s) bo a boundod dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco.
Lof a e B and a
1
, a
2
aro fwo compIomonfs oI a. Honco by doIInIfIon wo havo
a v a
1
= 1; a v a
2
= 1
a r a
1
= 0 ; a r a
2
= 0
Now, a
1
= ta
1
v 0) = a
1
vta r a
2
) 3 ta r a
2
) = 0
= ta
1
v a) r ta
1
v a
2
) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= 1 r ta
1
v a
2
)
= ta
1
v a
2
)
So, a
1
= ta
1
v a
2
) .ti)
SImIIarIy, a
2
= ta
2
v 0) = a
2
v ta r a
1
) 3 ta r a
1
) = 0
= ta
2
v a) r ta
2
v a
1
) IsfrIbufIvo Iaw
= ta v a
2
) r ta
1
v a
2
)
= 1 r ta
1
v a
2
)
= ta
1
v a
2
)
So, a
2
= ta
1
v a
2
) . tii)
ThoroIoro, Irom oquafIons ti) and tii) wo gof
a
1
= a
2
Thus, In a boundod dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco, II a compIomonf oxIsfs fhon If Is unIquo.
11.7 50ME 5PEClAL LATTlCE5
Horo wo wIII dIscuss fho basIc doIInIfIon oI somo spocIaI fypo oI IaffIcos such as BooIoan
IaffIco, subIaffIco and IsomorphIc IaffIcos.
11.7.1 8oolean Lattlce
A compIomonfod and dIsfrIbufIvo IaffIco Is caIIod a BooIoan IaffIco.
11.7.2 5ublattlce
Lof tB, s) bo a IaffIco. Thon any non-ompfy subsof L oI B Is caIIod a subIaffIco oI B II
ta v b) e L and ta r b) e L; V a, b e L
In gonoraI II tn) bo a IaffIco and II n dIvIdos n, tn) Is a subIaffIco oI tn).
11.7.3 lSomorphlc LattlceS
Lof tB
1
, s) and tB
2
, s) bo fwo IaffIcos, fhon j : B
1
B
2
Is an IsomorphIsm II
jta r b) = jta) r jtb) and j ta v b) = j ta) v j tb) Ior aII a, b e A
II fwo IaffIcos aro IsomorphIc as posofs fhon fhoy aro saId fo bo IsomorphIc IaffIcos.
50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 8hou that (l , is a /attice, uhere l is the set oj positioe integers anJ the re/ation
| is JejineJ as a| b ij anJ on/y ij a JioiJes b.
Solution: To show tI, |) Is IaffIco, IIrsf oI aII wo havo fo show fhaf tI,|) Is a posof. Horo fho
roIafIon Is doIInod as
a R b : a |

b ; a, b e I
i.e., a R b : a dIvIdos b
RoIIoxIvo: If Is cIoar fhaf Ior ovory a e I, a dIvIdos a, i.e., a| a Ior ovory a e I.
AnfI SymmofrIc: Supposo fhaf a R b and b R a.
i.e., a dIvIdos b and b dIvIdos a.
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a = b.
i.e., a R b and b R a ImpIIos fhaf a = b.
TransIfIvo: Supposo fhaf a R b and b R c
i.e., a dIvIdos b and b dIvIdos c.
ThIs ImpIIos b = a h
1
and c = b h
2
; h
1
and h
2
e I
Now, c = b h
2
= a th
1
h
2
).
ThIs IndIcafos fhaf a dIvIdos c.
i.e., a R b and b R c ImpIIos a R c.
ThoroIoro, tI, |) Is a posof. To show If Is a IaffIco, If Is suIIIcIonf fo doIIno fho L.!.B. and
G.L.B. In I.
Now, Iof a, be I
L.!.B. ta , b) = ta v b) = L.C.M. ta , b) and
G.L.B. ta , b) = ta r b) = G.C.. ta , b)
ThoroIoro, tI,|) Is a IaffIco.
Example 2 For a /attice B , a , b B prooe the jo//ouing
(i (a b = b ij anJ on/y ij a b
(ii (a b = a ij anJ on/y ij a b
(iii (a b = a ij anJ on/y ij (a b = b
Solution: GIvon B Is a IaffIco and a, b e B
ti) Supposo fhaf ta v b) = b
Our cIaIm Is fhaf a s b
Now, ta v b) = L.!.B. ta , b)
i.e., a s ta v b)
i.e., a s b 3 b = ta v b)
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf a s b.
Our cIaIm Is fhaf ta v b) = b
GIvon fhaf a s b. AIso wo know fhaf b s b. Honco If Is cIoar fhaf b Is an uppor bound oI a and
b. AgaIn ta v b) Is fho Ioasf uppor bound, so
ta v b) s b . ti)
AgaIn sInco ta v b) Is an uppor bound oI a and b. So,
b s ta v b) . tii)
Honco, Irom oquafIons t1) and t2) wo gof
ta v b) = b.
tii) Supposo fhaf ta r b) = a
Our cIaIm Is a s b
Wo know fhaf ta r b) = G.L.B. ta, b)
i.e., ta r b) s b
ThIs ImpIIos fhaf a s b 3 ta r b) = a
ConvorsoIy, supposo fhaf a s b
Our cIaIm Is ta r b) = a.
GIvon a s b, aIso wo know fhaf a s a .
Honco If Is cIoar fhaf 'a` Is fho Iowor bound oI bofh a and b. AgaIn ta r b) Is fho G.L.B. oI
bofh a and b. ThoroIoro,
a s ta r b) . tiii)
AIso, ta r b) Is fho Iowor bound oI a and b. ThoroIoro,
ta r b) s a . tio)
CombInIng tiii) and tio) wo gof ta r b) = a.
tiii) On combInIng fho prooIs oI ti) and tii) wo can gof
ta r b) = a II and onIy II ta v b) = b
Example 3 Let B be the pouer set oj 8 = /1, 2, J/ anJ (B, be a poset JejineJ by X Y ij X
Y jor X, Y B. Drau the Hasse Jiagran oj the poset (B, .
Solution: GIvon fhaf B bo fho powor sof oI S = 1, 2, 3.
ThoroIoro, B = o, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3.
GIvon fhaf tB, s) bo a posof. Whoro fho roIafIon s Is doIInod as
XRY : X _ Y Ior X, Y e B
ThoroIoro, fho Hasso dIagram Is gIvon as
Example 4 8et oj a// positioe Jioisors oj J0 i.e., D(J0, jorns a poset unJer the re/ation x y
neans x JioiJes y jor x, y D(J0. Drau the Hasse Jiagran.
Solution: t30) =1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30.
Lof us doIIno fho roIafIon x R y moans x Is a dIvIsor oI y Ior x, y e t30). Thus wo gof
R = t1, 2), t1, 3), t1, 5), t1, 6), t1, 10), t1, 15), t1, 30), t2, 6), t2, 10), t2, 30),
t3, 6), t3, 15), t3, 30), t5, 10), t5, 15), t5, 30), t6, 30), t10, 30), t15, 30)
!rom fho abovo roIafIon If Is cIoar fhaf 6 doos nof covor 1 bocauso fhoro oxIsfs 2 such fhaf
1 R 2 and 2 R 6. SImIIarIy 10 doos nof covor 1, 15 doos nof covor 1 and 30 doos nof covor 1, 2,
3, 5. AgaIn If Is aIso cIoar fhaf 2 covors 1, 3 covors 1, 5 covors 1 and so on.
ThoroIoro, fho Hasso dIagram Is gIvon boIow.
Example 5 Drau Hasse Jiagrans oj a// /attices uith jour e/enents.
Solution: Hasso dIagrams oI aII IaffIcos wIfh Iour oIomonfs aro gIvon boIow.
Example 6 lj B = D(24 be a /attice, then jinJ a// the sub/attices oj D(24. A/so Jrau the Hasse
Jiagran.
Solution: GIvon fhaf B = t24) bo a IaffIco. Whoro t24) Is fho sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsors oI
24. ThoroIoro,
t24) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
Tho Hasso dIagram Ior fho abovo IaffIco Is gIvon boIow.
Tho subIaffIcos oI t24) aro t6) = 1, 2, 3, 6, 2, 4, 6, 12 and 4, 8, 12, 24. Anofhor
subIaffIco Is t12) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 as 12 dIvIdos 24.

EXEkCl5E5
1. Lof n bo fho posIfIvo Infogor and tn) bo fho sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsor oI n, fhon show fhaf
tn) Is a IaffIco undor fho roIafIon oI dIvIsIbIIIfy.
2. Lof A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Wo doIIno x R y as x s y II x dIvIdos y. raw fho Hasso dIagram oI
fho posof tA, s).
3. raw fho Hasso dIagram oI tPtA), _). Whoro A = 1, 2 and PtA) Is fho powor sof oI A.
4. raw fho Hasso dIagram oI tPtA), _). Whoro A = 0, 1, 2, 3 and PtA) Is fho powor sof oI A.
5. raw fho Hasso dIagram oI ttn),|) Ior n = 6, 16, 24, 32, 100.
6. raw Hasso dIagrams oI aII IaffIcos wIfh IIvo oIomonfs.
InfroducfIon fo LaffIcos 26?
?. Show fhaf sof oI aII posIfIvo dIvIsors oI 105 i.e., t105), Iorms a posof undor fho roIafIon x
s y moans x dIvIdos y Ior x, y e t105). raw fho Hasso dIagram.
8. Show fhaf fho posof wIfh fho Hasso dIagram gIvon boIow Is nof a IaffIco.
9. Provo fhaf Ior aII a, b, c In a IaffIco B,
ta r b) v ta r c) r ta r b) v tb r c)
10. II B = t30) bo a IaffIco, fhon IInd aII fho subIaffIcos oI t30). AIso draw fho Hasso dIa-
gram.
This page
intentionally left
blank
Graph Theory
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Graph theory has applications in many areas like Mathematics, Computer Science,
Engineering, Communication Science etc. Oystein Ore, the prominent graph theorist and
author of the first graph theory book said in that the theory of graphs is one of the few fields
of mathematics with a definite birth date. Graph theory is considered to have begun in 1736
with the publication of Eulers solution of the Konigsberg Bridge problem. In 1936, Denes
Konig wrote the first book on graph theory. The major developments of graph theory
occurred by the ever growing importance of Computer Science and its connection with graph
theory.
Now the question arises what is a graph? Consider the example. Suppose there are four
sales persons Brown, Abraham, Peterson, Clark and five territories T
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, T
5
. Brown
is interested to work in the territories T
1
, T
2
, T
3
. Abraham is interested to work in the
territories T
2
, T
3
. Peterson is interested to work in the territories T
1
, T
4
, T
5
whereas Clark is
interested for the territories T
3
, T
4
, T
5
. This is explained in the following figure. This is
nothing but a graph, a concept which we are about to study extensively.
B A P
C
T
1 T2 T3 T4 T5
In this chapter, we will study the basic components of graph theory.
B : Brown
A : Abraham
P : Peterson
C. Clark
12
12.1 0kAPH
A graph G consIsfs oI a IInIfo sof oI vorfIcos V and a IInIfo sof oI odgos . MafhomafIcaIIy,
G = tV, )
Whoro, = to
i
, o
j
)| o
i
, o
j
e V
Lof us consIdor V = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and = t1, 2), t1, 3), t2, 3), t2, 4), t3, 4).
Honco fho graph G = tV, ) bocomos
12.1.1 0rder and 5lze
Tho numbor oI vorfIcos In a graph GtV, ) Is caIIod Ifs ordor, and fho numbor oI odgos Is Ifs
sIzo. Thaf Is fho ordor oI G Is V and Ifs sIzo
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graph G
Tho ordor oI G i.e., V = 4
Tho sIzo oI G i.e., = 8
12.1.2 Adjacent VertlceS
Two vorfIcos o
i
and o
j
aro saId fo bo adjaconf II fhoro oxIsfs an odgo to
i
, o
j
) In fho graph GtV, ).
ConsIdor fho graph G as
G :
Horo fho vorfIcos 1 and 2 aro adjaconf. SImIIarIy, fho vorfIcos 1 and 3 aro aIso adjaconf.
12.1.3 Parallel EdgeS
II fhoro Is moro fhan ono odgo bofwoon fho samo paIr oI vorfIcos, fhon fho odgos aro formod
as paraIIoI odgos. ConsIdor fho graph G as
G:
Graph Thoory 2?1
Horo fho odgos e
1
and e
5
aro paraIIoI odgos.
12.1.4 Loop
An odgo whoso sfarfIng and ondIng vorfox aro samo Is known as a Ioop. MafhomafIcaIIy
e = to
i
, o
i
). ConsIdor fho graph G as
!rom fho graph, If Is cIoar fhaf fho odgo e
1
Is a Ioop.
12.2 KlND5 0F 0kAPH
In fhIs socfIon, wo wIII dIscuss dIIIoronf kInds oI graph.
12.2.1 5lmple 0raph
A graph GtV, ) fhaf has no soII-Ioop or paraIIoI odgos Is caIIod a sImpIo graph. ConsIdor fho
graphs G
1
and G
2
as
Tho graph G
1
Is nof a sImpIo graph bocauso fhoro oxIsfs paraIIoI odgos bofwoon fho vorfI-
cos 1 and 2 whoroas fho graph G
2
Is a sImpIo graph.
12.2.2 Multl 0raph
A graph GtV, ) Is known as a muIfI graph II If confaIns paraIIoI odgos, i.e., fwo or moro odgos
bofwoon a paIr oI vorfIcos. If Is fo bo nofod fhaf ovory sImpIo graph Is a muIfI graph buf fho
convorso Is nof fruo. ConsIdor fho graph G as
v
Tho abovo graph Is a muIfI graph bocauso fhoro aro paraIIoI odgos bofwoon fho vorfIcos u,
t and o, s.
12.2.3 PSeudo 0raph
A graph GtV,) Is known as a psoudo graph II wo aIIow bofh paraIIoI odgos and Ioops. If Is fo
bo nofod fhaf ovory sImpIo graph and muIfI graph aro psoudo graph buf fho convorso Is nof
fruo.
v
12.3 Dl0kAPH
A graph GtV, ) whoro V Is fho sof oI nodos or vorfIcos and Is fho sof oI odgos havIng
dIrocfIon. II to
i
, o
j
) Is an odgo, fhon fhoro Is an odgo Irom fho vorfox o
i
fo fho vorfox o
j
. A
dIgraph Is aIso caIIod a dIrocfod graph. Lof us consIdor
V = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and = t1, 2), t1, 3), t2, 3), t2, 4), t3, 4), t4, 5)
Honco, fho dIgraph G bocomos
12.4 WEl0HTED 0kAPH
A graph tor dIgraph) Is known as a woIghfod graph tor dIgraph) II oach odgo oI fho graph has
somo woIghfs. Lof us consIdor
V = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and = e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
5
Whoro e
1
= t1, 2), e
2
= t1, 3), e
3
= t2, 4), e
4
= t3, 4), e
5
= t4, 5)
and ute
1
) = 5, ute
2
) = 6, ute
3
) = 1, ute
4
) = 6, ute
5
) = 3
Graph Thoory 2?3
Honco, fho woIghfod graph G bocomos
6
12.5 DE0kEE 0F A VEkTEX
Tho numbor oI odgos connocfod fo fho vorfox 'o` Is known as dogroo oI vorfox 'o`, gonoraIIy
donofod by dogroo to). In caso oI a dIgraph, fhoro aro fwo dogroos i.e., Indogroo and oufdogroo.
Tho numbor oI odgos comIng fo fho vorfox 'o` Is known as Indogroo oI 'o` whoroas fho numbor
oI odgos omanafIng Irom fho vorfox 'o` Is known as oufdogroo oI 'o`. GonoraIIy, fho Indogroo
Is donofod by Indogroo to) and fho oufdogroo Is donofod by oufdogroo to).
Note: In caso oI a Ioop, If confrIbufos 2 fo fho dogroo oI a vorfox.
12.5.1 lSolated Vertex
A vorfox Is saId fo bo an IsoIafod vorfox II fhoro Is no odgo connocfod Irom any ofhor vorfox fo
fho vorfox. In ofhor words a vorfox Is saId fo bo an IsoIafod vorfox II fho dogroo oI fhaf vorfox
Is zoro.
i.e., II dogroo to) = 0, fhon o Is IsoIafod.
v
Now, dogroo tu) = 2; dogroo to) = 4; dogroo tt) = 1
dogroo tg) = 0; dogroo ts) = 3; dogroo tu) = 2
ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf 'g` Is an IsoIafod vorfox.
12.6 PATH
A pafh In a graph Is a soquonco o
1
, o
2
, ., o
h
oI vorfIcos oach adjaconf fo fho noxf, and a choIco
oI an odgo bofwoon oach 'o
i
` fo 'o
i + 1
` so fhaf no odgo Is choson moro fhan onco.
Horo ono pafh Is o
1
o
2
o
1
o
3
o
4
o
5
.
12.7 C0MPLETE 0kAPH
A graph tdIgraph) G Is saId fo bo compIofo II oach vorfox 'u` Is adjaconf fo ovory ofhor vorfox
'o` In G. In ofhor words, fhoro aro odgos Irom any vorfox fo aII ofhor vorfIcos. ConsIdor fho
graph G as
Tho abovo graph G Is a compIofo graph.
12.8 kE0ULAk 0kAPH
A graph G tV, ) Is saId fo bo roguIar II fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox aro oquaI. MafhomafIcaIIy,
G Is donofod as roguIar II
dogroo to
i
) = dogroo to
j
) V i, j.
Whoro, o
i
, o
j
e G tV, ).
In fho abovo graph, dogroo to
1
) = dogroo to
2
) = dogroo to
3
) = 2. ThoroIoro, fho graph G Is
roguIar t2 roguIar). Tho abovo graph Is aIso compIofo.
ConsIdor anofhor oxampIo G
1
as
Horo fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Is 3. So, fho abovo graph Is 3-roguIar buf nof compIofo.
12.9 CYCLE
II fhoro Is a pafh confaInIng ono or moro odgos whIch sfarfs Irom a vorfox 'o` and formInafos
Info fho samo vorfox, fhon fho pafh Is known as a cycIo. ConsIdor fho graph G as
Graph Thoory 2?5
In fho abovo graph G, ono cycIo Is o
1
o
2
o
3
o
1
. SImIIarIy, anofhor cycIo Is o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
.
12.10 PENDANT VEkTEX
A vorfox 'o` In a graph G Is saId fo bo a pondanf vorfox II fho dogroo to) =1. In caso oI a dIgraph,
a vorfox 'o` Is saId fo bo a pondanf vorfox II fho Indogroo to) = 1 and oufdogroo to) = 0. In fho
graph 'GtIIguro 1)` gIvon boIow, Indogroo oI fho vorfIcos o
4
, o
5
, o
6
and o
?
Is oquaI fo 1 and fho
oufdogroo Is oquaI fo 0. ThoroIoro, fhoso vorfIcos aro pondanf vorfIcos. SImIIarIy, In fho
graph 'GtIIguro 2)` gIvon boIow fho vorfIcos o
1
, o
5
and o
6
aro pondonf vorfIcos.
!Iguro 1 !Iguro 2
12.11 ACYCLlC 0kAPH
A graph tdIgraph) whIch doos nof havo any cycIo Is known as an acycIIc graph tdIgraph).
Horo, G Is an acycIIc graph.
12.12 MATklX kEPkE5ENTATl0N 0F 0kAPH5
Thoro aro many ways fo roprosonf a graph In compufor. GonoraIIy, graphs aro roprosonfod
dIagrammafIcaIIy, buf fhIs Is possIbIo onIy whon fho numbor oI vorfIcos and odgos aro
roasonabIy smaII. So, fho concopf oI mafrIx roprosonfafIon oI graphs Is dovoIopod. Tho major
advanfago oI fhIs roprosonfafIon Is fhaf fho caIcuIafIon oI pafhs and cycIos In graph fhoorofIcaI
probIoms such as communIcafIon nofworks, powor dIsfrIbufIon, fransporfafIon ofc. Howovor,
fho dIsadvanfago Is fhaf fhIs roprosonfafIon fakos away Irom fho vIsuaI aspocf oI graphs.
12.12.1 Adjacency Matrlx
Tho mosf usoIuI way oI roprosonfIng any graph Is fho mafrIx roprosonfafIon. If Is a squaro
mafrIx oI ordor tn n) whoro n Is fho numbor oI vorfIcos In fho graph G. GonoraIIy donofod by
A a
ij
whoro a
ij
Is fho ifh row and jfh coIumn oIomonf. Tho gonoraI Iorm oI adjaconcy mafrIx
Is gIvon as boIow:
A =
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
n
n
n
n n n nn
11 12 13 1
21 22 23 2
31 32 33 3
1 2 3
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . .
whoro, a
ij
=
1
0
; ' ` ' `
;
II fhoro Is an odgo Irom fo
OfhorwIso
o o
i j
ThIs mafrIx Is formod as adjaconcy mafrIx, bocauso an onfry sforos fho InIormafIon
whofhor fwo vorfIcos aro adjaconf or nof. ThIs Is aIso known as bIf mafrIx or BooIoan mafrIx
as oach onfry Is oIfhor 1 or 0.
Notes: 1. In fho adjaconcy mafrIx II fho maIn dIagonaI oIomonfs aro zoro, fhon fho graph Is saId fo bo
a sImpIo graph.
2. In caso oI a muIfI graph fho adjaconcy mafrIx can bo Iound ouf wIfh fho roIafIon.
a
ij
=
; bo fho numbor oI odgos Irom ' ` fo ' `
0; OfhorwIso
i j
n n o o
3. In caso oI a woIghfod graph fho adjaconcy mafrIx can bo Iound ouf wIfh fho roIafIon
a
ij
=
I j
; Is fho woIghf oI fho odgos Irom 'v ` fo 'v `
0; OfhorwIso
u u

Honco, fho adjaconcy mafrIx Is gIvon as
Graph Thoory 2??
o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
5
o
6
o
1
0 1 1 0 0 1
o
2
1 0 1 0 0 0
o
3
1 1 0 1 0 0
A =
o
4
0 0 1 0 1 0
o
5
0 0 0 1 0 0
o
6
1 0 0 0 0 0
8
Tho adjaconcy mafrIx oI fho abovo graph wIfh rospocf fo fho ordorIng A, B, C and Is
gIvon boIow:
A =
0 0 3 0
5 0 1 ?
2 0 0 4
0 6 8 0

Tho adjaconcy mafrIx oI fho abovo graph wIfh rospocf fo fho ordorIng A, B, C and Is
gIvon boIow:
A =
0 1 2 0
1 0 1 2
2 1 0 2
0 2 2 0
12.12.2 lncldence Matrlx

Supposo fhaf G bo a sImpIo undIrocfod graph wIfh n vorfIcos and n odgos, fhon fho IncIdonco
mafrIx Ia
ij
Is a mafrIx oI ordor tn n) whoro fho oIomonf a
ij
Is doIInod as
a
ij
=
1
0
; .
;
If vertex belongs to edges
Otherwise
i j R
S
T
Consider the graph G as
e
7
Hence, the incidence matrix of the graph G is of order (5 7). The incidence matrix rela-
tive to the ordering v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
, v
5
and e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
5
, e
6
, e
7
is given below:
I =
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
L
N
M
M
M
M
M
M
O
Q
P
P
P
P
P
P
12.12.3 Path Matrix
Suppose that G be simple graph with n-vertices. Then the (n n) matrix P = [p
ij
]
(n n)
defined
by
p
ij
=
1; if there is a path from to
0; Otherwise
i j
v v
is known as the path matrix or reachability matrix of the graph G.

Consider the graph G as
v
5
Therefore, the path matrix of the above graph relative to the ordering v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
, v
5
is
given as
P =
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
L
N
M
M
M
M
M
M
O
Q
P
P
P
P
P
P
v
4
Graph Thoory 2?9
12.13 C0NNECTED 0kAPH
A graph tnof dIgraph) G tV, ) Is saId fo bo connocfod II Ior ovory paIr oI dIsfIncf vorfIcos 'u`
and 'o` In G, fhoro Is a pafh. A dIrocfod graph Is saId fo bo sfrongIy connocfod II Ior ovory paIr
oI dIsfIncf vorfIcos 'u` and 'o` In G, fhoro Is a dIrocfod pafh Irom 'u` fo 'o` and aIso Irom 'o` fo 'u`.
A dIrocfod graph Is saId fo bo woakIy connocfod II Ior ovory paIr oI dIsfIncf vorfIcos, fhoro Is
a pafh wIfhouf fakIng fho dIrocfIon.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graphs
!rom fho abovo graphs, If Is cIoar fhaf
G
1
: SfrongIy Connocfod; G
2
: WoakIy Connocfod
G
3
: Connocfod; G
4
: Isconnocfod
12.13.1 Theorem
Supposo fhaf G bo a graph wIfh n-vorfIcos o
1
, o
2
, ...., o
n
and Iof A bo fho adjaconcy mafrIx oI G.
Lof us doIIno B = b
ij
such fhaf
B = A + A
2
+ A
3
+ ... + A
n 1
.
II Ior ovory paIr oI dIsfIncf IndIcos i and j, b
ij
= 0, fhon fho graph Is saId fo bo connocfod.
Tho prooI oI fho abovo fhoorom Is boyond fho scopo oI fhIs book.

v
4
Honco, fho adjaconcy mafrIx A Is gIvon as
A =
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
Horo, numbor oI vorfIcos tn) = 4. ThoroIoro, B = A + A

2
+ A
3
Now, A
2
=
2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1
1 1 3 0
1 1 0 1
; A
3
= A
2
A =
2 3 4 1
3 2 4 1
4 4 2 3
1 1 3 0
ThoroIoro, B = A + A
2
+ A
3
=
4 5 6 2
5 4 6 2
6 6 5 4
2 2 4 1
SInco, aII b
ij
= 0 Ior i = j; fho graph G Is connocfod. AII oIomonfs oxcopf fho dIagonaI
oIomonfs musf nof bo zoro Ior connocfod graph.
12.14 0kAPH l50M0kPHl5M
Supposo G
1
: tV
1
,
1
) and G
2
: tV
2
,
2
) bo fwo graphs. Thon fho fwo graphs G
1
and G
2
aro saId
fo bo IsomorphIc II fhoro Is ono fo ono corrospondonco bofwoon fho odgos
1
oI G
1
and
2
oI G
2
whIch IndIcafos fhaf II tu
1
, o
1
) e G
1
, fhon tu
1
, o
1
) e G
2
.
Such a paIr oI corrospondonco Is known as graph IsomorphIsm. Tho dIIIoronf way oI ropro-
sonfIng fho samo graph Is known as graph IsomorphIsm. ConsIdor graph G
1
and G
2
as
ThoroIoro, fho graphs G
1
and G
2
aro IsomorphIc fo oach ofhor.
12.15 8lPAkTlTE 0kAPH
Supposo fhaf G: tV, ) bo fho graph. II fho vorfox sof V can bo parfIfIonod Info fwo non-ompfy
dIsjoInf sofs V
1
and V
2
such fhaf oach odgo oI fho graph G has ono ond In V
1
and ofhor ond In
V
2
, fhon fho graph Is saId fo bo bIparfIfo graph.
Graph Thoory 281
v
5
v
6
v
7
v
8
Lof V
1
= o
1
, o
3
, o
5
, o
?
and V
2
= o
4
, o
2
, o
6
, o
8
Now, tV
1
V
2
)= o and oach odgo oI G has ono vorfox In V
1
and ofhor vorfox af V
2
. So, G
Is saId fo bo a bIparfIfo graph.
12.15.1 Complete 8lpartlte 0raph
Supposo fhaf G: tV, ) bo fho graph. II fho vorfox sof V = tV
1
. V
2
) and V
1
, V
2
= o, tV
1
V
2
) = o,
such fhaf oach odgo oI fho graph G has ono ond In V
1
and ofhor ond In V
2
, fhon fho graph G
Is formod as bIparfIfo.
II ovory vorfox oI V
1
Is joInod fo ovory vorfox oI V
2
, fhon fho graph G Is formod as compIofo
bIparfIfo graph. ConsIdor fho graph G as
Lof V
1
= o
1
, o
3
and V
2
=o
2
, o
4
.
ThoroIoro, V = tV
1
. V
2
); V
1
, V
2
= o, and tV
1
V
2
) = o.
AIso, ovory vorfox oI V
1
Is joInod fo ovory vorfox oI V
2
. So, G Is a compIofo bIparfIfo graph.
12.16 5U80kAPH
Supposo fhaf G and H bo fwo graphs wIfh vorfox sofs VtG) and VtH). Lof fho odgo sofs bo tG)
and tH). Now H Is saId fo bo subgraph oI G II
VtH) _ VtG) and tH) _ tG)
ConsIdor fwo graphs G and H as
ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf VtH) _ VtG) and tH) _ tG). So, H Is a subgraph oI G.
12.16.1 Vertex Deleted 5ubgraph
Supposo fhaf GtV, ) bo a graph. II wo doIofo a subsof ! oI fho sof V and aII fho odgos, whIch
havo a vorfox In ! as an ond, fhon fho rosuIfanf graph Is formod as vorfox doIofod subgraph
oI G. ConsIdor fho graph G as
On doIofIng fho vorfox o
1
, fho vorfox doIofod subgraph H Is gIvon as
12.16.2 Edge Deleted 5ubgraph
Supposo fhaf G: tV, ) bo a graph. II a subsof ! Irom fho sof oI odgos Is doIofod Irom fho
graph G, fhon fho rosuIfanf graph Is odgo doIofod subgraph oI G. ConsIdor fho graph G as
On doIofIng fho odgos e
1
and e
2
, fho odgo doIofod subgraph Is gIvon as
12.17 WALK5
Lof G bo a graph, fhon a waIk W In a graph G Is a IInIfo soquonco W = o
0
e
1
o
1
e
2
o
2
e
3
....
o
i 1
e
i
o
i
. o
h 1
e
h
o
h
. Whoso forms aro aIfornafoIy vorfIcos and odgos such fhaf Ior 1 s i s h, fho
odgo e
i
has onds o
i 1
and o
1
. Tho sfarfIng vorfox o
0
Is fho orIgIn and fho ond vorfox o
h
Is fho
formInus oI fho waIk W. Tho vorfIcos o
1
, o
2
, . . o
h 1
aro known as InfornaI vorfIcos. Tho
waIk Is formod as o
0
o
h
waIk.
Graph Thoory 283
Tho numbor oI odgos prosonf In fho waIk W Is known as fho Iongfh oI waIk W. Nofo
fhaf In a waIk W fhoro may bo ropofIfIon oI vorfIcos and odgos. In a sImpIo graph, a waIk
W = o
0
e
1
o
1
e
2
. e
h
o
h
Is doformInod by a soquonco oI vorfIcos o
0
o
1
o
2
. o
h 1
o
h
bocauso oach
paIr oI vorfIcos o
i 1
o
i
has ono odgo onIy. von II a graph Is nof sImpIo, a waIk Is oIfon sImpIy
donofod by a soquonco oI vorfIcos o
0
o
1
o
2
. o
h 1
o
h
whoro fho consocufIvo vorfIcos aro
adjaconf.
Notes : 1. A waIk confaInIng no odgos Is known as a frIvIaI waIk.
2. A waIk confaInIng no ropoafod odgos Is formod as a fraII.
3. A waIk confaInIng no ropoafod vorfIcos Is formod as a pafh. WhIch IndIcafos fhaf II fho
soquonco oI vorfIcos o
0
o
1
o
2
.. o
h 1
o
h
oI fho waIk W = o
0
e
1
o
1
e
2
o
2
... o
h1
e
h
o
h
aro dIsfIncf, fhon
fho waIk Is a pafh.
4. vory pafh Is a fraII buf fho convorso Is nof fruo aIways.
e
10
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng waIks
W
1
= o
1
e
1
o
2
e
2
o
1
e
6
o
5
e
?
o
3
e
10
o
3
e
8
o
4
W
2
= o
1
e
1
o
2
e
1
o
1
e
1
o
2
e
2
o
1
e
1
o
2
W
3
= o
3
e
10
o
3
e
9
o
1
e
1
o
2
e
2
o
1
W
4
= o
1
e
2
o
2
e
5
o
3
e
?
o
5
Tho Iongfh oI W
1
Is 6. SImIIarIy, fho Iongfh oI ofhor waIks can bo Iound ouf. Horo W
1
and
W
2
aro waIks; W
3
Is fraII and W
4
Is a pafh.
12.17.1 0pen and CloSed Walk
Supposo fhaf u and o bo fwo vorfIcos oI a graph. An u o waIk Is saId fo bo opon or cIosod
accordIng fo u = o or u = o rospocfIvoIy. In ofhor words a waIk Is cIosod II fho sfarfIng vorfox
tu) and fho formInus to) aro samo ofhorwIso If Is opon.
12.18 0PEkATl0N5 0N 0kAPH5
Thoro aro many oporafIons fhaf gIvos now graphs Irom oId onos. Thoy aro maInIy soparafod
Info fhroo cafogorIos such as oIomonfary oporafIon, unary oporafIon and bInary oporafIon. In
oIomonfary oporafIon, a now graph may bo producod Irom fho orIgInaI graph by a sImpIo IocaI
chango such as addIfIon or doIofIon oI a vorfox or an odgo. In unary oporafIon wo croafo a
sIgnIIIcanfIy now graph Irom fho oId ono whoroas In bInary oporafIon wo croafo a now graph
Irom fwo InIfIaI graphs.
12.18.1 Unlon
II G
1
and G
2
bo fwo graphs, fhon fhoIr unIon tG
1
. G
2
) Is a graph wIfh V tG
1
. G
2
) = V tG
1
) . V tG
2
)
and tG
1
. G
2
) = tG
1
) . tG
2
).
12.18.2 lnterSectlon
II G
1
and G
2
bo fwo graphs wIfh af Ioasf ono vorfox In common, fhon fhoIr InforsocfIon tG
1
G
2
)
Is a graph wIfh
V tG
1
G
2
) = V tG
1
) V tG
2
)
and tG
1
G
2
) = tG
1
) tG
2
)
12.18.3 Complement
Supposo fhaf G bo a sImpIo graph wIfh n-vorfIcos. Thon fho compIomonf oI G Is gIvon by G
and Is doIInod fo bo fho sImpIo graph wIfh fho samo vorfIcos oI G and whoro fwo vorfIcos tu, o)
aro adjaconf In G, II u and o aro nof adjaconf In G. In ofhor words fho compIomonf oI G can
bo obfaInod Irom fho compIofo graph K
n
by doIofIng aII fho odgos oI G. ConsIdor fho graph G
as
To obfaIn fho compIomonf oI G consfrucf fho compIofo graph wIfh fho samo vorfIcos and
fhon doIofo fho odgos oI fho graph G. Tho compIomonf graph oI G i.e., G Is gIvon boIow.
12.18.4 Product of 0raphS
Supposo fhaf G
1
: tV
1
,
1
) and G
2
: tV
2
,
2
) bo fwo graphs. Thon fho producf oI graphs G
1
and G
2
Is gIvon as tG
1
G
2
) and Is doIInod as tG
1
G
2
): tV, ). Whoro V = tV
1
V
2
) and fho odgo sof
can bo Iound ouf Irom fho IoIIowIng roIafIon.
II tu
1
, u
2
) and to
1
, o
2
) bo fwo vorfIcos oI tG
1
G
2
). Thon fhoro Is an odgo bofwoon fhom II
ti) tu
1
= o
1
and u
2
Is adjaconf fo o
2
) or
tii) tu
1
Is adjaconf fo o
1
and u
2
= o
2
).
G:
Graph Thoory 285
ConsIdor fho graphs G
1
and G
2
as
12.18.5 CompoSltlon
Supposo fhaf G
1
: tV
1
,
1
) and G
2
: tV
2
,
2
) bo fwo graphs. Thon fho composIfIon oI G
1
G
2
and
Is doIInod as
G
1
G
2
: tV, )
Whoro, V = tV
1
V
2
) and fho odgo sof can bo Iound ouf Irom fho IoIIowIng roIafIon. II
tu
1
, u
2
) and to
1
, o
2
) bo fwo vorfIcos oI G
1
G
2
, fhon fhoro Is an odgo bofwoon fhom II
ti) u
1
Is adjaconf fo o
1
or
tii) tu
1
= o
1
and u
2
Is adjaconf fo o
2
)
ConsIdor fho graphs G
1
and G
2
as
Tho composIfIon G
1
G
2
Is doIInod as
12.19 FU5l0N 0F 0kAPH5
Lof u and o bo dIsfIncf vorfIcos oI a graph G, wo can consfrucf a now graph G
1
by IusIng fho
fwo vorfIcos. ThIs moans by ropIacIng fhom by a sIngIo now vorfox 'x` such fhaf ovory odgo
fhaf was IncIdonf wIfh oIfhor 'u` or 'o` Is now IncIdonf wIfh x.
e
1
On IusIng fho vorfIcos 'u` and 'o` fho graph bocomos
12.19.1 Adjacency Matrlx lAfter fuSlon of two adjacent vertlceSl
Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod fo IInd fho now adjaconcy mafrIx aIfor IusIon oI fwo adjaconf
vorfIcos 'u` and 'o`:
Step 1. RopIaco fho ufh row by fho sum oI ufh row and ofh row. SImIIarIy, ropIaco fho ufh
coIumn by fho sum oI ufh coIumn and ofh coIumn.
Step 2. oIofo fho row and coIumn corrospondIng fo fho vorfox o. Tho rosuIfIng mafrIx Is
fho now adjaconcy mafrIx.
AIfor IusIng o
1
and o
4
wo havo fho now graph G
1
as
Graph Thoory 28?
RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
wo havo AtG) =
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
1 1 0 2
1 0 2 0
Now on ropIacIng Row to

1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
4
) and CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI to
4
), wo gof
A tG) =
1 0 3 1
0 0 1 0
3 1 0 2
1 0 2 0
On doIofIng fho row and coIumn corrospondIng fo o

4
fho adjaconcy mafrIx oI G
1
Is gIvon as
A tG
1
) =
1 0 3
0 0 1
3 1 0
12.19.2 FuSlon Algorlthm lConnectedneSSl

Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod fo chock fho connocfodnoss oI a graph G:
Step 1. RopIaco fho graph G by Ifs undorIyIng sImpIo graph. Tho adjaconcy mafrIx can bo
obfaInod by ropIacIng aII non-zoro onfrIos oII fho dIagonaI by 1 and aII onfrIos on fho
dIagonaI by 0.
Step 2. !uso vorfox o
1
fo fho IIrsf oI fho vorfIcos o
2
, o
3
..., o
n
wIfh whIch If Is adjaconf fo gIvo
a now graph. onofo If by G In whIch fho now vorfox Is aIso donofod by o
1
.
Step 3. Carry ouf sfop1 on fho now graph G.
Step 4. Carry ouf sfop 2 fo sfop 3 ropoafodIy wIfh o
1
unfII o
1
Is nof adjaconf fo any oI fho
ofhor vorfIcos.
Step 5. Carry ouf sfops 2 fo 4 on fho vorfox o
2
oI fho Iafosf graph and fhan on aII fho
romaInIng vorfIcos oI fho rosuIfIng graphs In furn. Tho IInaI graph Is ompfy and fho
numbor oI Ifs IsoIafod vorfIcos Is fho numbor oI connocfod compononfs oI fho InIfIaI
graph G.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graph G.
Tho adjaconcy mafrIx A tG) roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
bocomos
A tG) =
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 2
1 0 0 1
1 2 1 0
Tho undorIyIng sImpIo graph oI G Is gIvon as

Tho adjaconcy mafrIx bocomos
A tG
0
) =
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
On IusIng o
1
wIfh o
3
wo havo fho graph G as
ThoroIoro, on ropIacIng Row to
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
3
); CoI to
1
) CoI. to
1
) + CoI. to
3
) and on
romovIng fho row and coIumn corrospondIng fo o
3
fho adjaconcy mafrIx roIafIvo fo fho ordor-
Ing o
1
, o
2
and o
4
bocomos
A tG) =
1 0 2
0 0 1
2 1 0

A tG
0
) =
0 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0
On IusIng o
1
wIfh o
4
Graph Thoory 289
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
4
); CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI. to
4
) and on
4
, fho adjaconcy mafrIx roIafIvo fo fho ordor-
Ing o
1
and o
2
bocomos
A tG) =
1 1
1 0
Tho undorIyIng spannIng graph oI G Is gIvon as

A tG
0
) =
0 1
1 0
On IusIng o
1
wIfh o
2
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
2
); CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI to
2
) and on
2
, fho adjaconcy mafrIx roIafIvo fo o
1
bo-
comos
A tG) = t1)
Tho undorIyIng spannIng graph oI G Is gIvon as
A tG
0
) = t0)
As fho IInaI graph Is ompfy, fho procoss formInafos. Horo fho numbor oI IsoIafod poInf Is
ono. So, fho graph Is saId fo bo connocfod.

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 Drau the graph haoing the jo//ouing natrix as its aJjacency natrix
0 1 2 J
1 0 J 2
2 J 0 1
J 2 1 0
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho adjaconcy mafrIx Is

0 1 2 3
1 0 3 2
2 3 0 1
3 2 1 0
Tho ordor oI fho adjaconcy mafrIx Is t4 4). So, fho graph G has Iour vorfIcos, say o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
. RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
fho graph G Is gIvon boIow.
Example 2 Write Joun the path natrix oj the jo//ouing graph.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho graph Is
Tho pafh mafrIx roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
and o
6
Is gIvon as
PtG) =
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
Example 3 Write the aJjacency natrix oj the jo//ouing graphs

Solution: ta) GIvon graph Is
Tho adjaconcy mafrIx roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
Is gIvon as
Graph Thoory 291
A tG) =
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
tb) GIvon graph Is

1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
and o
6
Is gIvon as
A tG) =
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
Example 4 Write the aJjacency natrix oj the jo//ouing ueighteJ graph.

Solution: Tho woIghfod graph Is
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
and o
6
Is gIvon as
AtG) =
0 2 0 4 0 8
2 0 5 0 3 0
0 5 0 ? 0 3
4 0 ? 0 2 0
0 3 0 2 0 6
8 0 3 0 6 0
Example 5 Write Joun the inciJence natrix oj the jo//ouing graph O.

Solution: In fho abovo graph G, V = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
and = e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
5
, e
6
, e
?
. ThoroIoro
fho ordor oI IncIdonco mafrIx Is t4 ?). RoIafIvo fo fho ordorIng oI V and , fho IncIdonco
mafrIx Is gIvon as
ItG) =
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 1
Example 6 FinJ the union oj the jo//ouing graphs.

Solution: Horo, VtG
1
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
and VtG
2
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
.
ThoroIoro, VtG
1
. G
2
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
.
SImIIarIy, tG
1
. G
2
) = to
1
, o
2
), to
2
, o
3
), to
3
, o
4
), to
4
, o
1
), to
1
, o
3
), to
2
, o
4
), to
3
, o
5
), to
5
, o
5
).
ThoroIoro, fho graph tG
1
. G
2
) bocomos
Graph Thoory 293
Example 7 Write the aJjacency natrix oj the jo//ouing JirecteJ ueighteJ graph
3
3
Solution: In fho abovo dIrocfod woIghfod graph fho fofaI numbor oI vorfIcos aro 4. So, fho
adjaconcy mafrIx Is oI ordor t4 4). Tho adjaconcy mafrIx roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and o
4
Is gIvon as boIow.
AtG) =
0 1 0 3
2 0 2 0
0 6 0 5
4 0 3 0
Example 8 FinJ the intersection oj the jo//ouing graphs.

Solution: Horo, VtG
1
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
and VtG
2
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
.
ThoroIoro, VtG
1
G
2
) =o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
.
SImIIarIy, tG
1
G
2
) = to
1
, o
4
), to
4
, o
3
), to
3
, o
2
), to
2
, o
5
), to
5
, o
1
).
ThoroIoro, fho graph tG
1
G
2
) bocomos
Example 9 FinJ the conp/enent oj the jo//ouing graphs.
Solution: ta) To obfaIn fho compIomonf oI G, IInd fho compIofo graph wIfh fho samo vorfI-
cos. ThIs Is gIvon boIow.
On doIofIng fho odgos oI G, fho compIomonf G oI G Is gIvon boIow.
tb) To obfaIn fho compIomonf oI G, IInd fho compIofo graph wIfh fho samo vorfIcos. ThIs
Is gIvon boIow.
On doIofIng fho odgos oI G, fho compIomonf G oI G Is gIvon boIow.
Example 10 lj O
1
anJ O
2
be tuo graphs gioen be/ou, then jinJ the proJuct oj graphs (O
1
O
2
.
Where
Solution: Horo VtG
1
) = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
and VtG
2
) = u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
.
Graph Thoory 295
ThoroIoro, VtG
1
G
2
) = to
1
, u
1
), to
1
, u
2
), to
1
, u
3
), to
1
, u
4
), to
2
, u
1
), to
2
, u
2
), to
2
, u
3
),
to
2
, u
4
), to
3
, u
1
), to
3
, u
2
), to
3
, u
3
), to
3
, u
4
)
Example 11 Oioen O
1
anJ O
2
be tuo graphs. FinJ the conposition O
1
|O
2
] uhere
Solution: In fho abovo graph
VtG
1
) = o
1
, o
2
and VtG
2
) = u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
ThoroIoro, fho vorfox sof oI G
1
G
2
Is to
1
, u
1
), to
1
, u
2
), to
1
, u
3
), to
2
, u
1
), to
2
, u
2
), to
2
, u
3
). Thus
fho composIfIon graph G
1
G
2
Is gIvon boIow.
Example 12 Let O be the graph gioen be/ou.
e
15
ta) FinJ O U, uhere U = /x
1
, x
J
, x
6
, x
7
/
(b FinJ O(U, uhere U = x
1
, x
J
, x
4
, x
0
(c FinJ O V, uhere V = e
2
, e
6
, e
S
, e
12
, e
14
, e
1
, e
6
, e
1S
, e
4
, e
10
, e
20
(J FinJ O(V, uhere V = e

1
, e
6
, e
7
, e
11
, e
16
Solution: ta) GIvon ! = x

1
, x
3
, x
5
, x
?
.
ThoroIoro, G ! bocomos
tb) GIvon: ! = x
1
, x
3
, x
4
, x
9
. ThoroIoro, Gt!) bocomos
tc) GIvon: V = e
2
, e
5
, e
8
, e
12
, e
14
, e
1
, e
6
, e
18
, e
4
, e
19
, e
20
. ThoroIoro, G V bocomos
tJ) GIvon: V = e
1
, e
6
, e
?
, e
11
, e
15
. ThoroIoro, GtV) bocomos
Graph Thoory 29?
Example 13 Deternine uhether the graph gioen be/ou by its aJjacency natrix is connecteJ
or not.
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
j \
, (
, (
, (
, (
( ,
Solution: Tho adjaconcy mafrIx A Is gIvon as
A =
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
Horo, fho numbor oI vorfIcos tn) = 4. Lof B = A + A

2
+ A
3
Now, A
2
=
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
3 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
2 1 3 1
1 2 1 2
AgaIn, A
3
= A
2
A =
3 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
2 1 3 1
1 2 1 2
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
4 5 5 5
5 2 5 2
5 5 4 5
5 2 5 2
2
+ A
3
=
? ? 8 ?
? 4 ? 4
8 ? ? ?
? 4 ? 4
As aII b
ij
= 0 Ior i = j, fho graph G Is connocfod.
Example 14 Drau a conp/ete bipartite graph on tuo anJ jour oertices.
Solution: CompIofo bIparfIfo graph on n and n Is fho sImpIo graph whoso vorfox sof Is
parfIfIonod Info sofs V
1
and V
2
wIfh n and n vorfIcos rospocfIvoIy. GonoraIIy, donofod by K
nn
.
Tho compIofo bIparfIfo graph on fwo and Iour vorfIcos Is shown In fho IoIIowIng IIguro.
Example 15 Use the jusion a/gorithn to Jeternine uhether the graph gioen be/ou by its
aJjacency natrix is connecteJ or not.
0 2 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 2 0 0
0 1 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 3 0
Solution: Tho adjaconcy mafrIx oI fho graph G Is gIvon as

AtG) =
0 2 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 2 0 0
0 1 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 3 0
ThoroIoro, fho graph G bocomos

Tho adjaconcy mafrIx Is gIvon as
AtG
0
) =
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0
On IusIng vorfox o
1
wIfh o
2
Graph Thoory 299
So, on ropIacIng Row to
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
2
); CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI to
2
) and on
2
fho adjaconcy mafrIx bocomos
AtG) =
1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0

AtG
0
) =
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
On IusIng o
1
wIfh o
3
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
3
); CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI to
3
) and on
3
AtG) =
1 2 0 0
2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0

AtG
0
) =
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
On IusIng o
1
wIfh o
4
1
) Row to
1
) + Row to
4
); CoI to
1
) CoI to
1
) + CoI to
4
) and on
4
AtG) =
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0

AtG
0
) =
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
On IusIng o
5
wIfh o
6
5
) Row to
5
) + Row to
6
); CoI to
5
) CoI to
5
) + CoI to
6
) and on
6
AtG) =
0 0
0 1

AtG
0
) =
0 0
0 0
As fho IInaI graph Is ompfy, fho procoss formInafos. Tho numbor oI IsoIafod poInfs Is fho
ordor oI fho mafrIx i.e., fwo. So, fho graph Is nof connocfod.
Graph Thoory 301
Example 16 Drau the jo//ouing graphs.
(i J regu/ar but not conp/ete
(ii J regu/ar anJ conp/ete
(iii 4 regu/ar but not conp/ete
(io 2 regu/ar but not conp/ete.
Solution:
ti) In fho graph gIvon boIow, fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Is 3 buf Ior vorfIcos o
1
and o
6
fhoro
Is no odgo. Honco, fho graph Is 3 roguIar buf nof compIofo.
tii) In fho graph gIvon boIow, fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Is 3 and Ior any fwo vorfIcos o
i
and
o
j
fhoro Is an odgo. Honco fho graph Is 3 roguIar and compIofo.
tiii) In fho graph gIvon boIow, fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Is 4 and Ior fho vorfIcos o
2
and o
5
fhoro oxIsfs no odgo. Honco, fho graph Is 4 roguIar buf nof compIofo.
tio) In fho graph gIvon boIow, fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Is 2 and Ior fho vorfIcos o
2
and o
5
fhoro oxIsfs no odgo. Honco, fho graph Is 2 roguIar buf nof compIofo.
Example 17 FinJ uhether the graph gioen be/ou is connecteJ or not.
Solution: Tho adjaconcy mafrIx AtG) oI fho abovo graph roIafIvo fo fho ordorIng o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
and o
5
Is gIvon as
AtG) =
0 1 0 0 2
1 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 2 0
0 0 2 1 0
2 2 0 0 0
Horo, fho numbor oI vorfIcos tn) = 5. Lof B = A + A

2
+ A
3
+ A
4
. ThoroIoro, wo gof
A
2
= AA =
5 4 0 0 2
4 5 0 0 2
0 0 4 2 0
0 0 2 5 0
2 2 0 0 8
; A
3
= A
2
A =
8 9 0 0 18
9 8 0 0 18
0 0 4 10 0
0 0 10 9 0
1818 0 0 8
A
4
= A
3
A =
45 44 0 0 34
44 45 0 0 34
0 0 20 18 0
0 0 18 29 0
34 34 0 0 ?2
2
+ A
3
+ A
4
=
58 58 0 0 56
58 58 0 0 56
0 0 28 32 0
0 0 32 44 0
56 56 0 0 88
As somo b
ij
= 0 Ior i = j, fho graph G Is nof connocfod.
Example 18 FinJ the conp/enent graph oj the jo//ouing graph O, uhere
Graph Thoory 303
Solution: On consIdorIng fho abovo graph G, consfrucf fho compIofo graph wIfh fho samo
vorfIcos as G. Tho graph Is gIvon boIow.
On doIofIng fho odgos oI fho graph G, fho compIomonf G oI G Is gIvon boIow.

EXEkCl5E5
1. !sIng IusIon aIgorIfhm doformIno whofhor fho graph gIvon boIow Is connocfod or nof.
2. Show fhaf fho graph G gIvon by Ifs adjaconcy mafrIx Is connocfod by usIng IusIon aIgo-
rIfhm.
AtG) =
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 2
0 0 1 1
1 2 1 0
3. !Ind fho compIomonf oI fho IoIIowIng graphs.

4. !Ind fho producf graph whoro G
1
and G
2
aro gIvon boIow.
5. Consfrucf a graph oI ordor 5, whoso vorfIcos havo dogroos 1, 2, 2, 3 and 4. Whaf Is fho
sIzo oI fhIs graph7
6. Consfrucf a 3-roguIar graph G. oformIno fho compIomonf oI G. Show fhaf G Is aIso
roguIar.
?. WrIfo fho graph whIch Is fho composIfIon oI fho IoIIowIng graphs G
1
and G
2
.
8. !or fho IoIIowIng graphs, IInd fho adjaconcy mafrIx.
Graph Thoory 305
9. !Ind fho pafh mafrIx oI fho IoIIowIng graphs.
10. WrIfo fho IncIdonco mafrIx oI fho IoIIowIng graphs.
11. Lof fho graph G Is gIvon boIow. !Ind fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) G V
1
; whoro V
1
= 1, 3, 5, 6, ?, 8
tb) G
1
; whoro
1
= a, c, J, j, g, i, j, n, n, q, r, t
tc) G V
2
; whoro V
2
= 1, 3, 5, ?, 9, 11, 13
tJ) G
2
; whoro
2
= n, /, n, h, o, j, j, e, J
te) Gt!); whoro ! = 1, 2, 3, 4
tj) GtV); whoro V = a, b, c, J, e, j
p
12. WrIfo fho unIon and InforsocfIon oI fho IoIIowIng graphs.
13. Lof G bo fho sof oI aII graphs. Show fhaf fho roIafIon Is IsomorphIc Is an oquIvaIonco
roIafIon on fho sof G.
14. !Ind fho dogroo oI ovory vorfox Ior fho IoIIowIng graphs.
Graph Thoory 30?
15. oformIno fho dogroos oI fho vorfIcos o
i
; I = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 oI fho graph G shown
boIow. Compufo Jeg o
i
i
t )
. !so fhIs fo doformIno fho sIzo oI G.

16. oformIno whIch paIrs oI fho graphs G
1
, G
2
and G
3
aro IsomorphIc.
1? !rom fho graphs gIvon boIow IdonfIIy
ti) RoguIar graphs
tii) CompIofo graphs and
tiii) NoIfhor roguIar nor compIofo graphs.
18. oformIno whofhor fho graphs G
1
and G
2
shown boIow aro IsomorphIc.
19. oformIno whofhor fho graph G shown boIow Is sfrongIy connocfod or woakIy connocfod.
20. In fho dIgraph G shown boIow, IInd fho Indogroo and oufdogroo oI ovory vorfox.
6HAA
13.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
Anofhor vory sImpIo and Imporfanf graph Is froo. Compufor scIonco makos oxfonsIvo uso oI
froos. Troos aro usoIuI In organIzIng and roIafIng dafa In a dafabaso. Thoso aro InforosfIng
nof onIy Ior fhoIr appIIcafIons fo compufor scIonco buf aIso Ior fhoIr fhoorofIcaI proporfIos.
Lof us consIdor a sIngIo oIImInafIon fournamonf, whIch moans whon a pIayor Iosos, ho/sho Is
ouf oI fho fournamonf. WInnors confInuo fo pIay unfII onIy ono porson, fho champIon,
romaIns. Tho IoIIowIng IIguro shows fhaf Mary doIoafod !InzI and SmIfh doIoafod BIako. Tho
wInnors Mary and SmIfh, fhon pIayod, and SmIfh doIoafod Mary. i.e., SmIfh bocamo
champIon. ThIs Is nofhIng buf a froo.
13.1 TkEE
A connocfod acycIIc graph G Is caIIod a froo. A froo T Is a IInIfo sof oI ono or moro nodos such
fhaf
ti) Thoro Is a spocIaIIy dosIgnafod nodo caIIod fho roof.
tii) RomaInIng nodos aro parfIfIonod Info h dIsjoInf sofs T
1
, T
2
, ...., T
h
, h > 0. Whoro oach
T
i
Ior i = 1, 2, ... , h Is a froo. T
1
, T
2
, . , T
h
aro caIIod subfroos oI fho roof.
!
In fho oxampIo gIvon boIow, fho froo T has 14 numbor oI nodos. WhIch aro parfIfIonod Info
fhroo sofs T
1
, T
2
and T
3
caIIod fho subfroos oI T.
13.2 FUNDAMENTAL TEkMlN0L00lE5
A froo has fho IoIIowIng IundamonfaI formInoIogIos:
13.2.1 Node
Tho maIn compononf oI a froo Is fho nodo. ThIs sforos fho acfuaI dafa and IInks fo fho ofhor
nodo.
13.2.2 Chlld
ChIId oI a nodo Is fho ImmodIafo succossor oI a nodo. ChIId, whIch Is af fho IoIf sIdo, Is caIIod
IoIf chIId and fho chIId, whIch Is af fho rIghf sIdo, Is caIIod rIghf chIId.
13.2.3 Parent
Paronf oI a nodo Is fho ImmodIafo prodocossor oI a nodo.
In fho IIguro gIvon boIow 'x` Is fho paronf oI 'a` and 'b`. Whoro, 'a` Is fho IoIf chIId and 'b` Is
fho rIghf chIId oI 'x`.
13.2.4 koot
A nodo fhaf has no paronf Is formod as fho roof oI fho froo. In fho abovo IIguro 'x` Is formod
as fho roof.
13.2.5 Leaf
Tho nodo whIch Is af fho ond and whIch doos nof havo any chIId Is caIIod IoaI nodo. LoaI nodo
Is aIso formod as formInaI nodo and oxfornaI nodo.
Troo 311
13.2.6 Level
Tho rank oI fho hIorarchy Is known as IovoI. Tho roof nodo Is formod as IovoI 0. II a nodo Is
af IovoI n, fhon Ifs paronf Is af IovoI tn 1) and chIId Is af IovoI tn + 1).
13.2.7 Helght
Tho hoIghf h oI a froo T Is doIInod as maxImum numbor oI nodos fhaf Is prosonf In a pafh
sfarfIng Irom roof nodo fo a IoaI nodo. Tho hoIghf oI a froo Is aIso formod as dopfh oI froo.
MafhomafIcaIIy,
h = MaxImum IovoI + 1
ConsIdor fho oxampIo oI a froo
HoIghf oI fho froo = MaxImum IovoI + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4.
13.2.8 5lbllng
Tho nodos, whIch havo fho samo paronf, aro formod as sIbIIngs. In fho abovo IIguro h and i
aro sIbIIngs. SImIIarIy / and n aro sIbIIngs.
13.3 8lNAkY TkEE
A bInary froo T Is a IInIfo sof oI nodos such fhaf
ti) T Is ompfy or
tii) T confaIns a spocIaIIy dosIgnod nodo caIIod fho roof oI T and fho romaInIng nodos oI T
Iorm fwo dIsjoInf bInary froos T
1
and T
2
. ThIs ImpIIos fhaf In caso oI a bInary froo a
nodo may havo af mosf fwo chIIdron.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng sImpIo bInary froo T as
13.3.1 Full 8lnary Tree
A bInary froo T Is saId fo bo a IuII bInary froo II If confaIns maxImum possIbIo numbor oI
nodos In aII IovoI. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf, Ior fho IovoI 'n` oI fho froo If musf confaIn 2
n
numbor oI
nodos.
13.3.2 Complete 8lnary Tree
A bInary froo T Is saId fo bo a compIofo bInary froo II If confaIns maxImum possIbIo numbor
oI nodos In aII IovoIs oxcopf fho Iasf IovoI.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng oxampIos. In fho IIguro gIvon boIow T
1
Is a IuII bInary froo whoroas
T
2
Is a compIofo bInary froo.
t!uII BInary Troo) tCompIofo BInary Troo)
13.4 8klD0E
An odgo oI a graph G tV, ) Is saId fo bo a brIdgo II wo romovo fho odgo Irom fho graph G, fhon
fho graph G has moro connocfod compononfs. ConsIdor fho graph G as
On romovIng fho odgo e
6
Irom fho abovo graph G, fho graph has fwo connocfod compononfs
such as
Honco, fho odgo e
6
Is caIIod as a brIdgo. In fho abovo IIguro e
5
and e
10
aro aIso brIdgos. Tho
brIdgo Is aIso known as cuf odgo.
Troo 313
13.4.1 Theorem
A froo oI ordor n has sIzo tn 1).
ProoI: Wo provo fhIs by fho mofhod oI InducfIon.
!or n = 1 wo havo a sIngIo vorfox and honco sIzo Is 0.
!or n = 2, fho froo T confaIns fwo vorfIcos, so sIzo Is 1.
Honco fho rosuIf IoIIows Ior n = 1 and 2. Assumo fhaf fho rosuIf Is fruo Ior aII froos oI ordor
Ioss fhan h. Lof T bo a froo oI ordor n = h and sIzo q, and Iof e bo an odgo oI T.
Wo havo aIroady obsorvod fhaf e Is a brIdgo oI T, so fhaf tT e) Is a Iorosf. Lof fho fwo
compononfs oI tT e) aro T
1
and T
2
, whoro T
i
Is a froo oI ordor n
i
and sIzo q
i
Ior i = 1 and 2.
As, n
i
< h Ior i = 1 and 2 so wo havo q
1
= tn
1
1) and q
2
= tn
2
1). SInco, n = tn
1
+ n
2
) and
q = tq
1
+ q
2
+ 1) wo gof
q = tn
1
1) + tn
2
1) + 1 = tn
1
+ n
2
) 1 = tn 1)
ThoroIoro, by InducfIon fho sIzo oI a froo Is tn 1), i.e., ono Ioss fhan Ifs ordor.
13.4.2 Theorem
vory non-frIvIaI froo confaIns af Ioasf fwo ond vorfIcos.
ProoI: Supposo fhaf T bo a froo oI ordor n and sIzo q. Lof J
1
, J
2
,., J
n
donofo fho dogroos
oI Ifs vorfIcos, ordorod so fhaf J
1
s J
2
s J
3
s . s J
n
. SInco T Is connocfod and non-frIvIaI, J
i
> 1
Ior oach i; 1 s i s n.
Assumo fhaf T doos nof confaIn fwo ond-vorfIcos. Honco J
1
> 1 and J
i
> 2 Ior 2 s i s n. Thus,
J
i
i
n
_
1
= J
1
+ J
2
+ J
3
+ .. + J
n
> 1 + 2tn 1) = 2n 1 . ti)
Buf wo know J
i
i
n
_
1
= 2q = 2 tn 1) = 2n 2
ThIs confradIcfs InoquaIIfy ti). So our assumpfIon Is wrong. Honco, T confaIns af Ioasf fwo
ond-vorfIcos.
13.5 Dl5TANCE AND ECCENTklClTY
In gonoraI, a graph`s odgos aro sfrofchabIo. As a rosuIf, wo cannof moasuro dIsfancos In a
graph wIfh IInoar moasuros. Whon wo Iook af a graph, howovor, wo can sfIII sonso fhaf somo
parfs oI fho graph aro Iurfhor aparf fhan ofhors. So, In ordor fo quanfIfy a graph fho concopf
oI dIsfanco and occonfrIcIfy Is dovoIopod.
Lof u and o bo fwo vorfIcos oI fho graph G. Tho dIsfanco bofwoon u and o Is donofod by
Jtu, o) and Is doIInod as fho Iongfh oI a shorfosf u o pafh. II fhoro Is no pafh bofwoon u and
o, fhon J tu, o) = ~.
Lof V bo fho vorfox sof oI G. Lof o e V. Tho occonfrIcIfy oI o Is donofod as eto) and Is doIInod
as
eto) = Max J tu, o): u e V and u = o
13.5.1 kadluS and Dlameter
Lof G bo fho graph, fhon fho radIus oI G Is donofod as rad tG) and Is doIInod as
rad tG) = MIn eto): o e V.
Lof V bo fho vorfox sof oI fho graph G. Tho dIamofor oI G Is donofod as dIam tG) and Is
doIInod as
dIam tG) = Max eto): o e V .
13.6 CENTkAL P0lNT AND CENTkE
Lof V bo fho vorfox sof oI fho graph G. Thon o e V Is saId fo bo a confraI poInf II eto) = rad tG).
Tho sof oI aII confraI poInfs oI G Is known as confro oI G.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graph G whoro oach odgo Is oI Iongfh 1.
Horo V= o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, . , o
16
. Now, wo gof
Jto
1
, o
2
) = 1; Jto
1
, o
3
) = 2; Jto
1
, o
4
) = 4; Jto
1
, o
5
) = 4; Jto
1
, o
6
) = 3;
Jto
1
, o
?
) = 2; Jto
1
, o
8
) = 3; Jto
1
, o
9
) = 4; Jto
1
, o
10
) = 4; Jto
1
, o
11
) = 4;
Jto
1
, o
12
) = 3; Jto
1
, o
13
) = 5; Jto
1
, o
14
) = 4; Jto
1
, o
15
) = 5; Jto
1
, o
16
) = 3.
ThoroIoro, eto
1
) = Max 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 = 5.
Jto
2
, o
1
) = 1; Jto
2
, o
3
) = 1; Jto
2
, o
4
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
5
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
6
) = 2; Jto
2
, o
?
) = 1;
Jto
2
, o
8
) = 2; Jto
2
, o
9
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
10
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
11
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
12
) = 2; Jto
2
, o
13
) = 4;
Jto
2
, o
14
) = 3; Jto
2
, o
15
) = 4; Jto
2
, o
16
) = 4.
ThoroIoro, eto
2
) = Max 1, 2, 3, 4 = 4. ProcoodIng In fhIs mannor, wo wIII gof
eto
3
) = 5; eto
4
) = 5; eto
5
) = 5; eto
6
) = 4; eto
?
) = 3;
eto
8
) = 4; eto
9
) = 5; eto
10
) = 5; eto
11
) = 4; eto
12
) = 3;
eto
13
) = 5; eto
14
) = 4; eto
15
) = 5; eto
16
) = 5.
Now, radIus = rad tG) = MIn eto), o e V = MIn 5, 4, 3
= 3 and
dIamofor = dIam tG) = Max eto), o e V
= Max 5, 4, 3 = 5.
ThoroIoro, fho confraI poInfs aro o
?
and o
12
and confor = o
?
, o
12
.
Troo 315
13.7 5PANNlN0 TkEE
Supposo G = tV, ) bo a graph. A sub graph H oI G Is saId fo bo a spannIng sub graph oI G II
bofh H and G has samo vorfox sof. A spannIng froo oI a graph G Is a froo whIch Is a spannIng
sub graph oI G. In fhIs socfIon wo wIII dIscuss fho aIgorIfhms Ior IIndIng mInImum spannIng froo.
13.7.1 Prlm'S Algorlthm
Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In PrIm`s aIgorIfhm Ior IIndIng a mInImum spannIng froo oI a
graph G. Assumo fhaf fho graph G has n vorfIcos.
1. Chooso any vorfox o
1
oI G
2. Chooso an odgo e
1
= o
1
o
2
oI G such fhaf o
1
= o
2
and e
1
has smaIIosf woIghf among fho
odgos oI G IncIdonf wIfh o
1
.
3. II odgos e
1
, e
2
, ..............., e
i
havo boon choson InvoIvIng vorfIcos o
1
, o
2
, ... , o
i+1
, fhon
chooso an odgo e
i+1
= u o wIfh u e o
1
, o
2
, .... , o
i+1
and o e o
1
, o
2
, .... , o
i+1
such fhaf e
i+1
has smaIIosf woIghf among fho odgos oI G.
4. Tho sfop 3 Is fo bo ropoafod unfII wo aro goffIng fho fofaI tn 1) odgos.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng connocfod woIghfod graph G. Horo fho numbor oI vorfIcos n = ?
tV
1
= A ; Ono can chooso any te
1
= AB, So fhaf o
2
= B)
ofhor vorfox)
te
2
= BG ; So fhaf o
3
= G ; An te
3
= G ; So fhaf o
4
= ; No
aIfornafIvo choIco Is AG) aIfornafIvo choIco)
te
4
= A! ; So fhaf o
4
= ! ; No te
5
= ! ; So fhaf o
5
= ; An
aIfornafIvo choIco) aIfornafIvo choIco Is GC)
T :
te
6
= GC ; So fhaf o
6
= C; No utT) = 32
aIfornafIvo choIco)
SInco fho fofaI odgos aro 6 = t? 1), fho procoss formInafos. Honco, fho mInImum span-
nIng froo T Is gIvon as shown In fho abovo IIguro.
13.7.2 KruSkal'S Algorlthm
Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In KruskaI`s aIgorIfhm Ior IIndIng a mInImum spannIng froo oI
a graph G. Assumo fhaf fho graph G has n vorfIcos.
1. Chooso an odgo e
1
oI G, whIch Is as smaII as possIbIo and e
1
musf nof bo a Ioop.
2. Supposo fho odgos e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
h
havo boon choson. Thon fho odgo e
h+1
tnof aIroady cho-
son) can bo choson such fhaf
ti) Tho Inducod sub graph Ge
1
, e
2
,.......... , e
h +1
Is acycIIc and
tii) WoIghf oI e
h+1
Is as smaII as possIbIo.
3. Tho sfop 2 Is fo bo ropoafod unfII wo aro goffIng fho fofaI tn 1) odgos.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng connocfod woIghfod graph G. Horo fho numbor oI vorfIcos n = 5. On
appIyIng KruskaI`s aIgorIfhm wo havo fho IoIIowIng sfagos.
Troo 31?
te
1
= B ; u te
1
) = 1 ; No
aIfornafIvo choIco)
te
2
= ; u te
2
) = 2; An te
3
= BC; u te
3
) = 2 ; No
aIfornafIvo choIco Is BC) aIfornafIvo choIco)
te
4
= AC; u te
4
) = 3 ; AIfornafIvo u tT) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 3 = 8
choIcos aro A and A)
SInco fho fofaI odgos aro 4 = t5 1), fho procoss formInafos. Honco, fho mInImum span-
nIng froo T Is gIvon as shown In fho abovo IIguro.
13.8 5EAkCHlN0 AL00klTHM5
ThIs socfIon prosonfs mofhods Ior soarchIng a graph. ThIs moans sysfomafIcaIIy IoIIowIng
fho odgos oI fho graph so as fo vIsIf fho vorfIcos oI fho graph. Tho graph soarchIng aIgorIfhms
can dIscovor much abouf fho sfrucfuro oI a graph. Horo wo prosonf fwo aIgorIfhms, dopfh
IIrsf soarch and broadfh IIrsf soarch. In addIfIon, wo wIII dIscuss fo croafo a broadfh IIrsf and
dopfh IIrsf froo.
13.8.1 Breadth First Search
Breadth first search is one of the simplest algorithms for searching a graph. Given a graph
G(V, E) and a distinguished source vertex s, breadth first search systematically explores the
edges of G to discover every vertex that is reachable from s. It computes the distance ( fewest
number of edges) from s to all such reachable vertices. Breadth first search is so named
because it expands the frontier between discovered and undiscovered vertices uniformly
across the breadth of the frontier. It constructs a breadth first tree, initially containing only
its root, that is the source vertex s.
Suppose that v
i
, v
j
, be two specified vertices of G. We will now describe a method of finding
a path from v
i
to v
j
which uses the least number of edges. Such a path is known as shortest
path, if it exists. The method assigns labels 0, 1, 2, to the vertices of G and is called the
Breadth First Search (BFS) technique. The BFS algorithm consists of the following steps:
1. Label the vertex v
i
with 0. Set i = 0
2. Find all unlabelled vertices in G, which are adjacent to vertices, labeled i. If there are
no such vertices, then v
i
is not connected to v
j
else label them by (i + 1).
3. If v
j
is labeled go to step 4, else replace i by (i + 1) and go to step 2.
4. The length of shortest path from v
i
to v
j
is (i + 1) then stop.
Consider the following graph G. Now we have to find out the shortest path from the source
vertex a to the vertex z. On using the BFS technique, we get the following stages.
(Label (a) = 0 and set i = 0)
In the above figure the adjacent vertices of a are b and d. Therefore we get label (b) = i + 1
= 0 + 1 = 1 and label (d) = i + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1. Similarly, adjacent vertices of b are c and e.
Therefore, label (c) = i + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 and label (e) = i + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.
Troo 319
In fho abovo IIguro fho adjaconf vorfIcos oI J Is g. ThoroIoro wo gof IaboI tg) = i + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.
SImIIarIy, adjaconf vorfIcos oI e aro j and :. ThoroIoro, IaboI tj) = i + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 and IaboI
t:) = i + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3. Honco, fho broadfh IIrsf froo T bocomos
13.8.2 8ackTracklng Algorlthm
Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In back-frackIng aIgorIfhm:
1. Sof i tt) = i and assIgn o
i
= t, whoro 't` Is fho formInafIng nodo.
2. !Ind a vorfox 'u` whIch Is adjaconf fo o
i
and wIfh i tu) = ti 1). Sof o
i 1
= u.
3. II i = 1, fhon sfop oIso ropIaco i by ti 1) and go fo sfop 2.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graph G. Now wo havo fo IInd ouf fho shorfosf pafh Irom fho sourco
vorfox 'a` fo fho vorfox ':`. On usIng fho B!S fochnIquo, wo gof.
On usIng back-frackIng aIgorIfhm wo havo
1. Sof i = it:) = 3 and o
i
= o
3
= :
2. Tho adjaconf fo o
3
= : Is e and i te) = ti 1) = 2. Sof o
2
= e.
3. As i = 3 = 1, so i = ti 1) = 2, Go fo sfop 2.
2
= e Is b and i tb) = ti 1) = 1. Sof o
1
= b.
3. As i = 2 = 1, so i = ti 1) = 1, Go fo sfop 2.
1
= b Is a and i ta) = ti 1) = 0. Sof o
0
= a.
3. As i = 1, so fho procoss formInafos.
ThoroIoro, fho shorfosf pafh Irom 'a` fo : Is gIvon as 'a b e :`. BosIdos fhaf, fhoro couId bo
sovoraI pafhs Irom 'a` fo ':`.
13.8.3 Depth FlrSt 5earch
BasIc phIIosophy In dopfh IIrsf soarch Is fhaf IIrsf aII vorfIcos roachabIo Irom fho vorfox 'o`
aro soarchod boIoro procoodIng fo soo fho sIbIIngs. In dopfh IIrsf soarch, odgos aro oxpIorod
ouf oI fho mosf roconfIy dIscovorod vorfox 'o` fhaf sfIII has unoxpIorod odgos IoavIng If. Whon
aII oI o`s odgos havo boon oxpIorod, fhon fho soarch backfracks fo oxpIoro odgos IoavIng fho
vorfox Irom whIch 'o` was dIscovorod. Tho procoss Is boIng confInuod unfII wo havo dIscov-
orod aII fho vorfIcos fhaf aro roachabIo Irom fho orIgInaI sourco vorfox. II any undIscovorod
vorfIcos romaIn, fhon ono oI fhom Is soIocfod as a now sourco vorfox and fho soarch Is
ropoafod. ThIs procoss Is ropoafod unfII aII vorfIcos aro dIscovorod.
ConsIdor fho graph G as boIow. Lof us consIdor fho sourco vorfox as 'a`. On usIng fho !S
fochnIquo, fho ordor In whIch fho vorfIcos aro boIng vIsIfod Is doscrIbod boIow by fho
soquonco oI graphs.
ThoroIoro, fho dopfh IIrsf froo T Is gIvon boIow. BosIdos fhaf, fhoro couId bo sovoraI dopfh
IIrsf froos Irom fho samo vorfox 'a`. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf fho dopfh IIrsf froo Is nof unIquo.
Troo 321
13.9 5H0kTE5T PATH AL00klTHM5
ThIs socfIon prosonfs mofhods Ior IIndIng shorfosf pafh Irom a sourco vorfox fo a formInafIng
vorfox In a graph G. ThIs probIom Is a roaI IIIo probIom, whoro cIfIos aro connocfod fhrough
roads, raIIs and aIr roufos and wo wanf fo IInd ouf fho shorfosf pafh bofwoon fho vorfIcos.
Horo wo prosonf fwo aIgorIfhms Ijkasfra`s AIgorIfhm and !Ioyd-WarshaII AIgorIfhm.
13.9.1 DljkStra'S Algorlthm
In a gIvon graph GtV, ), wo wanf fo IInd a shorfosf pafh Irom a gIvon sourco vorfox 's e V` fo
ovory vorfox 'o e V`. ThIs Is ofhorwIso known as sIngIo sourco shorfosf pafh probIom.
Ijkasfra`s AIgorIfhm soIvos fho sIngIo sourco shorfosf pafh probIoms In woIghfod graphs
fhaf fo non-nogafIvo woIghfs. ThoroIoro, wo assumo fhaf utuo) > 0 Ior oach odgo tuo) e .
1. Sof i to
s
) = 0 and Ior aII vorfIcos o
i
= o
s
i to
i
) = ~. Sof T = V; whoro V Is fho sof oI vorfIcos
oI G and T Is fho sof oI uncoIourod vorfIcos.
2. Lof u bo fho vorfox In T Ior whIch i tu) Is mInImum.
3. II u = o
t
tTormInafIng nodo), fhon sfop. Iso, go fo sfop 4.
4. !or ovory odgo e = uo, IncIdonf wIfh u, II o e T, fhon ropIaco i to) wIfh
MIn i to), i tu) + u tuo).
i.e, i to) = MIn i to), i tu) + u tuo)
5. Chango T by T u and go fo sfop 2.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng graph G. Lof us consIdor fho sourco vorfox as e and fho formInafIng
vorfox as j. Wo havo fo IInd ouf fho shorfosf dIsfanco bofwoon fho vorfIcos e and j.
In fho abovo graph G, fho sourco vorfox Is o
s
= e and o
t
= j . Sof ite) = 0 and ita) = itb) = itc)
= itJ) = itj) = ~. T = V = e, a, b, c, J, j . Honco, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
T e a b c J j
Now, u = e as itu) = ite) = 0 whIch Is mInImum. Tho odgos IncIdonf on u = e aro ea and ec.
ThoroIoro,
ita) = MIn ita), ite) + utea)
= MIn ~, 18 = 18.
itc) = MIn itc), ite) + utec)
= MIn ~, 15 = 15.
AgaIn, T = T u = e = a, b, c, J, j . Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 18 ~ 15 ~ ~
T a b c J j
Now, u = c as itu) = itc) = 15 whIch Is mInImum. Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = c aro ca, cb
and cJ. ThoroIoro,
ita) = MIn ita), itc) + utca)
= MIn 18, 21 = 18.
itb) = MIn itb), itc) + utcb)
= MIn ~, 29 = 29.
itJ) = MIn itJ), itc) + utcJ)
= MIn ~, 22 = 22.
AgaIn, T = T u = c =a, b, J, j . Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 18 29 15 22 ~
T a b J j
Now, u = a as itu) = ita) = 18 whIch Is mInImum. Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = a Is ab.
ThoroIoro,
itb) = MIn itb), ita) + utab)
= MIn 29, 2? = 2?.
AgaIn, T = T u = a =b, J, j. Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 18 2? 15 22 ~
T b J j
Now, u = J as itu) = itJ) = 22 whIch Is mInImum. Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = J aro Jb and
Jj. ThoroIoro,
itb) = MIn itb), itJ) + utJb)
= MIn 2?, 32 = 2?.
itj) = MIn itj), itJ) + utJj)
= MIn ~, 58 = 58.
AgaIn, T = T u = J = b, j. Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo.
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 18 2? 15 22 58
T b j
Now, u = b as itu) = itb) = 2? whIch Is mInImum. Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = b Is bj.
ThoroIoro,
itj) = MIn itj), i(b) + utbj)
= MIn 58, 55 = 55.
AgaIn, T = T u = b =j. Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox e a b c J j
ito) 0 18 2? 15 22 55
T j
Troo 323
Now, u = j and j Is fho formInafIng nodo, so fho procoss formInafos. Honco, fho shorfosf
dIsfancos Irom e fo a, b, c, J and j aro 18, 2?, 15, 22, 55 rospocfIvoIy. Tho shorfosf dIsfanco
bofwoon e and j Is gIvon In fho IoIIowIng IIguro.
13.9.2 FloydWarShall Algorlthm
!Ioyd-WarshaII aIgorIfhm soIvos aII-paIrs shorfosf pafhs probIom on a dIrocfod woIghfod
graph G = tV, ). Tho woIghfod graph may confaIn nogafIvo woIghf odgos, buf wo shaII as-
sumo fhaf fhoro aro no nogafIvo woIghf cycIos. In fhIs aIgorIfhm, wo uso fho adjaconcy
mafrIx oI fho graph fo IInd ouf fho shorfosf dIsfanco bofwoon any paIr oI vorfIcos.
Supposo fhaf GtV, ) bo a graph. Lof W bo fho adjaconcy mafrIx oI fho woIghfod dIrocfod
graph G. Tho aIgorIfhm has fho IoIIowIng sfops:
1. n = Rows W
2.
t0)
= W
3. !or h = 1 fo n
4. o Ior i = 1 fo n
5. o Ior j = 1 fo n
6. J
ij
h > C
= MIn J J J
ij
h
ih
h
hj
h
+
1 1 1 > C > C > C
A
,
?. WrIfo
tn)
whoro,
tn)
= J
ij
n
@ E
.
13.10 CUT VEkTlCE5
Supposo fhaf GtV, ) bo fho graph. A vorfox 'o` oI a graph G Is caIIod a cuf vorfox oI G II fho
numbor oI compononf oI tG o) Is groafor fhan fho numbor oI compononfs oI G.
i.e. u tG o) > utg), whoro utG) roprosonfs numbor oI compononf oI G.
ConsIdor fho graph G as boIow. In fho graph G, 'o
4
` Is a cuf vorfox as utG o
4
) = 3 > utG) = 1.
V
5
v
4
G :
V
5
v
5
v
5
13.11 EULEk 0kAPH
A four Is a cIosod waIk oI G, whIch IncIudo ovory odgo oI G af Ioasf onco. An uIor four Is a
cIosod waIk oI G, whIch IncIudo ovory odgo oI G oxacfIy onco. A graph G Is saId fo bo an uIor
or uIorIan II fho graph G has an uIor four.
In fhIs socfIon, wo wIII dIscuss fwo aIgorIfhms i.e., !Ioury`s aIgorIfhm and HIorhoIzor`s
aIgorIfhm fo consfrucf uIor four In a uIor graph.
13.11.1 Fleury'S Algorlthm
ThIs aIgorIfhm Is gonoraIIy dovoIopod fo consfrucf an uIor four In a uIor graph. Tho IoIIow-
Ing sfops aro usod In fhIs aIgorIfhm:
0
In fho uIor graph G and sof W
0
= o
0
.
2. II fho fraII W
i
= o
0
e
1
o
1
e
2
o
2
... e
i
o
i
has boon choson, fhon chooso an odgo e
i+1
dIIIoronf
Irom e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
i
such fhaf
ti) e
i+1
Is IncIdonf wIfh o
i
and
tii) unIoss fhoro Is no aIfornafIvo, e
i+1
Is nof a brIdgo oI fho odgo doIofod subgraph
G e
1
, e
2
, ... , e
i
3. Sfop II u
i
confaIns ovory odgo oI G; ofhorwIso go fo sfop 2.
ConsIdor fho IoIIowIng uIor graph G. Wo havo fo IInd ouf fho uIor four usIng !Ioury`s
aIgorIfhm Ior fho uIor graph G.
1. Lof us chooso o
0
= a
1
and sof u
0
= a
1
2. Chooso odgo e
1
= J
1
such fhaf W
1
= o
0
e
1
= a
1
J
1
a
2
3. As W
1
confaIns onIy ono odgo, so go fo sfop 2.
2. Chooso odgo e
2
= J
6
such fhaf W
2
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
3. As W
2
confaIns 2 odgos, so go fo sfop 2.
2. Chooso odgo e
3
= J
10
such fhaf W
3
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
3. As W
3
2. Chooso odgo e
4
= J
9
such fhaf W
4
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
9
a
4
3. As W
4
2. Chooso odgo e
5
= J
5
such fhaf W
5
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
9
a
4
J
5
a
2
3. As W
5
ProcoodIng In fhIs mannor, wo wIII gof
W
12
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
9
a
4
J
5
a
2
J
4
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
8
a
3
J
2
a
1
J
3
a
8
J
11
a
6
J
?
a
1
As W
12
confaIns aII fho 12 odgos onco, so fho procoss formInafos. Thus fho uIor four
producod Is gIvon as
a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
9
a
4
J
5
a
2
J
4
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
8
a
3
J
2
a
1
J
3
a
8
J
11
a
6
J
?
a
1
Troo 325
13.11.2 Hlerholzer'S Algorlthm
LIko !Ioury`s aIgorIfhm, fhIs aIgorIfhm Is aIso dovoIopod fo consfrucf an uIor four In a
uIor graph. Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In fhIs aIgorIfhm:
1. Chooso any vorfox o In G and chooso any cIosod fraII W
0
In G. Sof i = 0.
2. II tW
i
) = tG), fhon sfop and W
i
Is an uIor four oI G; oIso choso a vorfox o
i
on W
i
whIch
Is IncIdonf wIfh an odgo In G buf nof In W
i
. Chooso a cIosod fraII W
i
`In fho subgraph G -
tW
i
), sfarfIng af fho vorfox o
i
. Whoro W
i
` Is fho dofour fraII.
3. Lof W
i+1
bo fho cIosod fraII consIsfIng oI fho odgos oI bofh W
i
and W
i
` obfaInod by
sfarfIng af fho vorfox o, fravorsIng fho fraII W
i
unfII o
i
Is roachod, fhon fravorsIng fho
cIosod fraII W
i
` and rofurnIng fo o
i
, compIofIng fho rosf oI fho fraII W
i
. RopIaco i by
ti + 1) and go fo sfop 2.
ConsIdor fho graph G. Wo havo fo IInd ouf fho uIor four usIng HIorhoIzor`s aIgorIfhm Ior
fho uIor graph G.
1. Lof o = a
1
chooso fho cIosod fraII W
0
as W
0
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
5
a
4
J
9
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
3
a
1
. Sof i = 0.
2. As tW
0
) = tG), chooso a
2
on W
0
IncIdonf wIfh J
6
nof In W
0
. Chooso W
0
`= a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
4
a
2
; whoro aII J
i
e G tW
0
); i = 6, 4, 10.
3. Now, wo havo W
1
= W
0+1
= a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
4
a
2
J
5
a
4
J
9
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
3
a
1
and i = ti + 1)
= 0 + 1 = 1. Go fo sfop 2.
2. As tW
1
) = tG), chooso a
1
on W
1
IncIdonf wIfh J
2
nof In W
1
. Chooso W
1
`= a
1
J
2
a
3
J
8
a
8
J
11
a
6
J
?
a
1
; whoro aII J
i
e G tW
1
); i = 2, 8, 11, ?.
3. Now, wo gof W
2
= W
1+1
= a
1
J
2
a
3
J
8
a
8
J
11
a
6
J
?
a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
4
a
2
J
5
a
4
J
9
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
3
a
1
and i = ti + 1) = 2. Go fo sfop 2. SInco, tW
2
) = tG); fho procoss formInafos.
ThoroIoro, fho uIor four Is gIvon as
a
1
J
2
a
3
J
8
a
8
J
11
a
6
J
?
a
1
J
1
a
2
J
6
a
5
J
10
a
?
J
4
a
2
J
5
a
4
J
9
a
?
J
12
a
8
J
3
a
1
.
13.11.3 Euler Trall
Supposo fhaf G bo fho graph. A fraII In G Is saId fo bo an uIor fraII II If confaIns ovory odgo
oI G oxacfIy onco. So ovory uIor four Is a cIosod uIor TraII.
ConsIdor fho graph G as boIow. Ono uIor fraII In fho graph G Is gIvon as
o
1
e
1
o
2
e
2
o
5
e
3
o
4
e
4
o
2
e
5
o
3
e
6
o
4
e
?
o
6
e
8
o
5
e
9
o
1
e
10
o
6
.
ConsIdor anofhor graph G as boIow. In fho graph G fho cIosod uIor fraII Is gIvon as
o
1
e
1
o
2
e
2
o
5
e
3
o
4
e
6
o
3
e
5
o
2
e
4
o
4
e
?
o
6
e
8
o
5
e
9
o
1
e
10
o
6
e
11
o
?
e
12
o
1
.
e
3
e
4
This is known as an Euler Tour.
e
7
13.12 HAMILTONIAN PATH
A path of a graph G(V, E) which contains every vertex of G exactly once is known as
Hamiltonian path. Consider the following graphs:
G :
2
The graph G
1
has no Hamiltonian path where as G
2
has a Hamiltonian path, i.e.,
v
1
e
1
v
2
e
3
v
3
e
4
v
4
.
13.12.1 Hamiltonian Graph
A cycle in a graph G, which contains every vertex of G only once, is known as a Hamiltonian
cycle. It is to be noted that no vertex of a cycle is repeated apart from the final vertex, which
is same as the starting vertex. A graph G is said to be Hamiltonian if it has a Hamiltonian
cycle. Consider the graph G as
The Hamiltonian cycle is v
1
e
1
v
2
e
2
v
3
e
4
v
4
e
5
v
1
. Therefore, the graph G is a Hamiltonian
graph.
13.13 CLOSURE OF A GRAPH
Let G be a simple graph. If there are two non-adjacent vertices u
1
and v
1
in G such that
d(u
1
) + d(v
1
) n (number of vertices in G) then join u
1
and v
1
by an edge to get the super graph
G
1
of G. Continue this process recursively joining pairs of non-adjacent vertices whose degree
sum is at least n until no such pair remains. The final super graph thus obtained is called the
closure of G denoted by C(G).
Troo 32?
Horo, V = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
and n = 4 tnumbor oI vorfIcos). Now Ior fho non-adjaconf vorfIcos
o
1
and o
3
wo gof
Jto
1
) + Jto
3
) = 2 + 2 = 4 > n = 4.
ThoroIoro, fhoro oxIsfs an odgo bofwoon o
1
and o
3
. SImIIarIy, Ior fho non-adjaconf vorfIcos
o
2
and o
4
wo gof Jto
2
) + Jto
4
) = 2 + 2 = 4 > 4 = n. So, fhoro oxIsfs an odgo bofwoon o
2
and o
4
.
Thus, fho IInaI supor graph Is gIvon as boIow. ThIs Is nofhIng buf fho cIosuro oI G, i.e., CtG).
13.14 TkAVELLlN0 5ALE5MAN Pk08LEM
Tho job oI a fravoIIIng saIosman Is fo vIsIf aII fho fowns IInkod wIfh roads In a parfIcuIar
forrIfory. Ho has fo vIsIf aII fho fowns oxacfIy onco In such a mannor fhaf fho fofaI dIsfanco
fravoIIod by hImsoII wIII bo mInImum.
In graph fhoory wo donofo nodos as fowns joInod by a woIghfod odgo II and onIy II road
connocfs fhom whIch doos nof pass fhrough any oI fho ofhor fowns. In fravoIIIng saIosman
probIom, wo havo fo consfrucf a mInImum HamIIfonIan cycIo. Tho IoIIowIng aIgorIfhms pro-
vIdo mInImum HamIIfonIan cycIo In caso oI a compIofo woIghfod graph:
ti) Two opfImaI aIgorIfhm and
tii) CIososf InsorfIon aIgorIfhm
13.14.1 Two0ptlmal Algorlthm
Supposo fhaf GtV, ) bo a compIofo woIghfod graph. Whoro Vo
1
, o
2
, ... , o
n
. Horo wo chooso
a HamIIfonIan cycIo C and porIorm a soquonco oI modIIIcafIons fo C fo IInd a smaIIor woIghf.
Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In fwo-opfImaI aIgorIfhm:
1. Lof C = o
1
o
2
...... o
n
o
1
bo a HamIIfonIan cycIo oI fho compIofo woIghfod graph G. CaIcu-
Iafo fho woIghf u oI C by fho roIafIon
u = uto
1
, o
2
) + uto
2
, o
3
) + ... + uto
n
, o
1
).
Whoro, uto
i
, o
j
) donofo fho woIghf oI fho odgo joInIng o
i
and o
j
.
2. Sof i = 1
3. Sof j = i + 2
4. Lof C
ij
donofo fho HamIIfonIan cycIo as
C
ij
= o
1
o
2
o
3
... o
i
o
j
o
j 1
o
j 2
... o
i+1
o
j+1
... o
n
o
1
.
CaIcuIafo u
ij
oI C
ij
, whoro u
ij
= u uto
i
o
i+1
) uto
j
o
j+1
) + uto
i
o
j
) + uto
i+1
o
j+1
).
5. II u
ij
< u, fhon ropIaco C by C
ij
and u by u
ij
. AIso roIaboI fho vorfIcos oI C
ij
In fho ordor
o
1
o
2
o
3
..... o
n
o
1
; oIso go fo sfop 6.
6. Sof j = tj + 1). II j s n, go fo sfop 4 oIso sof i = ti + 1).
?. II i s tn 2), go fo sfop 3 oIso sfop.
13.14.2 The CloSeSt lnSertlon Algorlthm
In fhIs aIgorIfhm wo graduaIIy buIId up a soquonco oI cycIos In fho graph whIch InvoIvo moro
and moro vorfIcos unfII aII fho vorfIcos aro choson up. In fhIs caso ono moro vorfox Is In-
sorfod Info fho cycIo oach fImo In choaposf possIbIo way. Tho doscrIpfIon usos fho Idoa oI fho
dIsfanco oI a vorfox o Irom a waIk W. Tho IoIIowIng sfops aro usod In fhIs aIgorIfhm:
1
as a sfarfIng vorfox.
2. Chooso fho 2nd vorfox o
2
whIch Is cIososf fo o
1
Irom fho tn 1) vorfIcos nof choson so Iar.
Lof u
2
= o
1
o
2
o
1
donofo fho waIk.
3. Chooso fho 3rd vorfox o
3
whIch Is cIososf fo fho waIk u
2
= o
1
o
2
o
1
Irom fho tn 2) vorfIcos
nof choson so Iar. Lof u
3
= o
1
o
2
o
3
o
1
donofo fho waIk.
4. Chooso fho 4fh vorfox o
4
3
= o
1
o
2
o
3
o
1
Irom fho tn 3)
vorfIcos nof choson so Iar. !Ind fho shorfosf waIk Irom fho waIks o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
; o
1
o
2
o
4
o
3
o
1
; o
1
o
4
o
2
o
3
o
1
. Lof u
4
donofo fho shorfosf waIk. RoIaboI fho vorfIcos as o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
II
nocossary.
5. Chooso fho 5fh vorfox o
5
4
Irom fho tn 4) vorfIcos nof
choson so Iar. !Ind fho shorfosf waIk Irom fho waIks o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
5
o
1
; o
1
o
2
o
3
o
5
o
4
o
1
; o
1
o
2
o
5
o
3
o
4
o
1
; o
1
o
5
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
. Lof u
5
donofo fho shorfosf waIk. RoIaboI fho vorfIcos as o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
5
o
1
II nocossary.
6. Tho procoss Is boIng ropoafod unfII aII fho vorfIcos aro IncIudod In fho cycIo. ThoroIoro
fho waIk u
n
Is fho HamIIfonIan cycIo oI fho graph G.
Note: Bofh fho aIgorIfhms i.e., Two opfImaI aIgorIfhm and CIososf InsorfIon aIgorIfhm provIdo
roasonabIy good soIufIons. ThoroIoro, bofh aro approxImafoIy opfImaI.

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 lj u anJ o are Jistinct oertices oj a tree T, then T contains exact/y one u o path.
Solution: Supposo, fo fho confrary, fho froo T confaIns fwo u o pafhs. Lof us assumo fhaf
fho fwo u o pafhs aro Q and S.
SInco Q and S aro dIIIoronf u o pafhs, fhoro musf oxIsfs a vorfox x boIongIng fo bofh Q
and S such fhaf fho vorfox ImmodIafoIy IoIIowIng x on Q Is dIIIoronf Irom fho vorfox ImmodI-
afoIy IoIIowIng x on S. ThIs can bo oasIIy undorsfandabIo Irom fho IIguro shown boIow.
Lof us assumo fhaf y bo fho IIrsf vorfox oI Q IoIIowIng x, whIch aIso boIongs fo S. ThIs
ImpIIos fhaf fhoro oxIsfs fwo x y pafhs fhaf havo onIy x and y In common. If Is cIoar fhaf
fhoso fwo pafhs produco a cycIo In T. ThIs Is a confradIcfIon. ThIs confradIcf fo fho Iacf fhaf
T Is a froo.
ThoroIoro, our supposIfIon Is wrong. Honco, T has onIy ono u o pafh.
Example 2 For the jo//ouing ueighteJ graph O app/y F/oyJ-Warsha// a/gorithn to jinJ the
shortest path betueen any pair oj oertices a, b, c, J anJ e. 8hou at /east one iteration in
Jetai/s.
Troo 329
Solution: Tho adjaconcy mafrIx W wIfh rospocf fo fho nodos b, a, c, e
and J Is gIvon as
0 2 ? 5
0 ? 6
3 0
1 6 0
5 0
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
Honco, n = RowW = 5
t0)
= d
ij
0 = B
A
=
0 2 ? 5
0 ? 6
3 0
1 6 0
5 0
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
!or h = 1, i = 1 and j = 1 fo 5 wo gof

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
11
1
11
0
11
0
11
0
12
1
12
0
11
0
12
0
13
1
13
0
11
0
13
0
14
1
14
0
11
0
14
0
15
1
15
0
11
0
15
0
0 0 0 0
2 0 2 2
? 0 ? ?
0
5 0 5 5
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ ~ + ~ ~
+
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
21
1
21
0
21
0
11
0
22
1
22
0
21
0
12
0
23
1
23
0
21
0
13
0
24
1
24
0
21
0
14
0
25
1
25
0
21
0
15
0
0
0 2 0
?
? ?
6 5 6
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ +
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ + ~
+ ~
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
!or h =1, i = 3 and j = 1 fo 5 wo gof

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
31
1
31
0
31
0
11
0
32
1
32
0
31
0
12
0
33
1
33
0
31
0
13
0
34
1
34
0
31
0
14
0
35
1
35
0
31
0
15
0
0
3 2 3
0 ? 0
5
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ +
+ ~ +
+ ~ ~ + ~ ~
+ ~ ~ ~
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
41
1
41
0
41
0
11
0
42
1
42
0
41
0
12
0
43
1
43
0
41
0
13
0
44
1
44
0
41
0
14
0
45
1
45
0
41
0
15
0
11 0 1
1 2 3
61 ? 6
01 0
1 5 4
+ +
+ ~ +
+ +
+ + ~
+ ~
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
51
1
51
0
51
0
11
0
52
1
52
0
51
0
12
0
53
1
53
0
51
0
13
0
54
1
54
0
51
0
14
0
0
2
?
5 5
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ ~ + ~
+ ~ + ~
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
MIn MIn
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
t , ) t , )
J J J J
55
1
55
0
51
0
15
0
0 5 0 + ~ MIn MIn t , ) t , )
ThoroIoro, wo havo
t1)
=
0 2 ? 5
0 ? 6
3 0
1 3 6 0 4
5 0
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
SImIIarIy Ior h = 2, i = 1 fo 5 and j = 1 fo 5, wo gof
t2)
=
0 2 ? 9 5
0 ? 6
3 0 10 9
1 3 6 0 4
5 0
~ ~
~

~ ~ ~
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
t3)
=
0 2 ? 9 5
0 ? 6
3 0 10 9
1 3 6 0 4
5 0
~ ~
~

~ ~ ~
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
Troo 331
t4)
=
0 2 3 9 5
8 0 1 ? 3
11 3 0 10 6
1 3 6 0 4
6 2 1 5 0
.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
t5)
=
0 3 6 0 5
8 0 1 ? 3
11 3 0 10 6
1 3 6 0 4
6 2 1 5 0

.
0
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
!rom fho abovo mafrIx, fho shorfosf dIsfanco Ior any paIr oI vorfIcos can bo Iound ouf.
Example 3 FinJ the c/osure oj the graph O uhere
Solution: In fho abovo graph G wo havo V = o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, o
4
, o
5
, o
6
and numbor oI vorfIcos
tn) = 6. Now Ior fho non adjaconf vorfIcos o
1
and o
4
wo havo
Jto
1
) + Jto
4
) = 4 + 2 = 6 > n = 6.
ThoroIoro, fhoro oxIsfs an odgo bofwoon o
1
and o
4
. Lof fho supor graph G
1
bo
!or fho non-adjaconf vorfIcos o
2
and o
4
wo havo Jto
2
) + Jto
4
) = 3 + 3 = 6 > n . ThoroIoro,
fhoro oxIsfs an odgo bofwoon o
2
and o
4
2
bo
AgaIn, o
2
and o
5
aro non-adjaconf such fhaf Jto
2
) + Jto
5
) = 4 + 3 = ? > n = 6. ThoroIoro, fhoro
oxIsfs an odgo bofwoon o
2
and o
5
3
bo
3
and o
5
wo havo Jto
3
) + Jto
5
) = 3 + 4 = ? > n. ThoroIoro,
3
and o
5
4
bo
3
and o
6
wo havo Jto
3
) + Jto
6
) = 4 + 3 = ? > n. ThoroIoro,
3
and o
6
5
bo.
4
and o
6
wo havo Jto
4
) + Jto
6
) = 4 + 4 = 8 > n. ThoroIoro,
4
and o
6
. Lof fho supor graph bo G
6
. In fho abovo graph, fhoro
Is no fwo non-adjaconf vorfIcos. Thus, G
6
Is fho IInaI supor graph. ThoroIoro, fho cIosuro oI
fho graph G Is gIvon as
Troo 333
Example 4 For the jo//ouing traoe//ing sa/esnan prob/en, carry out the c/osest insertion
a/gorithn.
Solution: GIvon fhaf fho compIofo woIghfod graph G as
1. Chooso fho vorfox o
1
2
, whIch Is cIososf fo o
1
. So, u
2
= o
1
o
2
o
1
3
, whIch Is cIoso fo u
2
. So, u
3
= o
1
o
2
o
3
o
1
4
3
. Honco, wo havo fho IoIIowIng casos.
u
4
= o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
or
= o
1
o
2
o
4
o
3
o
1
or
= o
1
o
4
o
2
o
3
o
1
Now Iongfh oI o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
= 10 + 40 + 30 + 20 = 100
Longfh oI o
1
o
2
o
4
o
3
o
1
= 10 + 45 + 30 + 15 = 100
Longfh oI o
1
o
4
o
2
o
3
o
1
= 20 + 45 + 40 + 15 = 120
ThoroIoro, u
4
= o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
Is mInImum.
5
4
. Honco, wo havo fho IoIIowIng casos. Tho
Iongfh oI IoIIowIng cycIos Is gIvon as boIow.
o
1
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
5
o
1
= 10 + 40 + 30 + 55 + 25 = 160
o
1
o
2
o
3
o
5
o
4
o
1
= 10 + 40 + 35 + 55 + 20 = 160
o
1
o
2
o
5
o
3
o
4
o
1
= 10 + 50 + 35 + 30 + 20 = 145
o
1
o
5
o
2
o
3
o
4
o
1
= 25 + 50 + 40 + 30 + 20 = 165
As aII fho vorfIcos aro IncIudod In fho cycIo, so fho procoss formInafos. Honco , fho shorf-
osf HamIIfonIan cycIo Is gIvon as o
1
o
2
o
5
o
3
o
4
o
1
.
Example 5 For the travelling salesman problem given in example 4, carry out the two opti-
mal algorithm.
Solution: For the complete weighted graph G given above, the number of vertices (n) = 5.
According to the two optimal algorithm we have the following steps:
1. Let C = v
1
, v
2
, v
3
, v
4
, v
5
, v
1
be a Hamiltonian cycle.
Therefore, we get
w = w(v
1
v
2
) + w(v
2
v
3
) + w(v
3
v
4
) + w(v
4
v
5
) + w(v
5
v
1
)
= 10 + 40 + 30 + 55 + 25 = 160
2. Set i = 1
3. Set j = i + 2 = 3
4. Set C
ij
= C
13
= v
1
v
3
v
2
v
4
v
5
v
1
w
13
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
3
v
4
) + w(v
1
v
3
) + w(v
2
v
4
)
= 160 10 30 + 15 + 45 = 180
5. As w
13
Y
/
w; Go to step 6.
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 4 and 4 n = 5. Go to step 4.
4. Set C
ij
= C
14
= v
1
v
4
v
3
v
2
v
5
v
1
w
14
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
4
v
5
) + w(v
1
v
4
) + w(v
2
v
5
) = 165
5. As w
14
= 165 Y
/
160 = w; Go to step 6.
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 5 and 5 n = 5. Go to step 4.
4. Set C
ij
= C
15
= v
1
v
5
v
4
v
3
v
2
v
1
w
15
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
5
v
1
) + w(v
1
v
5
) + w(v
2
v
1
) = 160
5. As w
15
= 160 Y
/
160 = w; Go to step 6
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 6 and 6 Y
/
n = 5. Go to step 7 with i = (i + 1) = 2.
7. As i = 2 (n 2) = 3, Go to step 3.
3. Set j = (i + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
4. Set C
ij
= C
24
= v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
5
v
1
W
24
= w w(v
2
v
3
) w(v
4
v
5
) + w(v
2
v
4
) + w(v
3
v
5
) = 145
5. As w
24
= 145 < 160 = w; go to step 1
1. C = C
24
= v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
5
v
1
with w = w
24
= 145.
After re-labeling the vertices we have
C = C
24
= v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
1
.
Tree 335
2. Set i = 1
3. Set j = (i + 2) = 3
4. Set C
ij
= C
13
= v
1
v
3
v
2
v
4
v
5
v
1
w
13
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
3
v
4
) + w(v
1
v
3
) + w(v
2
v
4
) = 165
5. As w
13
= 165 Y
/
145 = w; go to step 6
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 4 and 4 n = 5. Go to step 4
4. Set C
ij
= C
14
= v
1
v
4
v
3
v
2
v
5
v
1
w
14
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
4
v
5
) + w(v
1
v
4
) + w(v
2
v
5
) = 165
5. As w
14
= 165 Y
/
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 5 and 5 n = 5. Go to step 4
4. Set C
ij
= C
15
= v
1
v
5
v
4
v
3
v
2
v
1
w
15
= w w(v
1
v
2
) w(v
5
v
1
) + w(v
1
v
5
) + w(v
2
v
1
) = 145
5. As w
15
= 145 Y
/
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 6 Y
/
n = 5 with i = (i + 1) = 2.
7. As i = 2 (n 2) = 3, Go to step 3
3. Set j = (i + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
4. Set C
ij
= C
24
= v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
5
v
1
w
24
= w w(v
2
v
3
) w(v
4
v
5
) + w(v
2
v
4
) + w(v
3
v
5
) = 160
5. As w
24
= 160 Y
/
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 5 5 = n, go to step 4
4. Set C
ij
= C
25
= v
1
v
2
v
5
v
4
v
3
v
1
w
25
= w w(v
2
v
3
) w(v
5
v
1
) + w(v
2
v
5
) + w(v
3
v
1
) = 145
5. As w
25
= 145 Y
/
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 6 Y
/
n = 5 with i = (i + 1) = 3. go to step 7
7. As i = 3 (n 2) = 3, go to step 3
3. Set j = (i + 2) = 5
4. Set C
ij
= C
35
= v
1
v
2
v
3
v
5
v
4
v
1
w
35
= w w(v
3
v
4
) w(v
5
v
1
) + w(v
3
v
5
) + w(v
4
v
1
) = 160
5. As w
35
= 160 Y
/
6. Set j = (j + 1) = 6 Y
/
n = 5 with i = (i + 1) = 4, go to step 7
7. As i = 4 Y
/
(n 2) = 3, therefore the process terminates. Hence, the minimum
Hamiltonian path is given as v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
1
. The path for travelling salesman is given
below.
Troo 33?
i.e., p
1
+ 2p
2
+ 3p
3
+ 4p
4
+ ... = 2tp
1
+ p
2
+ p
3
+ ...) 2
i.e., p
1
= p
3
+ 2p
4
+ 3p
5
+ 4p
6
+ ... + 2.
Example 8 lj T is a binary tree oj height h anJ orJer p, then
th + 1) s p s 2
th + 1)
1
Solution: Lof p
h
donofos fho numbor oI vorfIcos oI T af IovoI h Ior 0 s h s h.
ThoroIoro, wo gof
p
h
h
h
_
0
= p
SInco p
h
> 1 Ior oach h, and p
h
s 2p
th 1)
Ior 1 s h s h, If IoIIows, InducfIvoIy, fhaf p
h
s 2
h
.
AgaIn,
2
0
h
h
h
_
= 1 + 2 + 2
2
+ 2
3
+ ... + 2
h
= 2
h+ 1
1
AgaIn, p
h
h
h
h
h
h
s

_ _
2
0 0
= 2
h+1
1
i.e., p s 2
h+1
1 . ti)
AIso, 1
0 0
s

_ _
p
h
h
h
h
h
= p
i.e., th + 1) s p . tii)
On combInIng oquafIons ti) and tii), wo gof
th + 1) s p s 2
h+1
1.
Example 9 Construct the binary tree jor the arithnetic expression
(A(B C1((D E(F + O H.
Solution: GIvon arIfhmofIc oxprossIon Is
tAtB C))/tt )t! + G H)).
Tho bInary froo corrospondIng fo fho abovo oxprossIon Is gIvon boIow.
/
A
B C D
E F
G H
*

*
Example 10 For the graph O shoun be/ou, use Dijhstra`s a/gorithn to conpute the shortest
path betueen a anJ j.

Solution: In fho abovo graph G, fho sourco vorfox Is
o
s
= a and o
t
= j. Sof ita) = 0
and itb) = itc) = itJ) = ite) = itj) = ~. T = V = a, b, c, J, e, j.
Honco, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
T a b c J e j
Now, u = a as itu) = ita) = 0
whIch Is mInImum.
Tho odgos IncIdonf on u = a aro ab and ac.
ThoroIoro, itb) = MIn itb), ita) + utab)
= MIn ~, 20 = 20.
itc) = MIn itc), ita) + utac)
= MIn ~, 30 = 30.
AgaIn, T = T u = a = b, c, J, e, j.
ThoroIoro, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 20 30 ~ ~ ~
T b c J e j
Now, u = b as itu) = itb) = 20
whIch Is mInImum.
Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = b aro bc and be. ThoroIoro,
itc) = MIn itc), itb) + utbc)
= MIn 30, 43 = 30.
ite) = MIn ite), itb) + utbe)
= MIn ~, 3? = 3?.
AgaIn, T = T u = b =c, J, e, j.
Thus, wo havo fho IoIIowIng fabIo
Troo 339
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 20 30 ~ 3? ~
T c J e j
Now, u = c as itu) = itc) = 30 whIch Is mInImum.
Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = c Is cJ.
ThoroIoro, itJ) = MIn itJ), itc) + utcJ)
= MIn ~, 45 = 45.
AgaIn, T = T u = c =J, e, j.
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 20 30 45 3? ~
T J e j
Now, u = e as itu) = ite) = 3? whIch Is mInImum.
Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = e aro eJ and ej.
ThoroIoro, itJ) = MIn itJ), ite) + uteJ)
= MIn 45, 6? = 45.
itj) = MIn itj), ite) + utej)
= MIn ~, ?0 = ?0.
AgaIn, T = T u = e = J, j.
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 20 30 45 3? ?0
T J j
Now, u = J as itu) = itJ) = 45 whIch Is mInImum.
Tho odgos IncIdonf wIfh u = J Is Jj. ThoroIoro,
itj) = MIn itj), itJ) + utJj)
= MIn ?0, 68 = 68.
AgaIn, T = T u = J =j.
Vorfox a b c J e j
ito) 0 20 30 45 3? 68
T j
Now, u = j and j Is fho formInafIng nodo, so fho procoss formInafos.
Honco, fho shorfosf dIsfancos Irom a fo b, c, J, e and j aro 20, 30, 45, 3?, 68 rospocfIvoIy. Tho
shorfosf dIsfanco bofwoon a and j Is gIvon In fho IIguro Iurfhor.
f
Example 11 Construct the jo//ouing graphs.
(a Eu/erian but not Hani/tonian (b Hani/tonian but not Eu/erian
(c Neither Eu/erian nor Hani/tonian (J Eu/erian anJ Hani/tonian
Solution: Tho dIIIoronf graphs aro gIvon boIow.
uIorIan buf nof HamIIfonIan HamIIfonIan buf nof uIorIan
NoIfhor uIorIan nor HamIIfonIan HamIIfonIan and uIorIan
Example 12 For the graph O shoun be/ou, jinJ the Jepth jirst search jorest.
Troo 341
Solution: Lof us consIdor fho sourco vorfox as 'a` In fho abovo graph G. On usIng fho !S
fochnIquo, fho ordor In whIch fho vorfIcos aro boIng vIsIfod Is doscrIbod boIow by fho so-
quonco oI graphs.
ThoroIoro, fho doffod graph shown abovo Is fho dopfh IIrsf Iorosf T oI fho graph G. BosIdos
fhaf fhoro couId bo sovoraI dopfh IIrsf Iorosf Irom fho samo vorfox 'a`. ThIs IndIcafos fhaf fho
dopfh IIrsf Iorosf Is nof unIquo.
Example 13 For the graph O shoun be/ou, jinJ the breaJth jirst search tree.
Solution: ConsIdor fho graph G gIvon abovo. Now wo havo fo IInd ouf fho shorfosf pafh
Irom fho sourco vorfox a fo fho vorfox h. On usIng fho B!S fochnIquo, wo gof fho IoIIowIng
sfagos.
tLaboI ta) = 0 and sof i = 0 )
In fho abovo IIguro fho adjaconf vorfIcos oI a aro b, c and J. ThoroIoro wo gof IaboI
IaboI tb) = i + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1;
IaboI tc) = i + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 and IaboI tJ) = i + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1.
SImIIarIy, fho adjaconf vorfox oI J Is e.
ThoroIoro wo gof IaboI te) = i + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.
ThoroIoro, wo havo
2
h
In fho abovo IIguro, fho adjaconf vorfox oI e aro j, g and h. ThoroIoro wo gof,
IaboI tj) = i + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.
IaboI tg) = i + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.
IaboI th) = i + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.
Troo 343
A
B C D
E F G H I J
K L
M N O
T:
ThoroIoro, fho broadfh IIrsf soarch froo Is gIvon as boIow.

EXEkCl5E5
1. WIfh roIoronco fo fho gIvon froo T IInd fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) HoIghf oI fho froo
tb) ogroo oI fho froo
tc) Longosf pafh oI fho froo
tJ) LovoI tL); LovoI tH); LovoI tN)
te) Paronf tM); SIbIIng tB); ChIId t)
2. ta) raw aII froos oI ordor 5
tb) raw aII froos oI ordor ? and AtT) > 4, whoro AtT) roprosonfs maxImum dogroo oI
froo T.
3. In a bInary froo oI hoIghf h, fhoro aro af mosf 2
h 1
IoaI nodos.
4. II T Is a bInary froo oI hoIghf h and ordor p, fhon h > + g p tt ) / ) 1 2 . Tho oquaIIfy hoIds
II T Is a baIancod compIofo bInary froo.
5. !Ind fho occonfrIcIfy oI aII vorfIcos, radIus, dIamofor and confro oI fho graph G gIvon
boIow. If Is gIvon fhaf fho dIsfanco bofwoon any fwo adjaconf vorfIcos Is 1.
6. Consfrucf fho IoIIowIng graphs.
ta) uIorIan buf nof HamIIfonIan
tb) HamIIfonIan buf nof uIorIan
tc) NoIfhor uIorIan nor HamIIfonIan
tJ) uIorIan and HamIIfonIan.
?. !or fho graph G shown boIow, IInd fho dopfh-IIrsf soarch froo.
h
8. For the graphs given on No. 7, find the breadth first search tree.
9. Solve the travelling salesman problem for the complete weighted graph G given below
by using
(a) Closest insertion algorithm and
(b) Two optimal algorithm.
10. Let G be the weighted graph shown below. Use Dijkstras algorithm to compute the
shortest distance between u and v.
11. Determine which of the graphs given below are Euler graph by using the following
algorithms.
(a) Fleurys algorithm and (b) Hierholzer's algorithm
Troo 345
12. !Ind fho cIosuro graph CtG) Ior fho graphs shown boIow.
13. !Ind fho bInary froo roprosonfafIon oI fho IoIIowIngs.
ta) t4x + 2)t2x + xy) tb) tx + 3y) tt5x + y)/4)
14. Lof G bo a connocfod woIghfod graph. !so Ijksfra`s aIgorIfhms fo IInd fho Iongfh oI
shorfosf pafhs Irom fho vorfox a fo oach oI fho ofhor vorfIcos.

15. AppIy Ijksfra`s aIgorIfhm fo fho woIghfod graph G boIow fo IInd fho shorfosf dIsfanco
Ior oach vorfox Irom fho sourco vorfox a.
16. !so !Ioyd-WarshaII aIgorIfhm on fho woIghfod, dIrocfod graph G shown boIow fo IInd ouf
shorfosf pafh bofwoon any paIr oI vorfIcos. Show fho mafrIx th) fhaf rosuIfs Ior oach Ifora-
fIon.
1?. !Ind fho mInImum spannIng froo oI fho graphs shown boIow by usIng
ta) PrIm`s aIgorIfhm and tb) KruskaI`s aIgorIfhm.
(c)
Troo 34?
18. !Ind a maxImaI spannIng froo Ior oach oI fho graphs oI No. 1?. usIng oIfhor PrIm's
aIgorIfhm or KruskaI`s aIgorIfhm. Hlnt: To gof fho maxImaI spannIng froo ropIaco fho
woIghf oI oach odgo oI fho graph by M ute), whoro M Is any numbor groafor fhan fho
woIghf ute oI ovory odgo e oI fho graph. Thon appIy PrIm`s aIgorIfhm or KruskaI`s
aIgorIfhm. Tho corrospondIng spannIng froo In fho orIgInaI woIghfod graph Is a maxImaI
spannIng froo.
19. !Ind fho cIosuro graph CtG) oI fho IoIIowIng graphs.
20. Lof G bo a connocfod woIghfod graph. !so !Ioyd-WarshaII aIgorIfhm fo IInd fho Iongfh
oI shorfosf pafh bofwoon any paIr oI vorfIcos.
14
This page
intentionally left
blank
14.0 lNTk0DUCTl0N
ProbIoms In fho roaI worId quIfo oIfon furn ouf fo bo compIox owIng fo an oIomonf oI
uncorfaInfy. ThIs uncorfaInfy Is duo fo paramofors whIch doIIno fho probIom or fho sIfuafIons
In whIch fho probIom occurs. AIfhough probabIIIfy fhoory Is an oIIocfIvo fooI fo handIo
uncorfaInfy buf If can bo appIIod onIy fo sIfuafIons whoso characforIsfIcs aro basod on random
procossos. Howovor, In roaI IIIo sIfuafIons a Iargo cIass oI probIoms arIso whoso uncorfaInfy Is
characforIzod by a nonrandom procossos. GonoraIIy, fhIs nonrandom procoss arIsos duo fo
Iack oI InIormafIon abouf fho probIom. ConsIdor an oxampIo: Is Adams Honosf7 Tho answor
fo fhIs quosfIon nood nof bo a doIInIfo yos or no. Human braIn aIways procossos such
uncorfaInfy. Such fypo oI dafa procossIng Is aIways carrIod ouf by fho worId`s bIggosf compufor
human braIn. In ordor fo mako fhIs procossIng Iasfor fhan human braIn, wo nood compufor.
If can bo Iod wIfh such dafa whIch If can procoss. ThoroIoro, If can bo mado moro InfoIIIgonf
arfIIIcIaIIy. !or fhIs roason, a sfudy oI vaguo concopfs or vaguo knowIodgo or uncorfaInfy Is
nocossary. An oxcoIIonf mafhomafIcaI fooI fo handIo fho uncorfaInfy duo fo vaguo concopfs Is
!uzzy sof fhoory. In fhIs chapfor our objocfIvo Is fo doIIno fho basIc concopfs In a cIoar mannor
so fhaf af a Iaffor sfago appIIcafIon oI Iuzzy sofs In arfIIIcIaI InfoIIIgonco, oxporf sysfom ofc.,
can bo carrIod ouf moro oIIIcIonfIy. ThIs Iuzzy sof fhoory was propoundod by LofII A. Zadoh. If
Is howovor, fho Japanoso who oxpIoIfod fho pofonfIaI by commorcIaIIzIng fho fochnoIogy.
14.1 FUZZY VEk5U5 Ckl5P
ConsIdor a sfafomonf, Sun rIsos In fho oasf. oIInIfoIy, fho frufh vaIuo oI fhIs sfafomonf Is
oIfhor fruo or IaIso. II fruo Is accordod as 1 and IaIso Is accordod as 0, fhon fhIs sfafomonf
rosuIfs In a 0 / 1 fypo oI sIfuafIon. Such fypo oI IogIc whoso vaIuo Is oIfhor 1 or 0 Is formod as
crIsp In fho domaIn oI Iuzzy sof fhoory.
.KO 5AJ 6DAHO
"
John is a pleasant
football player
Sun rises in
the East
Crisp
Fuzzy
True
False
Extremely
pleasant- 1
Extremely
unpleasant-0
Very
pleasant- 0.6
Pleasant at
times-0.3
Fuzzy versus crisp
On fho ofhor hand, consIdor fho sfafomonf John Is a pIoasanf IoofbaII pIayor. Tho frufh
vaIuos oI fhIs sfafomonf nood nof bo a doIInIfo fruo or IaIso. If varIos Irom porson fo porson on
consIdorIng fho dogroo fo whIch ono knows John. In such sIfuafIon, a varIofy oI answors
spannIng a rango, such as oxfromoIy pIoasanf, oxfromoIy unpIoasanf, vory pIoasanf,
pIoasanf af fImos couId bo gonorafod. II oxfromoIy pIoasanf Is accordod a vaIuo oI 1 af fho
hIgh ond, fhon oxfromoIy unpIoasanf has a vaIuo 0 af fho Iow ond. If IndIcafos fhaf vory
pIoasanf and pIoasanf af fImos wIII bo accordod a vaIuo In bofwoon 0 and 1. Such a sIfuafIon
Is formod as Iuzzy. A dIagrammafIc approach fo IIIusfrafo Iuzzy and crIsp sIfuafIon Is gIvon
abovo. CrIsp sof fhoory or cIassIcaI sof fhoory Is IundamonfaI fo fho sfudy oI Iuzzy sof fhoory
whIch wo havo aIroady dIscussod In chapfor 2.
14.2 FUZZY 5ET5
In Canfor`s doIInIfIon, a sof Is doIInod as a coIIocfIon oI woII doIInod objocfs. Thus, coIIocfIon oI
aII sfudonfs In a parfIcuIar cIass Is a sof. Buf fho coIIocfIon oI aII faII sfudonfs In fhaf parfIcuIar
cIass Is nof a sof. ThIs Is bocauso fho quaIIIIcafIon Ior an objocf fo bocomo a mombor Is faII
whIch Is nof woII doIInod or III-doIInod. ThoroIoro, If Is dIIIIcuIf fo IdonfIIy whIch aro mombors
and whIch aro nof. In Iuzzy sof fhoory, wo assumo fhaf aII aro mombors and fhoy boIong fo fho
sof up fo corfaIn oxfonf. Somo oIomonfs boIong fo 90%, somo oIomonfs boIong fo ?5%, somo
oIomonfs boIong fo 60%, ofc. ThIs gIvos fho dogroo oI boIongIngnoss or moasuro oI boIongIng-
noss. Thus, wo doIIno Iuzzy sof IormaIIy as boIow.
II X Is a unIvorso oI dIscourso and x Is a parfIcuIar oIomonf oI X, fhon a Iuzzy sof A
oI fho
!uzzy Sof Thoory 351
unIvorso oI dIscourso X Is doIInod as a coIIocfIon oI ordorod paIrs
A
t , t ),

x x whoro
A
t ) : X x
0, 1 Is a mappIng known as fho momborshIp IuncfIon oI A.
MafhomafIcaIIy, wo wrIfo
A
A t , t )) : X x x x
i.e., II
1 2 3
X , , , , ,
n
x x x x fhon a Iuzzy sof A
oI X couId bo wrIffon as
1 1 2 2 3 3
A A A A
A t , t )), t , t )), t , t )), , t , t ))

n n
x x x x x x x x
If Is cIoar fhaf oach paIr
A
t , t )) x x
Is caIIod a sIngIofon. An aIfornafIvo way In whIch wo

roprosonf a Iuzzy sof symboIIcaIIy Is gIvon boIow.
1 2 3
A A A A
1 2 3
t ) t ) t ) t )
A , , , ,

n
n
x x x x
x x x x
.
14.2.1 MemberShlp Functlon
In crIsp sof fhoory, characforIsfIc IuncfIon assIgns a vaIuo oI oIfhor 1 or 0 fo oach oIomonf In
fho unIvorsaI sof X. ThIs IuncfIon can bo gonoraIIzod such fhaf fho vaIuos assIgnod fo fho
oIomonfs oI fho unIvorsaI sof IaII wIfhIn a spocIIIod rango and poInf fo fho dogroo oI
boIongIngnoss oI fhoso oIomonfs In fho sof In quosfIon. Largor vaIuos IndIcafo fho hIghor
dogroo procIsIon oI sof momborshIp whoroas smaIIor vaIuos IndIcafo fho Iowor dogroo
procIsIon oI sof momborshIp. Such a IuncfIon Is caIIod a momborshIp IuncfIon, and fho sof
doIInod by If Is caIIod a Iuzzy sof.
As doIInod In fho provIous socfIon, a Iuzzy sof A
oI fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X Is doIInod as

a coIIocfIon oI ordorod paIrs
A
, t ))

x x whoro
A
X, t ) : X 0,1 x x
Is a mappIng caIIod fho

momborshIp IuncfIon oI A
and
A
t )

x Is fho grado oI momborshIp or dogroo oI boIongIng- noss
or dogroo oI momborshIp oI x X In A.
Tho momborshIp IuncfIon vaIuos aIways nood nof bo doscrIbod by dIscrofo vaIuos.
!roquonfIy, fhoso furn ouf fo bo as doscrIbod by a confInuous IuncfIon. Tho Iuzzy momborshIp
IuncfIon Ior fho Iuzzy sof oI a cIass oI roaI numbors fhaf aro cIoso fo 3 may furn ouf fo bo as
IIIusfrafod boIow:
) ( ~ x
A
x
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
A momborshIp IuncfIon can aIso bo doIInod mafhomafIcaIIy as Iurfhor:
2 A
1
t ) ; t )
t1 )
x x 8et oj rea/ nunbers
x

+
Tho dIIIoronf shapos oI momborshIp IuncfIons aro gIvon boIow. Tho shapos couId bo
frapozoIdaI, frIanguIar, curvod or fhoIr varIafIons as shown In fho IoIIowIng IIguro.
~ (x)
A
) ( ~ x
A
~(x)
A
x
) ( ~ x
A
x
x x
14.3 8A5lC DEFlNlTl0N5
In fhIs socfIon wo wIII dIscuss fho IundamonfaI doIInIfIons fhaf wo uso IroquonfIy In Iuzzy sofs.
14.3.1 Equallty
II A
and B
bo fwo Iuzzy sofs wIfh

A
t )

x and
B
t )
x as fhoIr rospocfIvo momborshIp IuncfIons

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon fho fwo Iuzzy sofs A
and B
aro saId fo bo oquaI

i.e., A
= B
, II and onIy II
B A
t ) t ) X x x x

!or oxampIo, II
1 2
A t , 0.2), t , 0.6)
x x ,
1 2
B t , 0.2), t , 0.6)
x x and
1 2
C t , 0.5), t , 0.3)
x x
bo fhroo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso
1 2
X , x x , fhon A = B

sInco,
1 1
B A
t ) t ) 0.2 x x

and
2 2
B A
t ) t ) 0.6 x x

AgaIn Irom fho abovo oxampIo If Is cIoar fhaf A C

sInco,
1 1
A C
t ) t ) x x

and
2 2
A C
t ) t ) x x

. SImIIarIy, If can bo shown fhaf B C

.
14.3.2 Contalnment
II A
and B

A
t ) x
and
B
t ) x
as fhoIr rospocfIvo momborshIp IuncfIons

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon wo say fhaf fho Iuzzy sof A
Is confaInod In fho
Iuzzy sof B
i.e., A B

, II and onIy II
B A
t ) t ) X x x x

!or oxampIo, consIdor fwo Iuzzy sofs
1 2 3
A t , 0.3), t , 0.4), t , 0.6) x x x
and
1
B t , 0.5), x
2 3
t , 0.6), t , 0.8) x x doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso
1 2 3
X , , x x x , fhon If Is cIoar fhaf,
1 1
B A
2 2
B A
3 3
B A
t ) 0.3 t ) 0.5;
t ) 0.4 t ) 0.6 and
t ) 0.6 t ) 0.8
x x
x x
x x

ThoroIoro, fho Iuzzy sof A
Is confaInod In fho Iuzzy sof B
i.e, A B

.
14.3.3 Normal Fuzzy 5et
II A
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon
A
t ) x
, fhon wo say fhaf fho Iuzzy sof A
Is a normaI Iuzzy sof, II and onIy II

A
max t ) 1
x X
x
i.e.,
A
t ) 1 x
Ior af Ioasf ono x X.

!or oxampIo, fho Iuzzy sof
1 2 3
A t , 0.3), t , 1), t , 0.6) x x x
Is a normaI Iuzzy sof sInco

2
A
t ) 1. x
14.3.4 5upport of a Fuzzy 5et

II A
A
t ) x
, fhon fho supporf oI A
Is fho crIsp or cIassIcaI sof doIInod as

Supporf t A
) =
A
X: t ) 0 x x >

Thus, If Is cIoar fhaf supporf oI A
Is a subsof oI X. i.e., Supporf t A
X.
!or oxampIo, II fho Iuzzy sof
1 2 3
A t , 0.5), t , 0), t , 0.8) x x x
Is doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI

dIscourso,
1 2 3
X , , , x x x fhon fho supporf oI fho Iuzzy sof A
Is gIvon as
Supporf t A
) = x
1
, x
3
SImIIarIy, II
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.6), t , 0.1), t , 0.9), t , 0.3 x x x x
Is doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI

dIscourso,
1 2 3 4
X , , , , x x x x fhon fho supporf oI A
Is samo as fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X.

14.3.5 Level Cut
II A
A
t ), x
fhon fho -IovoI cuf or -cuf oI A
Is fho cIassIcaI sof A
and Is doIInod as
A
A X: t ) x x
>

!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.2), t , 0.1), t , 0.4), t , 0.6), t , 0.?) x x x x x
bo fho Iuzzy sof

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso
1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x , fhon
0. 2 1 3 4 5 0. 4 3 4 5
0. 1 1 2 3 4 5 0. ? 5
A , , , A , ,
A , , , , A
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x

14.3.6 Product of a Fuzzy 5et by a CrlSp Number
II A
A
t ) x
and h bo crIsp numbor, fhon fho producf oI A
by a crIsp numbor h rosuIfs In a now Iuzzy

sof producf h. A
wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon

.A
t )
h
x

doIInod as
. A A
t ) . t ) X
h
x h x x

!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.3), t , 0.2), t , 0.5), t , 0.1), t , 0.8) x x x x x
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod

ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso
1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x and h = 0.3, fhon h. A
Is doIInod as
1 2 3 4 5
.A t , 0.09), t , 0.06), t , 0.15), t , 0.03), t , 0.24) h x x x x x
sInco,
1 1
. A A
2 2
. A A
3 3
. A A
4 4
. A A
5 5
. A A
t ) . t ) t0.3)t0.3) 0.09
t ) . t ) t0.3)t0.2) 0.06
t ) . t ) t0.3)t0.5) 0.15
t ) . t ) t0.3)t0.1) 0.03
t ) . t ) t0.3)t0.8) 0.24
h
h
h
h
h
x h x
x h x
x h x
x h x
x h x

14.3.7 Power of a Fuzzy 5et
II A
A
t ) x
, fhon fho n powor oI a Iuzzy sof A
Is a now Iuzzy sof A

n
whoso momborshIp IuncfIon

Is gIvon as
A A
t ) t t )) X
n
n
x x x

RaIsIng a Iuzzy sof fo Ifs socond powor i.e., n = 2 Is caIIod conconfrafIon tCON) whoroas
fakIng fho squaro roof, i.e., n =
1
2
, Is caIIod dIIafIon tIL).
Lof us consIdor a Iuzzy sof
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.2), t , 0.1), t , 0.4), t , 0.5) x x x x
doIInod ovor fho

unIvorso oI dIscourso
1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x and n = 3. Thon
3
A
Is doIInod as
3
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.008), t , 0.001), t , 0.064), t , 0.125) x x x x
sInco,
3
3
3
3 3
1 1
A A
3 3
2 2
A A
3 3
3 3
A A
t ) t t )) t0.2) 0.008
t ) t t )) t0.1) 0.001
t ) t t )) t0.4) 0.064
x x
x x
x x

3
3 3
4 4
t ) t t )) t0.5) 0.125
A A
x x

14.4 8A5lC 0PEkATl0N5 0N FUZZY 5ET5
LIko crIsp sof fhoory, whon wo havo fwo or moro Iuzzy sofs doscrIbIng a gIvon probIom,
anaIyfIcaI soIufIons oIfon roquIro oporafIons among Iuzzy sofs. ThoroIoro, fho concopf oI basIc
oporafIons on Iuzzy sofs Is hIghIy ossonfIaI fo sfudy fho roaI IIIo probIoms. In fhIs socfIon wo
wIII dIscuss fho basIc Iuzzy sof oporafIons such as unIon, InforsocfIon, compIomonf and producf
oI fwo Iuzzy sofs. Thoso Iuzzy sof oporafIons aro wIdoIy sfudIod In fho IIforafuro.
14.4.1 Unlon
II A
and B

A
t ) x
and
B
t ) x

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon fhoIr unIon A B

7 Is a now Iuzzy sof doIInod
aIso on X wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon
A B
t ) x
doIInod as
A B
t ) x

max t
B A
t ), t )) x x

!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.4), t , 0.3), t , 0.?), t , 0.1) x x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.9), t , 0.1), x x
3 4
t , 0.6), t , 0.3) x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso,
1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x , fhon
fho unIon A B

7 Is doIInod as
1 2 3 4
A B t , 0.9), t , 0.3), t , 0.?), t , 0.3) x x x x
7 sInco,
1 1 1
B A B A
2 2 2
B A B A
3 3 3
B A B A
4 4 4
B A B A
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.4, 0.9) 0.9
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.3, 0.1) 0.3
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.?, 0.6) 0.?
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.1, 0.3) 0.3
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

14.4.2 lnterSectlon
II A
and B

A
t ) x
and
B
t ) x

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon fho InforsocfIon oI A
and B
and Is a now Iuzzy

sof A B

1 whoso momborshIp IuncfIon
A B
t ) x
Is doIInod as
A B
t ) x

mIn t
B A
t ), t )) x x

!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.4), t , 0.?), t , 0.2), t , 1) x x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.9), t , 0.1), x x
3
t , 0.6), x
4
t , 0.3) x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso
1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x , fhon fho InforsocfIon A B

1 Is doIInod as

1 2 3 4
A B t , 0.4), t , 0.1), t , 0.2), t , 0.3) x x x x

1 sInco,
1 1 1
B A B A
2 2 2
B A B A
3 3 3
B A B A
4 4 4
B A B A
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.4, 0.9) 0.4
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.?, 0.1) 0.1
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.2, 0.6) 0.2
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t1, 0.3) 0.3
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

14.4.3 Complement
II A
bo a Iuzzy sof wIfh

A
t ) x
as momborshIp IuncfIon doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso

X, fhon fho compIomonf oI A
Is a now Iuzzy sof A

c

A
t )
c
x
Is
doIInod as
A
t )
c
x
1
A
t ) x
!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3
A t , 0.4), t , 0.?), t , 0.2) x x x
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod ovor fho unIvorso

oI dIscourso,
1 2 3
X , , , x x x fhon wo havo
1 2 3
A t , 0.6), t , 0.3), t , 0.8)
c
x x x
sInco,
1 1
A A
2 2
A A
3 3
A A
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.4 0.6
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.? 0.3
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.2 0.8
c
c
c
x x
x x
x x

14.4.4 Product
II A
and B

A
t ) x
and
B
t ) x

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon fho producf oI fwo Iuzzy sofs A
and B
Is a now
Iuzzy sof A
. B

A . B
t ) x

Is doIInod as
B A . B A
t ) t ) t ) x x x

!or oxampIo, Iof us consIdor
1 2 3
A t , 0.3), t , 0.6), t , 0.2) x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.5), t , 0.1), x x
3
t , 0.4) x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso,
1 2 3
X , , , x x x fhon fho
producf A . B

Is gIvon as
1 2 3
A . B t , 0.15), t , 0.06), t , 0.08) x x x

sInco,
1 1 1
B A . B A
2 2 2
B A . B A
3 3 3
B A . B A
.
t ) t ) t ) t0.3).t0.5) 0.15
.
t ) t ) t ) t0.6).t0.1) 0.06
.
t ) t ) t ) t0.2).t0.4) 0.08
x x x
x x x
x x x

!uzzy Sof Thoory 35?
14.4.5 Dlfference
II A
and B

A
t ) x
and
B
t ) x

doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon fho dIIIoronco oI fwo Iuzzy sofs A
and B
Is a
now Iuzzy sof A
doIInod as
A B tA B )
c

1
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.5), t , 0.1), t , 0.4), t , 0.8) x x x x
and
1
B t , 0.?), x
2 3 4
t , 0.2), t , 0.5), t , 0.3) x x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso,
1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x , fhon wo gof
1 2 3 4
B t , 0.3), t , 0.8), t , 0.5), t , 0.?)
c
x x x x
. ThoroIoro, wo
havo
1 2 3 4
A B tA B )
t , 0.3), t , 0.1), t , 0.4), t , 0.?)
c
x x x x

1
14.4.6 DlS]unctlve 5um
Tho dIsjuncfIvo sum oI fwo Iuzzy sofs A
and B
doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, Is a

now Iuzzy sof A B

doIInod as
A B tA B ) tA B)
c c

1 7 1
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.3), t , 0.?) x x x x
and
1
B t , 0.1), x
2
t , 0.2), x
3 4
t , 0.4), t , 0.3) x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso,
1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x , fhon wo havo
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.5), t , 0.8), t , 0.?), t , 0.3)
B t , 0.9), t , 0.8), t , 0.6), t , 0.?)
tA B ) t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.3), t , 0.?)
tA B) t , 0.1), t , 0.2), t , 0.4), t , 0.3)
c
c
c
c
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x

1

1
ThoroIoro, wo gof
1 2 3 4
A B tA B ) tA B)
t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.4), t , 0.?)
c c
x x x x

1 7 1
14.5 Pk0PEkTlE5 0F FUZZY 5ET5
!uzzy sof safIsIy somo oI fho proporfIos oI crIsp sof or cIassIcaI sof. Horo, wo havo IIsfod fho
dIIIoronf proporfIos safIsIIod by Iuzzy sofs. Wo havo aIso IIsfod fho Iaws oI oxcIudod mIddIo
fhaf do nof hoId Ior Iuzzy sofs. Thoso aro IIsfod boIow:
Connutatioe Laus.
A B B A and A B B A

7 7 1 1
Associatioe Laus. A tB C ) tA B ) C and

7 7 7 7
A tB C ) tA B ) C

1 1 1 1
Distributioe Laus. A tB C ) tA B ) tA C) and
A tB C ) tA B ) tA C)

7 1 7 1 7

1 7 1 7 1
lJenpotent Laus. A A A and A A A

7 1
lJentity Laus. A A; A X A

7 1
A and A X X

1 7
Transitioity Laus. II A B and B C, fhon A C

lnoo/ution Laus.
tA ) A
c c

De Morgan's Laus. tA B ) A B and
tA B ) A B

7 1

1 7
c c c
c c c
Tho Iaws oI oxcIudod mIddIo do nof hoId woII bocauso Iuzzy sofs can ovorIap oach ofhor.
ThoroIoro, wo havo
A A X

7
c
and A A

1
c
.
14.6 lNTEkVAL VALUED FUZZY 5ET
ThIs Is an oxfonsIon oI fho concopf oI a Iuzzy sof by an InforvaI vaIuod Iuzzy sof. If Is dovoIopod
bocauso fho momborshIp vaIuo oI an oIomonf x X may nof bo aIways assIgnod a parfIcuIar
roaI numbor. In such casos, fho momborshIp IuncfIons aro doIInod onIy approxImafoIy. !or
oxampIo, wo may onIy bo abIo fo IdonfIIy Iowor and uppor bounds oI momborshIp grados Ior
oach oIomonf x X. ThoroIoro, oIfhor wo havo fo suppross fho IdonfIIIcafIon uncorfaInfy by
consIdorIng fho mIddIo vaIuos bofwoon fho Iowor and uppor bounds or wo may accopf fho
uncorfaInfy and IncIudo If In fho doIInIfIon oI fho momborshIp IuncfIon. Tho Iaffor approach
assIgns a cIosod InforvaI oI roaI numbors fo oach oIomonf oI fho unIvorso oI dIscourso bofwoon
fho IdonfIIIod Iowor and uppor bounds. !uzzy sofs oI fhIs fypo aro known as InforvaI vaIuod
Iuzzy sof or i-o Iuzzy sof. ThIs oxfonsIon was carrIod ouf by L. A. Zadoh In 19?5. InforvaI
vaIuod Iuzzy sofs aro doIInod IormaIIy by IuncfIons oI fho Iorm
A
t ) : X t 0, 1 ) x
whoro t0, 1) donofos fho IamIIy oI aII cIosod InforvaIs oI roaI numbors In 0, 1. !or oxampIo,
fho momborshIp IuncfIon oI fhIs fypo Is gIvon In fho IoIIowIng IIguro. In fhIs IIguro,
A
tx
Ior
oach x Is roprosonfod by fho sogmonf bofwoon fwo curvos. If Is aIso cIoar fhaf
1 2
A
t ) ,
x a a
Ior
1
X. x
2
a
a
0
1
1
) (
1
~ x
A
1
x
x
(Interval valued fuzzy set ] , [ ) (
2 1 1
~ a a x
A
= )
Lof A
donofo an interoa/-oa/ueJ ju::y set. Thon,

( )
A A
A , L t ), \ t ) , X x x x x

whoro,
A A
L , \

aro Iuzzy sofs oI X fhaf aro caIIod fho Iowor bound and uppor bound oI A,
rospocfIvoIy. If Is cIoar fhaf A
bocomos an ordInary Iuzzy sof whon

A A
L \ .

Lof
A A A
t ) L t ), \ t ), X

x x x x and Iof 0, 1 donofos fho IamIIy oI aII cIosod InforvaIs
confaInod In fho InforvaI 0, 1. Thus,
1 2
, 0, 1 x x Ior aII
1 2 1 2
, 0, 1; . x x x x <
ThoroIoro, fho momborshIp IuncfIon Is doIInod as
A
t ) : X 0, 1 x
. Honco, an interoa/-
oa/ueJ ju::y set A
Is doIInod as
A
A t , t )), X x x x
.
14.7 0PEkATl0N5 0N EL FUZZY 5ET5
In fhIs socfIon wo dIscuss fho dIIIoronf kInd oI basIc oporafIons fhaf can bo porIormod on i-o
Iuzzy sofs. Horo wo rosfrIcf fo fho doIInIfIons oI oporafIons fhaf aro ossonfIaI Ior Iurfhor
consIdorafIons.
14.7.1 Unlon of Two EL Fuzzy 5etS
Lof A
and B
aro fwo InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X,
fhon fhoIr unIon
tA B)

7
Is aIso an InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sof doIInod as
A B
tA B) t , t ))
7

7 x x whoro,
A B
A B A B
B A B A
t ) L t ), \ t ); X
L t ) max L t ), L t ) and

7 7 7

7
x x x x
x x x
B A B A
\ t ) max \ t ), \ t )

7
x x x
Ior aII X. x
Tho abovo doIInIfIon oI unIon can bo gonoraIIzod fo IInIfo numbor oI InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy
sofs.
!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3
A t , 0.2, 0.?), t , 0.4, 0.6), t , 0.1, 0.5)
x x x and
1
B t , 0.4, 0.9),
x
2 3
t , 0.2, 0.8), t , 0.4, 0.3) x x bo fwo InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI
dIscourso,
1 2 3
X , , , x x x fhon
1 2 3
tA B) t , 0.4, 0.9), t , 0.4, 0.8), t , 0.4, 0.5)

7 x x x sInco,
1 1 1 A B
A B A B
1
A B
1
A B
t ) L t ), \ t );
L t ) max 0.2, 0.4 0.4; and
\ t ) max 0.?, 0.9 0.9
x x x
x
x

7 7 7

7

7
SImIIarIy, ono can IInd fho InforvaI oI boIongIngnoss Ior fho oIomonfs x
2
and x
3
as doIInod
Ior fho oIomonf
1
X. x
14.7.2 lnterSectlon of Two EL Fuzzy 5etS
Lof A
and B
aro fwo InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X, fhon
fhoIr InforsocfIontA B)

1 Is aIso an InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sof. If Is gIvon as
A B
tA B) t , t ))

1 x x
whoro,
A B
A B A B
B A B A
t ) L t ), \ t ); X
L t ) mIn L t ), L t )

1 1 1

1
x x x x
x x x
and
B A B A
\ t ) mIn \ t ), \ t )

1
x x x
Ior aII X. x
Tho abovo doIInIfIon oI InforsocfIon can bo gonoraIIzod fo IInIfo numbor oI InforvaI-vaIuod
Iuzzy sofs.
!or oxampIo, II
1 2 3
A t , 0.2, 0.?), t , 0.4, 0.6), t , 0.1, 0.5)
x x x and
1
B t , 0.4, 0.9),
x
2 3
t , 0.2, 0.8), t , 0.4, 0.3) x x bo fwo InforvaI-vaIuod Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso oI
dIscourso,
1 2 3
X , , x x x , fhon

1 2 1
tA B) t , 0.2, 0.?), t , 0.2, 0.6), t , 0.1, 0.3)

1 x x x sInco,
1 1 1 A B A B A B
1
A B
1
A B
t ) L t ), \ t );
L t ) mIn 0.2, 0.4 0.2; and
\ t ) mIn 0.?, 0.9 0.?

1 1 1

1

1
x x x
x
x
SImIIarIy, ono can IInd fho InforvaI oI boIongIngnoss Ior fho oIomonfs x
2
and x
3
as doIInod
Ior fho oIomonf
1
X. x
14.8 FUZZY kELATl0N5
!uzzy roIafIon provIdos a moasuro oI roIafIon bofwoon fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod In fho rango
0, 1. CrIsp roIafIon fhaf wo havo sfudIod In Chapfor 3 aIways may nof IInd a roIafIon bofwoon
any fwo objocfs In fho roaI worId whoroas In Iuzzy roIafIon wo aIways IInd a roIafIon bofwoon
any fwo objocfs In fho roaI worId. If has wIdo appIIcafIons such as docIsIon makIng, oxporf
sysfoms, Imago procossIng, modIcaI dIagnosos, oconomIcs ofc.
!uzzy roIafIon Is a Iuzzy sof doIInod on fho CarfosIan producf oI cIassIcaI sofs
1 2 3 4
X , X , X , X , , X
n
whoro fho nfupIos
1 2 3 4
t , , , , , )
n
x x x x x may havo varyIng
dogroos oI boIongIngnoss wIfhIn fho roIafIon. Tho boIongIngnoss vaIuos IndIcafo fho sfrongfh
oI fho roIafIon bofwoon fho fupIos. Tho momborshIp IuncfIon Is doIInod as
R 1 2 1 2
t , , , ) : tX , X , , X ) 0, 1
n n
x x x
!or oxampIo consIdor fho Iuzzy roIafIon R bofwoon fwo sofs X
1
and X
2
, whoro fho sof oI
dIsoasos Is X
1
and fho sof oI sympfoms Is X
2
.
Lof X
1
= typhoiJ, connon co/J, na/aria, oira/ jeoer
X
2
= shioering, running nose, high tenperature
ThoroIoro, fho Iuzzy roIafIon may bo doIInod as
shiccring running nosc
tcmpcraturc high
jcccr cira/
ma/aria
co/J common
typhoiJ

8 . 0
4 . 0
6 . 0
8 . 0

2 . 0
1 . 0
9 . 0
1 . 0

9 . 0
7 . 0
3 . 0
9 . 0

!rom fho abovo fabuIar roprosonfafIon, If Is cIoar fhaf fyphoId Is roIafod fo hIgh
fomporafuro wIfh sfrongfh 0.9, common coId Is roIafod fo runnIng noso Is 0.9, maIarIa Is
roIafod fo shIvorIng Is 0.4 ofc.
14.8.1 Fuzzy CarteSlan Product
II A
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod on fho unIvorso oI dIscourso X and B
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod on fho

unIvorso oI dIscourso Y, fhon fho CarfosIan producf bofwoon fho Iuzzy sofs A
and B
Is gIvon
as A B

and rosuIfIng In a Iuzzy roIafIon P
. If Is gIvon by
A B X Y

P
wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon
( )
R B A B A
t , ) t , ) mIn t ), t )

x y x y x y
!or oxampIo, Iof us consIdor fwo Iuzzy sofs A
and B
such fhaf
1 2
A t , 0.3), t , 0.5), x x
3
t , 0.8) x
and
1 2 3
B t , 0.2), t , 0.?), t , 0.4)
y y y doIInod ovor fho unIvorso

1 2 3
X , , x x x and
1 2 3
Y , , y y y rospocfIvoIy. Thon, fho Iuzzy roIafIon
P onsuIng ouf oI fho Iuzzy CarfosIan

producf A B

Is gIvon by
1 2 3
1
2
3
0.2 0.3 0.3
A B 0.2 0.5 0.4
0.2 0.? 0.4
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]

y y y
x
P x
x
sInco,
1 1 1 1
B A
1 2 1 2
B A
1 3 1 3
B A
2 1 2 1
B A
2 2
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.3, 0.2) 0.2
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.3, 0.?) 0.3
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.3, 0.4) 0.3
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.5, 0.2) 0.2
t , ) mI

P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y
2 2
B A
2 3 2 3
B A
3 1 3 1
B A
3 2 3 2
B A
3 3 3
A
n t t ), t )) mInt0.5, 0.?) 0.5
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.5, 0.4) 0.4
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.8, 0.2) 0.2
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.8, 0.?) 0.?
t , ) mIn t t ),

x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x
3
B
t )) mInt0.8, 0.4) 0.4 y
14.9 0PEkATl0N5 0N FUZZY kELATl0N5
In fhIs socfIon wo dIscuss fho dIIIoronf Iuzzy sof oporafIons such as unIon, InforsocfIon,
compIomonf and composIfIon on Iuzzy roIafIons. Thoso aro hIghIy usoIuI In roaI worId
probIoms.
14.9.1 Unlon
II P
and 8
bo fwo Iuzzy roIafIons doIInod on tX Y) wIfh momborshIp IuncfIons t , )

P
x y and
t , )

8
x y rospocfIvoIy, fhon fhoIr unIon t P 8

7 ) Is a now Iuzzy roIafIon wIfh fho momborshIp
IuncfIon

7
t , )
P 8
x y doIInod as
t , ) max t t , ), t , ))
P P 8 8
x y x y x y

7
!or oxampIo, Iof us consIdor fwo Iuzzy roIafIons P
and 8
on X Y whoro
1 2
X , x x and
1 2 3
Y , , y y y such fhaf
1 2 3
1
2
0.2 0.5 0.2
0.3 0.? 0.4
y y y
x
P
x
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 2 3
1
2
0.5 0.3 0.8
0.2 0.5 0.?
y y y
x
8
x
, ]
, ]
]
ThoroIoro, fho unIon

t ) P 8

7
Is doIInod as
, ]
, ]
]

7
1 2 3
1
2
0.5 0.5 0.8
0.3 0.? 0.?
y y y
x
P 8
x
sInco,
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 3 1 3 1 3
2 1 2 1
t , ) max t t , ), t , )) maxt0.2, 0.5) 0.5
t , ) max t t , ), t , )) maxt0.5, 0.3) 0.5
t , ) max t t , ), t , )) maxt0.2, 0.8) 0.8
t , ) max t t , ),

7

7

7

7
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
P P 8
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y
2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 2 3 2 3
t , )) maxt0.3, 0.2) 0.3
t , ) max t t , ), t , )) maxt0.?, 0.5) 0.?
t , ) max t t , ), t , )) maxt0.4, 0.?) 0.?

7

7
8
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
14.9.2 lnterSectlon
II P
and 8
bo fwo Iuzzy roIafIons doIInod on X Y wIfh momborshIp IuncfIons t , )

P
x y

and
t , )
8
x y

rospocfIvoIy, fhon fhoIr InforsocfIon
t ) P 8

1
Is a now Iuzzy roIafIon wIfh fho
momborshIp IuncfIon

1
t , )
P 8
x y
doIInod as
t , ) mIn t t , ), t , ))
P P 8 8
x y x y x y

1
and 8
and on X Y whoro
1 2
X , x x
and
1 2 3
1 2 3
1
2
0.2 0.5 0.2
0.3 0.? 0.4
y y y
x
P
x
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 2 3
1
2
0.5 0.3 0.8
0.2 0.5 0.?
y y y
x
8
x
, ]
, ]
]
ThoroIoro, fho InforsocfIon

P 8

1
Is doIInod as
1 2 3
1
2
0.2 0.3 0.2
0.2 0.5 0.4
y y y
x
P 8
x
, ]
, ]
]

1
sInco,

1

1

1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 3 1 3 1 3
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.2, 0.5) 0.2
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.5, 0.3) 0.3
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.2, 0.8) 0.2
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y

1

1

1
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 2 3 2 3
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.3, 0.2) 0.2
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.?, 0.5) 0.5
t , ) mInt t , ), t , )) mInt0.4, 0.?) 0.4
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
P P 8 8
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
14.9.3 Complement
II P
bo a Iuzzy roIafIons doIInod on X Y wIfh momborshIp IuncfIon t , )

P
x y

, fhon fho
compIomonf
c
P
Is a now Iuzzy roIafIon wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon

t , )
c
P
x y doIInod as
t , ) 1 t , )
c
P P
x y x y

!or oxampIo, Iof us consIdor a Iuzzy roIafIon P
on X Y whoro
1 2
X , x x and
1 2 3
1 2 3
1
2
0.3 0.8 0.1
0.9 0.4 0.?
y y y
x
P
x
, ]
, ]
]
ThoroIoro, fho compIomonf

c
P
Is gIvon as
1 2 3
1
2
0.? 0.2 0.9
0.1 0.6 0.3
c
y y y
x
P
x
, ]
, ]
]
14.9.4 CompoSltlon of kelatlonS

II P
and 8
bo fwo Iuzzy roIafIons doIInod on XY and Y Z wIfh momborshIp IuncfIons

t , )
P
x y

and
t , )
8
y :
rospocfIvoIy, fhon fhoIr composIfIon t ) P 8

Is a now Iuzzy roIafIon on
XZ wIfh fho momborshIp IuncfIon doIInod as
Y
t , ) max t mIn t t , ), t , )))
P P 8 8
y
x : x y y :

and 8
on XY and YZ whoro
1 2
X , x x ,
1 2 3
Y , , y y y and
1 2 3
Z , , : : : such fhaf
, ]
, ]
, ]

, ]
, ]
]
, ]
]

1 2 3
1 2 3
1
1
2
2
3
0.2 0.1 0.6
0.1 0.3 0.6
and 0.4 0.5 0.3
0.4 0.? 0.8
0.2 0.6 0.8
: : :
y y y
y
x
P 8 y
x
y
ThoroIoro, fho composIfIon t ) P 8

Is gIvon as
, ]
, ]
]

1 2 3
1
2
0.3 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.6 0.8
: : :
x
P 8
x
sInco,
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 2 1
1 3 3 1
t , ) max t mIn t t , ), t , )),
mIn t t , ), t , )),
mIn t t , ), t , )))
P P 8 8
y Y
P 8
P 8
x : x y y :
x y y :
x y y :

1 1
Y
t , ) max t mIn t0.1, 0.2), mIn t0.3, 0.4), mIn t0.6, 0.2))
maxt0.1, 0.3, 0.2) 0.3
P 8
y
x :
SImIIarIy,
1 2
Y
1 3
Y
2 1
Y
maxt0.1, 0.3, 0.6) 0.6
maxt0.1, 0.3, 0.6) 0.6
t , ) max t mIn t0.4, 0.2), mIn t
P 8
y
P 8
y
P 8
y
x :
x :
x :
2 2
Y
2 3
Y
0.?, 0.4), mIn t0.8, 0.2))
maxt0.2, 0.4, 0.2) 0.4
t , ) max t mIn t0.4, 0.1), mIn t0.?, 0.5), mIn t0.8, 0.6))
maxt0.1, 0.5, 0.6) 0.6
t , ) max t mIn t0.4, 0.6), mIn t0.?, 0.3), mIn t0.8, 0.8))
P 8
y
P 8
y
x :
x :
maxt0.4, 0.3, 0.8) 0.8

14.10 FUZZY L00lC
Tho sfudy oI fho mofhods and prIncIpIos oI roasonIng In aII Ifs possIbIo Iorms Is known as IogIc.
CIassIcaI or bInary IogIc doaIs wIfh proposIfIons fhaf aro oIfhor fruo or IaIso i.e., fho frufh
vaIuos acquIrod by sfafomonfs aro bI-vaIuod. ThIs may numorIcaIIy oquIvaIonf fo t0, 1). Buf In
our daIIy IIIo wo aro comIng across many sfafomonfs whoso frufh vaIuos Is nof rosfrIcfod fo
fruo or IaIso onIy. Such fypo oI sfafomonfs Is known as Iuzzy proposIfIons. ThoroIoro, If Is
cIoar fhaf In Iuzzy IogIc, frufh vaIuos aro muIfIvaIuod such as vory fruo, parfIy fruo, absoIufoIy
fruo, absoIufoIy IaIso, and so on and aro numorIcaIIy oquIvaIonf fo t0 1).
i.e.,
.KO 5AJ 6DAHO !$#
14.10.1 Fuzzy PropoSltlon
A Iuzzy proposIfIon Is a sfafomonf fhaf acquIros a Iuzzy frufh vaIuo. ThoroIoro, II P
bo a Iuzzy
sfafomonf, fhon TtP)
donofos fho frufh vaIuo fhaf aro numorIcaIIy oquIvaIonf fo t01)

affachod fo P
. ThoroIoro, If Is cIoar fhaf, Iuzzy proposIfIons aro assocIafod wIfh Iuzzy sofs.
Tho momborshIp vaIuo assocIafod wIfh fho Iuzzy sof A
Ior fho Iuzzy proposIfIon P
Is froafod
as fho Iuzzy frufh vaIuo TtP ).
ThoroIoro,
A A
TtP) t ); 0 t ) 1 x x =

.
!or oxampIo, Iof us consIdor a sfafomonf
P
Abraham Is a nIco boy.

Thus, TtP)
= 0.? II P
Is parfIaIIy fruo,
TtP)
= 1 II P
Is absoIufoIy fruo
and TtP)
= 0 II P
Is absoIufoIy IaIso.
14.10.2 Fuzzy ConnectlveS
Tho IundamonfaI connocfIvos oI crIsp IogIc or bI-vaIuod IogIc fhaf wo havo dIscussod In
Chapfor 1 aro nogafIon, conjuncfIon and dIsjuncfIon. !uzzy IogIc aIso supporfs fho samo
connocfIvos. Lof P
and Q
aro fwo Iuzzy proposIfIons wIfh frufh vaIuos TtP)
and TtQ)
rospocfIvoIy. Tho IoIIowIng fabIo IIIusfrafos fho symboI and doIInIfIon oI fho dIIIoronf
connocfIvos.
NogafIon P 1 TtP)
ConjuncfIon P Q mIntTtP), TtQ))
IsjuncfIon P Q maxtTtP), TtQ))
ImpIIcafIon P Q P Q
8ynbo/ Connectioe Usage Dejinition

!or oxampIo, consIdor fwo Iuzzy proposIfIons wIfh fhoIr frufh vaIuos.
P
SmIfh Is honosf, TtP)
= 0.?
Q
BIako Is honosf,
TtQ)
= 0.5
ThoroIoro, P
SmIfh Is nof honosf,

Tt P) 1 TtP) 0.3 = =

tP Q)

SmIfh Is honosf and so BIako.
TtP Q) mIn tTtP), TtQ)) mIn t0.?, 0.5) 0.5 = = =

tP Q)

oIfhor SmIfh or BIako Is honosf.
TtP Q) max tTtP), TtQ)) max t0.?, 0.5) 0.? = = =

P Q

II SmIfh Is honosf fhon so Is BIako.

TtP Q) Tt P Q) max tTt P), TtQ))
max t0.3, 0.5) 0.5

50LVED EXAMPLE5
Example 1 II t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4
A x 0 21 x 0 1J x 0 6 x 0 4 anJ t , . ), t , . ),
1 2
B x 0 7 x 0 16
t , . ), t , . )
J 4
x 0 2J x 0 J6 are tuo ju::y sets JejineJ ooer the unioerse oj Jiscourse
1 2 3 4
, , , X x x x x , then conpute the jo//ouings.
ta)
t ) A B

7
tb)
t ) A B

1
tc)
t ) A B

1 2 3 4
A t , 0.21), t , 0.13), t , 0.5), t , 0.4) x x x x
and
1 2 3 4
B t , 0.?), t , 0.16), t , 0.23), t , 0.35) x x x x
. ThoroIoro,
ta)
1 2 3 4
tA B) t , 0.?), t , 0.16), t , 0.5), t , 0.4) x x x x

7 sInco,
1 1 1
B A B A
t ) max t t ), t )) maxt0.21, 0.?) 0.? x x x

7
2 2 2
B A B A
3 3 3
B A B A
4 4 4
B A B A
t ) max t t ), t )) maxt0.13, 0.16) 0.16
t ) max t t ), t )) maxt0.5, 0.23) 0.5
t ) max t t ), t )) maxt0.4, 0.35) 0.4
x x x
x x x
x x x

7

7

7
tb)
1 2 3 4
tA B) t , 0.21), t , 0.13), t , 0.23), t , 0.35) x x x x

1 sInco,
1 1 1
B A B A
2 2 2
B A B A
3 3 3
B A B A
4 4 4
B A B A
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.21, 0.?) 0.21
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.13, 0.16) 0.13
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.5, 0.23) 0.23
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.4, 0.35) 0.3
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

1

1

1

1
5
tc)
tA B) tA B )
c

1
Now,
1 2 3 4
B t , 0.3), t , 0.84), t , 0.??), t , 0.65).
c
x x x x
ThoroIoro,

1 2 3 4
tA B) tA B ) t , 0.21), t , 0.13), t , 0.5), t , 0.4)
c
x x x x

1 sInco,
1 1 1
A A B B
2 2 2
A A B B
3 3 3
A A B B
4 4 4
A A B B
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.21, 0.3) 0.21
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.13, 0.84) 0.13
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.5, 0.??) 0.5
t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn t0.4, 0.
c c
c c
c c
c c
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

1

1

1

1
65) 0.4
Example 2 lj t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , )
1 2 J 4 6
A x 0 1 x 0 J x 0 4 x 0 0 x 1
anJ t , . ), t , . ),
1 2
B x 0 2 x 0 1
t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
J 4 6
x 0 6 x 0 S x 0 0 are tuo ju::y sets JejineJ ooer the unioerse oj Jiscourse
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , , X x x x x x then conpute the jo//ouings.
ta)
t ) A B

tb)
t )
c
A B

1
tc)
t )
c c
A B

7
!uzzy Sof Thoory 36?
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.1), t , 0.3), t , 0.4), t , 0.9), t , 1)
x x x x x and

1 2 3 4 5
B t , 0.2), t , 0.1), t , 0.5), t , 0.8), t , 0.9)
x x x x x .
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.9), t , 0.?), t , 0.6), t , 0.1), t , 0) and
B t , 0.8), t , 0.9), t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.1)
c
c
x x x x x
x x x x x
ta) tA B) tA B) tA B )
c c

1 7 1
AgaIn,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.2), t , 0.1), t , 0.5), t , 0.1), t , 0)
c
x x x x x

1 and

1 2 3 4 5
tA B ) t , 0.1), t , 0.3), t , 0.4), t , 0.2), t , 0.1)
c
x x x x x

1
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.2), t , 0.3), t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.1) x x x x x

tb)
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.1), t , 0.1), t , 0.4), t , 0.8), t , 0.9) x x x x x

1
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.9), t , 0.9), t , 0.6), t , 0.2), t , 0.1)
c
x x x x x

1
tc)
1 2 3 4 5
tA B ) t , 0.9), t , 0.9), t , 0.6), t , 0.2), t , 0.1)
c c
x x x x x

7
Example 3 lj t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4
A x 0 17 x 0 4J x 0 24 x 0 10
be a ju::y set JejineJ ooer the

unioerse
1 2 3 4
, , , X x x x x , then shou that t ) .
c c
A A

1 2 3 4
A t , 0.1?), t , 0.43), t , 0.24), t , 0.19). x x x x
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.83), t , 0.5?), t , 0.?6), t , 0.81)
c
x x x x
sInco,

A
A
A
1 1
A
2 2
A
3 3
A
4 4
A A
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.1? 0.83
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.43 0.5?
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.24 0.?6
t ) 1 t ) 1 0.19 0.81
c
c
c
c
x x
x x
x x
x x

SImIIarIy,
1 2 3 4
tA ) t , 0.1?), t , 0.43), t , 0.24), t , 0.19) A
c c
x x x x

Example 4 lj t , . ), t , . ),t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4 6
A x 0 1 x 0 4 x 0 0 x 0 7 x 0 6
anJ t , . ), t , . ),
1 2
B x 0 0 x 0 J
t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
J 4 6
x 0 1 x 0 6 x 0 2 be tuo ju::y sets JejineJ on the unioerse oj Jiscourse
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , , X x x x x x then shou that connutatioe /aus ho/Js gooJ.
Solution: GIvon
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.1), t , 0.4),t , 0.9), t , 0.?), t , 0.6) x x x x x
and
1 2 3 4 5
B t , 0.9), t , 0.3),t , 0.1), t , 0.5), t , 0.2) x x x x x
bo fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod on fho unIvorso

1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x .
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.9), t , 0.4),t , 0.9), t , 0.?), t , 0.6) x x x x x

7 tB A)

7
sInco,
B A B A
B A B A
t ) max t t ), t ))
max t t ), t )) t ); 1, 2, 3, 4
i i i
i i i
x x x
x x x i

7

7
SImIIarIy, If can bo shown fhaf
tA B) tB A)

1 1
.
Example 5 lj t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4
A x 0 16 x 0 71 x 0 66 x 0 26
anJ
1 2
t , 0.1), t , 0.25), B x x
J 4
(x , 0.02, (x , 0.01/ are tuo ju::y sets JejineJ on the unioerse , , ,
1 2 J 4
X x x x x , then
conpute the proJuct . A B

.
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.15), t , 0.?1), t , 0.56), t , 0.25) x x x x
and
1 2 3 4
B t , 0.1), t , 0.25), t , 0.02), t , 0.01) x x x x
.
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4
A.B t , 0.015), t , 0.1??5), t , 0.0112), t , 0.0025) x x x x

sInco,
1 1 1
B A . B A
2 2 2
B A . B A
3 3 3
B A . B A
4 4 4
B A . B A
t ) t ). t ) t0.15)t0.1) 0.015
t ) t ). t ) t0.?1)t0.25) 0.1??5
t ) t ). t ) t0.56)t0.02) 0.0112
t ) t ). t ) t0.25)t0.01) 0.0025
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

Example 6 lj t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4 6
A x 0 6 x 0 2 x 0 1 x 0 26 x 0 6
anJ t , . ),
1
B x 0 2
t , . ),
2
x 0 J6 t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
J 4 6
x 0 26 x 0 7 x 0 4 are tuo ju::y sets JejineJ on the unioerse
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , X x x x x x , then shou that the Je Morgan`s /aus ho/Js gooJ.
Solution: GIvon
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.1), t , 0.25), t , 0.6) x x x x x
and

1 2 3 4 5
B t , 0.2), t , 0.35), t , 0.25), t , 0.?), t , 0.4) x x x x x
.
ThoroIoro,
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.5), t , 0.8), t , 0.9), t , 0.?5), t , 0.4) and
B t , 0.8), t , 0.65), t , 0.?5), t , 0.3), t , 0.6)
c
c
x x x x x
x x x x x
Now,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.5), t , 0.35), t , 0.25), t , 0.?), t , 0.6) x x x x x

7
sInco,
1 1 1
B A B A
2 2 2
B A B A
3 3 3 B A B A
4 4 4 B A B A
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.5, 0.2) 0.5
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.2, 0.35) 0.35
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.1, 0.25) 0.25
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.25, 0.?
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x

7

7

7

7
5 5 5
B A B A
) 0.?
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.6, 0.4) 0.6 x x x

7
Thus,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B) t , 0.5), t , 0.65), t , 0.?5), t , 0.3), t , 0.4)
c
x x x x x

7
AgaIn,
1 2 3 4 5
tA B ) t , 0.5), t , 0.65), t , 0.?5), t , 0.3), t , 0.4)
c c
x x x x x

1
ThoroIoro, wo gof
tA B) A B
c c c

7 1
SImIIarIy, If can bo provod fhaf
tA B) A B
c c c

1 7
Example 7 Let A t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . ), t , . )
1 2 J 4 6
x 0 1 x 0 6 x 0 4 x 0 S x 0 0
anJ t , . ),
1
B y 0 6
t , . ), t , . )
2 J
y 0 2 y 0 1 be tuo ju::y sets JejineJ on the unioerses
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , X x x x x x anJ
1 2 3
, , Y y y y respectioe/y. Then conpute the ju::y re/ation P
on A B

.
Solution: Lof
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.1), t , 0.6), t , 0.4), t , 0.8), t , 0.9) x x x x x
and

1 2 3
B t , 0.5), t , 0.2), t , 0.1) y y y
. ThoroIoro,

1 2 3
1
2
3
4
5
0.1 0.1 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.1
0.4 0.2 0.1 A B
0.5 0.2 0.1
0.5 0.2 0.1
y y y
x
x
x P
x
x
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]

sInco,

1 1 1 1
A
1 2 1 2
A
1 3 1 3
A
2 1 2 1
A
2 2
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.1, 0.5) 0.1
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.1, 0.2) 0.1
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.1, 0.1) 0.1
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.6, 0.5) 0.5
t , ) mI
B
B
B
B
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y x y
P x y

2 2
A
2 3 2 3
A
n t t ), t )) mInt0.6, 0.2) 0.2
t , ) mIn t t ), t )) mInt0.6, 0.1) 0.1
B
B
x y
P x y x y

SImIIarIy, fho ofhor oIomonfs oI
P fhaf aro gIvon abovo can bo compufod.

Example 8 lj
1 2
A = /(x , 0.7, (x , 0.2/
anJ t , . ), t , . )
1 2
B x 0 J x 0 1
are tuo ju::y sets JejineJ

on ,
1 2
X x x , then conpute . 2A JB

7
Solution: Lof
1 2
A t , 0.4), t , 0.2) x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.3), t , 0.1) x x
ThoroIoro,
1 2
2A t , 0.8), t , 0.4) x x
and
1 2
3B t , 0.9), t , 0.3) x x
sInco,
1 1 2 2
2A A 2A A
1 1 2 2
3B B 3B B
t ) 2 t ) 2t0.4) 0.8; t ) 2 t ) 2t0.2) 0.4
t ) 3 t ) 3t0.3) 0.9; t ) 3 t ) 3t0.1) 0.3
x x x x
x x x x

ThoroIoro,
1 2
2A 3B t , 0.9), t , 0.4) x x

7 sInco,

1 1 1
3B 2A 3B 2A
2 2 2
3B 2A 3B 2A
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.8, 0.9) 0.9
t ) max t t ), t )) max t0.4, 0.3) 0.4
x x x
x x x

7

7
Example 9 Conpute the conposition P 8

ij P
anJ 8
are tuo ju::y re/ations JejineJ on

X Y anJ Y Z respectioe/y such that
1 2 3
1
2
3
0.5 0.3 0.2
0.3 0.? 0.9
0.4 0.8 1
y y y
x
P x
x
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 2 3
1
2
3
0.2 0.9 0.1
0.5 0.1 0.6
1 0.3 0.8
: : :
y
8 y
y
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
Solution: ConsIdor P
and 8
aro fwo Iuzzy roIafIons as doIInod abovo. ThoroIoro, fho

composIfIon
t )

P 8
Is gIvon as

1 2 3
1
2
3
0.3 0.5 0.3
0.9 0.3 0.8
1 0.4 0.8
: : :
x
P 8 x
x
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]

sInco,
1 1 1 1 1 1
Y
1 2 2 1
1 3 3 1
t , ) max tmIn t t , ), t , )),
mIn t t , ), t , )),
mIn t t , ), t , )))
P P 8 8
y
P 8
P 8
x : x y y :
x y y :
x y y :

i.e.,
1 1
Y
t , ) max tmIn t0.5, 0.2), mInt0.3, 0.5), mInt0.2, 1))
max t0.2, 0.3, 0.2) 0.3
P 8
y
x :
SImIIarIy,
1 2
Y
1 3
Y
2 1
Y
t , ) max tmIn t0.5, 0.9), mInt0.3, 0.1), mInt0.2, 0.3))
maxt0.5, 0.1, 0.2) 0.5
t , ) max tmIn t0.5, 0.1), mInt0.3, 0.6), mInt0.2, 0.8))
max t0.1, 0.3, 0.2) 0.3
t , ) max tmIn t0.3, 0.2), mInt
P 8
y
P 8
y
P 8
y
x :
x :
x :
2 2
Y
2 3
Y
0.?, 0.5), mInt0.9, 1))
max t0.2, 0.5, 0.9) 0.9
t , ) max tmIn t0.3, 0.9), mInt0.?, 0.1), mInt0.9, 0.3))
max t0.3, 0.1, 0.3) 0.3
t , ) max tmIn t0.3, 0.1), mInt0.?, 0.6), mInt0.9, 0.8))
max t0.1, 0.6, 0.8)
P 8
y
P 8
y
x :
x :
3 1
Y
3 2
Y
3 3
Y
0.8
t , ) max tmIn t0.4, 0.2), mInt0.8, 0.5), mInt1, 1))
max t0.2, 0.5, 1) 1
t , ) max tmIn t0.4, 0.9), mInt0.8, 0.1), mInt1, 0.3))
max t0.4, 0.1, 0.3) 0.4
t , ) max tmIn t0.4, 0.1), mInt0.8, 0.6
P 8
y
P 8
y
P 8
y
x :
x :
x :
), mInt1, 0.8))
max t0.1, 0.6, 0.8) 0.8
Example 10 ConsiJer the ju::y sets A
anJ B
anJ JejineJ on the interoa/ X = |0, 7] oj rea/

nunbers, by the nenbership junctions
t ) ; t )
x B A
1 1
x x
2x 1 J

+

Conpute the nathenatica/ jornu/ae jor the jo//ouing nenbership junctions oj each oj the
jo//ouing ju::y sets.
ta)
c
A
tb)
c
B
tc) t ) A B

7 tJ) A B

1
!uzzy Sof Thoory 3?1
B A
1 1
t ) ; t )
2 1 3
x
x x
x

+

A A
B B
B A B A
B A B A
1 2
t ) t ) 1 t ) 1
2 1 2 1
1 3 1
t ) t ) 1 t ) 1
3 3
1 1
t ) t ) max t t ), t )) max ,
2 1 3
1 1
t ) t ) mIn t t ), t )) mIn ,
2 1 3
x
x x
x
x
c
c
x
a x x
x x
b x x
c x x x
x
J x x x
x

+ +

j \

, (
( ,
+
j \

, (
( ,
+

7

1
EXEkCl5E5
1. ConsIdor fho sof oI poopIo In fho IoIIowIng groups.
010 1020 2030 3040
4050 5060 60?0 ?0 and abovo
Roprosonf a momborshIp IuncfIon graph Ior fho Iuzzy sofs young, mIddIo-agod and
oId.
2. II
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.23), t , 0.?3), t , 0.3), t , 0.45), t , 0.63) x x x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.2?), t , 0.65), x x
3 4 5
t , 0.13), t , 0.55), t , 0.43) x x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso
1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x , fhon compufo fho IoIIowIngs:
ta)
tA B)

7
tb)
tA B)

1
tc)
tA B)

tJ)
tA B )
c c

7
te)
tA B)

tj)
tA B)
c

1
3. Lof
1 2 3 4
A t , 0.35), t , 0.?4), t , 0.13), t , 0.45) x x x x
bo a Iuzzy sof doIInod on fho unIvorso

1 2 3 4
X , , , x x x x . Show fhaf
tA ) A
c c

.
4. II
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.25), t , 0.?), t , 0.6), t , 0.35), t , 0.55) x x x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.2), t , 0.6), x x
3 4 5
t , 0.15), t , 0.35), t , 0.03) x x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso
1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x , fhon compufo
.
A B

.
5. Lof
1 2
B t , 0.01), t , 0.03) y y
and
1 2
A t , 0.05), t , 0.02) y y
bo fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod on

fho unIvorso
1 2
Y , y y . Show fhaf fho commufafIvo Iaws hoIds good.
6. II
1 2 3 4 5
A t , 0.53), t , 0.42), t , 0.13), t , 0.25), t , 0.63) x x x x x
and
1 2
B t , 0.25), t , 0.55), x x
3 4 5
t , 0.15), t , 0.?5), t , 0.43) x x x aro fwo Iuzzy sofs doIInod ovor fho unIvorso
1 2 3 4 5
X , , , , x x x x x , fhon show fhaf fho o Morgan`s Iaws hoIds good.
?. ConsIdor fho Iuzzy sofs A
and B
doIInod on fho InforvaI X = 0, 5 oI roaI numbors, by fho

momborshIp IuncfIons

+

1
t ) ; t )
2 1 2
x B A
x
x x
x
Compufo fho mafhomafIcaI IormuIao and draw fho graphs Ior fho IoIIowIng momborshIp
IuncfIons oI oach oI fho IoIIowIng sofs.
ta)
A
c
tb)
B
c
tc) tA B)

7
tJ)
tA B)

1
te) A B

tj )
c
tA B)

7
8. Lof
1 2 3
A t , 0.2), t , 0.?), t , 0.9)
x x x and
1 2
B t , 0.1), t , 0.3)
y y bo fwo Iuzzy sofs

doIInod on fho unIvorsos
1 2 3
X , , x x x and
1 2
Y , y y rospocfIvoIy. Thon compufo fho
Iuzzy roIafIon P
on A B

.
9. II P
and 8
aro fwo Iuzzy roIafIons doIInod on X Y and Y Z rospocfIvoIy, fhon compufo

fho composIfIon P
o 8
. If Is gIvon fhaf
1 2 3
1
2
3
0.1 0.5 0.1
0.6 0.3 0.?
0.2 0.4 0.8
y y y
x
P x
x
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
0.8 0.3 0.5 0.2
0.2 0.4 0.1 0.?
0.1 0.5 0.3 0.8
: : : :
y
8 y
y
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
10. ConsIdor a sof

1 2 3
P P , P , P oI fhroo porsons, sof
1 2 3
, , oI varIous dIsoasos
aIIocfIng fho porsons and
1 2 3 4
S S ,S ,S ,S
bo fho common sympfoms oI fho dIsoasos. Lof

1
P
bo a roIafIon on P and
2
P
bo a roIafIon on S. ObfaIn fho assocIafIon oI fho

porsons wIfh fho dIIIoronf sympfoms oI` fho dIsoasos usIng max-mIn composIfIon. If Is
gIvon fhaf
1 2 3
1
2
3

P 0.8 0.5 0.9
P 0.6 0.3 0.2
P 0.? 0.8 0.3
P
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
and
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
S S S S
1 0.3 0.8 0.5
0.1 0 0.3 0.9
0 1 0.? 0.1
8
, ]
, ]
, ]
, ]
]
4ABAHA?AI
CHAPTER 1
1. B. KoIman, R.C. Busby, S.C. Ross: Discrete Mathenatica/ 8tructures, 5
fh
dIfIon;
PronfIco-HaII, Inc.; t2004).
2. C.L. Chang, R.C. Loo: 8ynbo/ic Logic anJ Mechanica/ Theoren Frooing; AcadomIc
Pross, Now York; t19?3).
3. C.L. LIu: E/enents oj Discrete Mathenatics, 2
nd
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII PubIIshIng
Company LImIfod; t2002).
4. J.H. GaIIIor: Logic jor Conputer 8cience; Harpor and Row; Now York; t1986).
5. J.K. Truss: Discrete Mathenatics jor Conputer 8cientists, 2
nd
dIfIon; AddIson WosIoy;
t2000).
6. J.P. TrombIay, R. Manohar: Discrete Mathenatica/ 8tructures uith App/ications to
Conputer 8cience; McGraw-HIII PubIIshIng Company LImIfod; t2003).
?. Jamos L. HoIn: Discrete 8tructures, Logic, anJ Conputabi/ity, 2
nd
dIfIon; Jonos and
BarfIoff PubIIshors, Inc.; t2002).
8. MarfIn . avIs, Ron SIgaI, IaIno J. Woyukor: Conputabi/ity, Conp/exity, anJ
Languages FunJanenta/s oj Theoretica/ Conputer 8cience, 2
nd
dIfIon; AcadomIc
Pross, Inc.; t1994).
9. P.T. Johnsfono: Notes on Logic anJ 8et Theory; CambrIdgo !nIvorsIfy Pross; t198?).
10. R.R. SfoII: 8et Theory anJ Logic, Dooer, Now York; t19?9).
11. S.!. Barkor: The E/enents oj Logic, 5
fh
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII Company, Now York;
t1989).
12. W.J. dgar: The E/enents oj Logic; SRA, ChIcago; t1989).
CHAPTER 2
fh
dIfIon;
!%" undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
2. .G. GoodaIro, MIchaoI M. Parmonfor: Discrete Mathenatics uith Oraph Theory, 2
nd
dIfIon; PronfIco-HaII, Inc.; t2002).
3. H. !oIIx: 8et Theory; ChoIsIa PubIIshIng Co. Now York; t19?8).
nd
t2000).
6. Joo L. Moff, Abraham KandoI, Thoodoro P. Bakor: Discrete Mathenatics jor Conputer
8cientists anJ Mathenaticians, 2
nd
?. Konnofh H. Roson: Discrete Mathenatics anJ its App/ications, 5
fh
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII
Company; t2003).
8. P.R. HaImos: Naoe 8et Theory; SprIngor VorIag; Now York; t19?4).
9. P.T. Johnsfono: Notes on Logic anJ 8et Theory; CambrIdgo !nIvorsIfy Pross; t198?).
10. R.R. SfoII: 8et Theory anJ Logic; ovor, Now York; t19?9).
11. S. LIpschufz, Marc LIpson: Discrete Mathenatics, 2
nd
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII Book
Company; t2001).
CHAPTER 3
fh
dIfIon;
nd
nd
4. G. BIrkhoII, T.C. Barfoo: MoJern App/ieJ A/gebra; McGraw-HIII Company, Inc., t19?0).
nd
t2000).
?. Joo L. Moff, Abraham KandoI, Thoodoro P. Bakor: Discrete Mathenatics jor Conputer
nd
8. Konnofh H. Roson: Discrete Mathenatics anJ its App/ications, 5
fh
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII
Company; t2003).
9. Norman L. BIggs: iscrete Mathenatics, 2
nd
dIfIon; OxIord !nIvorsIfy Pross; t2003).
10. Rajondra Akorkar, RupaII Akorkar: Discrete Mathenatics; Poarson ducafIon
tSIngaporo) Pfo Lfd.; t2004).
11. RaIph P. GrImaIdI: Discrete anJ Conbinatoria/ Mathenatics; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.;
t2003).
Roforoncos !%#
12. RIchard Johnsonbaugh: Discrete Mathenatics, 5
fh
dIfIon; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.;
t2001).
13. Roborf J. McIIoco, Roborf B. Ash, CaroI Ash: lntroJuction to Discrete Mathenatics;
McGraw-HIII Book Company; t1989).
nd
Company; t2001).
CHAPTER 4
1. B. KoIman, R. C. Busby, S. C. Ross: Discrete Mathenatica/ 8tructures, 5
fh
dIfIon;
nd
nd
4. G. BIrkhoII, T.C. Barfoo: MoJern App/ieJ A/gebra; McGraw-HIII Company, Inc., t19?0).
nd
t2000).
?. Joo L. Moff, Abraham KandoI, Thoodoro P. Bakor: Discrete Mathenatics jor Conputer
nd
8. Konnofh H. Roson: Discrete Mathenatics anJ its App/ications, 5
fh
dIfIon; McGraw-HIII
Company; t2003).
9. Norman L. BIggs: Discrete Mathenatics, 2
nd
dIfIon; OxIord !nIvorsIfy Pross; t2003).
tSIngaporo) Pvf. Lfd.; t2004).
11. RaIph P. GrImaIdI: Discrete anJ Conbinatoria/ Mathenatics; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.;
t2003).
fh
t2001).
13. Roborf J. McIIoco, Roborf B. Ash, CaroI Ash: lntroJuction to Discrete Mathenatics;
McGraw-HIII Book Company; t1989).
nd
Company; t2001).
CHAPTER 5
1. AIIrod V. Aho, John . HopcroIf, JoIIory . !IIman: The Design anJ Ana/ysis oj
Conputer A/gorithns; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.; t2001).
!%$ undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
2. Anany LovIfIn: lntroJuction to The Design anJ Ana/ysis oj A/gorithns; Poarson
ducafIon, Inc.; t2003).
fh
dIfIon;
nd
nd
6. . HorowIfz, S. SahnI, S. Rajasokaran: FunJanenta/s oj Conputer A/gorithns; GaIgofIa
PubIIcafIons Pvf. Lfd., Now oIhI; t2000).
?. MIchaoI O. AIborfson, Joan P. HufchInson: Discrete Mathenatics uith A/gorithns; John
WIIoy and Sons; t2001).
8. P. CuII, . !. ckIund, Jr.: Touers oj Hanoi anJ Ana/ysis oj A/gorithns, Amor. Mafh.
MonfhIy, 92 t1985), pp. 40?420.
9. R. Johnsonbaugh, M. SchaoIor: A/gorithns; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.; t2004).
fh
t2001).
11. S. asgupfa, C. PapadImIfrIou, !. VazIranI: A/gorithns; McGraw-HIII Company, Inc.;
t200?).
12. Sara Baaso, AIIon Van GoIdor: Conputer A/gorithnslntroJuction to Design anJ
Ana/ysis, 3
rd
dIfIon; Poarson ducafIon, Inc.; t2003).
13. Thomas H. Cormon, CharIos . LoIsorson, RonaId L. RIvosf: lntroJuction to A/gorithns;
MIT Pross, CambrIdgo; t2000).
CHAPTER 6
1. AIan Tuckor: App/ieJ Conbinatorics, 4
fh
dIfIon; John WIIoy and Sons, Inc.; t2003).
fh
dIfIon;
3. C.L. LIu: lntroJuction to Conbinatoria/ Mathenatics, McGraw-HIII Company, Inc., Now
York, t1968).
nd
5. !. Harary: Oraph Theory; AddIson-WosIoy PubIIshIng Company, Inc.; t2001).
6. !.P. Ramsoy: On a Frob/en oj Forna/ Logic, ProcoodIngs London Mafh. Soc. SorIos 2,
VoI. 30, pp. 264 286; t1930).
?. J.H. Van LInf, R.M. WIIson: A Course in Conbinatorics; CambrIdgo !nIvorsIfy Pross,
Now York; t1992).
nd
t2000).
References 377
9. J. Riordan: An Introduction to Combinatorial Analysis; Wiley, New York; (1958).
10. N.Y. Vilenkin: Combinatorics; Academic Press; New York; (1971).
11. R.A. Brualdi: Introductory Combinatorics, 4
th
Edition; ELSEVIER, New York; (1997).
12. R. Graham, B. Rothschild, J. H. Spencer: Ramsey Theory; John Wiley and Sons, New
York; (1980).
13. R.P. Stanley: Enumerative Combinatorics, Vol. 1; Cambridge University Press, England;
(1999).
14. R.P. Stanley: Enumerative Combinatorics, Vol. 2; Cambridge University Press, England;
(1999).
15. Ralph P. Grimaldi: Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics; Pearson Education, Inc.;
(2003).
15. S. Even: Algorithmic Combinatorics; MacMillan, New York; (1973).
16. V.K. Balakrishnan: Combinatorics Including Concepts of Graph Theory; McGraw-Hill
Company, Inc.; (2005).
CHAPTER 7
1. B. Kolman, R.C. Busby, S.C. Ross: Discrete Mathematical Structures, 5
th
Edition;
Prentice-Hall, Inc.; (2004).
2. G. Birkhoff, T. C. Bartee: Modern Applied Algebra; McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., (1970).
3. J.K. Truss: Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists, 2
nd
Edition; Addison Wesley;
(2000).
4. J.P. Tremblay, R. Manohar: Discrete Mathematical Structures with Applications to
Computer Science; McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited; (2003).
5. L.L. Dornhoff, F.E. Hohn: Applied Modern Algebra; MacMillan; (1978).
6. M.L. Lial, E.J. Hornsby, D.I. Schneider, C.D. Miller: College Algebra, 7
th
Edition;
Addison Wesley, New York; (1997).
7. M. Sullivan: College Algebra, 5
th
Edition; Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J.,
(1999).
8. R. Lidl, G. Pilz: Applied Abstract Algebra; Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.; (1984).
9. Rajendra Akerkar, Rupali Akerkar: Discrete Mathematics; Pearson Education
(Singapore) Pte Ltd.; (2004).
CHAPTER 8
1. B. Kolman, R.C. Busby, S.C. Ross: Discrete Mathematical Structures, 5
th
Edition;
Prentice-Hall, Inc.; (2004).
2. C.L. Liu: Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2
nd
Edition; McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited; (2002).
!%& undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
3. G. BIrkhoII, T. C. Barfoo: MoJern App/ieJ A/gebra; McGraw-HIII Company, Inc., t19?0).
4. J. K. Truss: Discrete Mathenatics jor Conputer 8cientists, 2
nd
t2000).
CHAPTER 9
nd
t2000).
3. L.L. ornhoII, !. . Hohn: App/ieJ MoJern A/gebra; MacMIIIan; t19?8).
4. M.L. LIaI, . J. Hornsby, .I. SchnoIdor, C.. MIIIor: Co//ege A/gebra, ?
fh
dIfIon;
AddIson WosIoy, Now York; t199?).
5. M. SuIIIvan: Co//ege A/gebra, 5
fh
dIfIon; PronfIco-HaII, !ppor SaddIo RIvor, N.J., t1999).
6. R. LIdI, G. PIIz: App/ieJ Abstract A/gebra; SprIngor- VorIag, Now York, Inc.; t1984).
?. Rajondra Akorkar, RupaII Akorkar: Discrete Mathenatics; Poarson ducafIon
CHAPTER 10
fh
dIfIon;
nd
4. J.H. GaIIIor: Logic jor Conputer 8cience; Harpor and Row; Now York; t1986).
nd
t2000).
?. RIchard Johnsonbaugh: Discrete Mathenatics, 5
fh
t2001).
CHAPTER 11
fh
dIfIon;
Roforoncos !%'
nd
t2000).
nd
Company; t2001).
CHAPTER 12
1. A. GIbbons: A/gorithnic Oraph Theory; CambrIdgo !nIvorsIfy Pross, CambrIdgo; t1985).
2. C. Borgo: Oraphs anJ Hypergraphs; Norfh-HoIIand PubIIshIng Company; Amsfordam;
t19?9).
nd
4. .B. Wosf: lntroJuction to Oraph Theory, 2
nd
dIfIon; Poarson ducafIon, Inc., t2001).
nd
?. Gary Charfrand, Orfrud R. OoIIormann: App/ieJ anJ A/gorithnic Oraph Theory;
McGraw-HIII, Inc.; t1993).
8. John CIark, orok AIIan HoIfon: A First Looh at Oraph Theory; WorId ScIonfIIIc
PubIIshIng Co. Pfo. Lfd.; t1991).
9. L.R. !ouIds: Oraph Theory App/ications; SprIngor-VorIag, Now York, Inc.; t1992).
10. M.N.S. Swamy, K. ThuIasIraman: Oraphs, Netuorhs, anJ A/gorithns; John WIIoy and
Sons, Now York; t2000).
11. N. oo: Oraph Theory uith App/ications to Engineering anJ Conputer 8cience;
12. RobIn J. WIIson: lntroJuction to Oraph Theory, 4
fh
t2005).
13. S. von: Oraph A/gorithns, Compufor ScIonco Pross, RockvIIIo, Md., t19?9).
14. V.K. BaIakrIshnan: Conbinatorics lnc/uJing Concepts oj Oraph Theory; McGraw-HIII
Company, Inc.; t2005).
15. W.R. Scoff: Oraph Theory; ovor PubIIcafIons, Inc.; t198?).
CHAPTER 13
1. A. GIbbons: A/gorithnic Oraph Theory; CambrIdgo !nIvorsIfy Pross, CambrIdgo; t1985).
2. C. Borgo: Oraphs anJ Hypergraphs; Norfh-HoIIand PubIIshIng Company; Amsfordam;
t19?9).
!& undamonfal Approach fo iscrofo Mafhomafics
nd
4. .B. Wosf: lntroJuction to Oraph Theory, 2
nd
dIfIon; Poarson ducafIon, Inc., t2001).
nd
?. Gary Charfrand, Orfrud R. OoIIormann: App/ieJ anJ A/gorithnic Oraph Theory;
McGraw-HIII, Inc.; t1993).
8. John CIark, orok AIIan HoIfon: A First Looh at Oraph Theory; WorId ScIonfIIIc
PubIIshIng Co. Pfo. Lfd.; t1991).
9. L.R. !ouIds: Oraph Theory App/ications; SprIngor-VorIag, Now York, Inc.; t1992).
10. M.N.S. Swamy, K. ThuIasIraman: Oraphs, Netuorhs, anJ A/gorithns; John WIIoy and
Sons, Now York; t2000).
11. N. oo: Oraph Theory uith App/ications to Engineering anJ Conputer 8cience;
12. RobIn J. WIIson: lntroJuction to Oraph Theory, 4
fh
t2005).
13. S. von: Oraph A/gorithns, Compufor ScIonco Pross, RockvIIIo, Md., t19?9).
14. V.K. BaIakrIshnan: Conbinatorics lnc/uJing Concepts oj Oraph Theory; McGraw-HIII
Company, Inc.; t2005).
15. W.R. Scoff: Oraph Theory; ovor PubIIcafIons, Inc.; t198?).
CHAPTER 14
1. Goorgo J. KIIr, Bo Yuan: Fu::y 8ets anJ Fu::y Logic Theory anJ App/ications;
2. Goorgo J. KIIr, TIna A. !oIgor: Fu::y 8ets Uncertainty anJ lnjornation; PronfIco-HaII,
Inc.; t2000).
3. L. A. Zadoh: Fu::y 8ets, InI. ConfroI, VoI. 8, pp. 338353; t1965).
Index
A
Abelian group 174, 181, 183
Absolute function 78
Absorption law 260, 261
Absorption laws 26, 235
Acyclic graph 275, 309
Addition principle 141
Adjacency matrix 276, 277, 286, 323
Adjacent vertices 270, 319
Algebraic structure 173
And gate 228
Antecedent 3
Anti-reflexive 49, 51
symmetric 50, 51
Arrow diagram 45
Associative law 26, 232, 234, 260, 261, 357
Asymmetric 49
B
Backtracking 101
algorithm 319
Bertrand Russell 19
Bi-conditional 4
Bijective 72
Binary 173
logic 364
operation 178, 200, 283
relation 41
search 106, 110
tree 311
Binomial 147
coefficients 148
theorem 147
Bipartite graph 280, 281
Bit 231
matrix 276
Bi-valued logic 1, 365
Blaise Pascal 148
Block code 200, 201
Boolean algebra 227, 234
expression 232
function 238
lattice 263
matrix 276
Bound laws 26, 235
Bounded lattice 261
Breadth first search 317, 318
Binary operation 200, 283
Breadth first tree 318, 319
Bridge 312, 313
C
C.E. Shannon 227
Cantor 350
Cardinality 21
Cartesian product 41
Catalan numbers 151
Ceiling function 78
Central point 314
Centre 314
Characteristic equation 103
function 79, 351
Child 310
Circuits 227
Circular permutation 143
Classical set 357
Closest insertion algorithm 327, 328
Closure of a graph 326
relations 55
Code 200
word 199, 200, 202
Coding problem 199
Co-domain 71, 74
Collision 80
Combination 141, 144
Combinatorial circuit 231, 233
Commutative group 174
laws 26, 201, 232, 234 260, 357
Comparable 23
Complement 25, 284, 363
laws 26, 232, 234
Complemented lattice 262
Complete binary tree 312
bipartite graph 281
graph 153, 274, 284
Composition 285
of relations 46, 363
Concentration 354
Conclusion 3
Conditional 3
Conjunction 2
Conjunctive normal form 239, 240
Connected graph 279
Consequent 3
Constant function 77
Contra positive 5
Contradiction 7
Converse 5
Coordinate diagram 43
Coset leader 202
Crisp logic 365
relation 360
set theory 350
set 357
Cube representation 238
Cut edge 312
Cut vertex 323
Cycle 274, 275
Cyclic group 181, 182
D
de Moivre 93
de Morgan 229
laws 8, 27, 233, 235
Degree of vertex 273
Denes 269
Depth first search 317, 319
first tree 320
of tree 311
Diameter 314
Difference 23, 24, 357
equation 97, 103
Digraph 272, 275
Dijkastras algorithm 321
Dilation 354
Directed graph 272
Discrete numeric functions 93
Disjoint sets 28
Disjunction 3
Disjunctive counting 141
normal form 239
sum 357
Distance 200, 313
Distributed lattice 260
Distributive lattice 259
law 26, 232, 234, 260, 261, 358
Index 383
Divide-and-conquer 109
Domain 42, 71, 74
Double implication 4
Duality law 8
Dyck word 153
E
Eccentricity 313
Edge deleted subgraph 282
Elementary operation 283
Empty relation 45
set 21, 22
Equal sets 22
Equality 352
Equivalence classes 56
relation 52, 56, 180
Equivalent sets 21
Error correction 200
Eugene Charles Catalan 151
Euler 96
graph 324, 325
tour 324, 325, 326
trail 325
Even-parity 230
Exclusive or 6
Exponential generating function 95
External node 310
F
F. P. Ramsey 153
Factorial 142
Fibonacci 99
sequence 99, 103
Finite group 174
set 20
Fleurys algorithm 324
Floor function 78
Floyd-Warshall algorithm 321, 323
Forest 313
Forward chaining 101, 102
Frege 19
Full binary tree 312
Function 69, 93
Fundamental product 30
Fusion algorithm 287
of graphs 285
Fuzzy logic 364, 365
proposition 365
propositions 364
relation 360, 362
Fuzzy set 350, 351, 357
operations 355
G
Gate 227
Generating function 93, 96
Generator 181
George Boole 227
cantor 19
Golden ratio 103
Graph 269, 270
isomorphism 280
of function 72
relation 43
Greatest integer function 78
Group 200
code 200, 173, 174
H
Hamiltonian cycle 326, 327
graph 326
path 326
Hash function 79
Hasse diagram 256
Height 311
Hierholzers algorithm 324, 325
Homomorphism 183
Hypothesis 3
I
Idempotent laws 26, 235, 358
Identity element 175
function 77
Identity laws 26, 232, 234, 358
relation 45
Implication 4
Incidence matrix 277, 278
Indegree 273, 275
Infinite group 174
order 175
Infinite set 20
Injective 71
Insertion sort 106, 107
Intersection 23, 24, 284, 355, 362
of two I-V fuzzy sets 360
Interval 359
Into function 72
Inverse 5
function 76
relation 42
Involution laws 26, 235, 358
Irreflexive 49
Isolated vertex 273
Isomorphic lattices 263
i-v fuzzy sets 358, 359
K
Konig 269
Kruskals algorithm 316
L
L. A. Zadeh 358
Lattices 255
Leaf 310
Left cancellation law 176
Left coset 183
Leibnitz 69
Leonardo di pisa 99
Level 311
Logical 227
Loop 271, 273, 316
Lotfi A. Zadeh 349
Lower bound 359
M
Many-many 45
relations 45, 70
Many-one 45
Maximal spanning tree 347
Maximum likelihood criterion 201
Maxterm 240
Membership function 351
Method of contra positive 8
contradiction 8
extension 20
induction 8
intension 20
Minimum distance decoding 201, 202
Minimum spanning tree 315
Minterm 240
Monoid 174
Morse code 199
Multi graph 271, 276
Multiple roots 103
Multiplication principle 141
N
N space representation 238
Nand 6
gate 229
Negation 2
Node 310
Nor 6
gate 229
Not gate 227
Null set 21
Index 385
O
Odd parity 230
Omar Khayyam 147
One-many 45, 70
One-one 45
function 71
onto function 72
Operation 173
Operations on graphs 283
Or gate 228
Order 270
of a group 174
of an element 174
pair 29
Ordered pair 173
Outdegree 273, 275
Oystein ore 269
P
Pair set 21
Parallel edges 270, 271
Parent 310
Particular solution 104
Partitions of integers 95
Party problem 153
Pascal triangle 148
Pascals identity 146, 147, 148
Path matrix 278
Path 273, 283
Pendant vertex 275
Permutation with repetition 143
Permutation 141, 142
Poset 255, 256
Power of a fuzzy set 354
Power set 23
Prims algorithm 315
Product of graphs 284
sets 29
Proper subset 22
Proposition 1
Pseudo graph 272
R
Radius 314
Ramsey number 153
Range 42, 71
Reachability matrix 278
Recurrence relation 97, 151
Reflexive 48, 50, 52
closure 55
Regular graph 274
Relation matrix 46, 47, 50
Remainder function 79
Restricted combination 146
permutations 144
Right cancellation law 176
Right coset 183
Root 309, 310
Roster method 20
S
Satisfiable 7
Selection sort 106
Semi group 174
Sequential counting 141
Set of sets 21
Set operations 23
Set-builder method 20
Sets 19
Sibling 311
Siblings 319
Signum function 79
Similar sets 21
Simple graph 271, 276
Single source shortest path 321
Singleton set 21
Sir Isaac Newton 147
Size 270
of a tree 313
Spanning sub graph 315
Spanning tree 315
Specification method 20
Stanislaw Radziszowski 154
Statement 1
Strassens matrix multiplication 106, 108
Strongly connected 279
Subgraph 281
Subgroup 178, 179, 200
Sublattice 263
Subset 22
Sum of products 253
Summation method 101, 102
Super graph 326, 327
Superset 22
Surjective 72
Symmetric 49, 50, 52
closure 55
difference 25
T
Tabular method 20
representation 238
Tautology 7
Terminal node 310
Terminating node 321
Total solution 105
Tour 324
Towers of Hanoi 97
Trail 283, 324, 325
Transitive 49, 50, 52
closure 55
laws 358
Travelling salesman problem 327
Tree 309
Trial function 104
Triangles inequality 201
Trivial walk 283
Two-optimal algorithm 327, 328
Two-valued logic 1
U
Unary operation 283
Union 23, 283, 355
Universal lower bound 261
relation 46
set 21
upper bound 261
Unsatisfiable 7
Upper bound 359
V
Valued fuzzy set 359
Vander Mondes identity 149, 150
Venn diagram 24, 25, 28
Vertex deleted subgraph 282
Void relation 45
set 21
W
Walk 282, 328
Weakly connected 279
Weighted graph 272, 276, 315, 316, 321, 323, 327
Well defined 19
Word 199
X
Xnor gate 230
Xor gate 229
Xor 6

BHN Bacaan Diskrit

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

BHN Bacaan Diskrit

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

This page

A : Supporf oI a Iuzzy sof

0, 1 : IamIIy oI aII cIosod InforvaIs

TtP) : frufh vaIuo oI fho Iuzzy

+ + > C > C > C

ConsIdor fho oxampIo: Lof A = 1, 2, 4, 5, ?;

ThIs ImpIIos t:, x) e R

3.12.1 keflexlve kelatlonS

Wo soo fhaf whonovor i, j In MtR

!rom fho abovo mafrIx If Is cIoar fhaf n

RopIacIng aII non-zoro onfrIos by 1 In MtR

RopIacIng aII non-zoro onfrIos by 1 In MtR

80 !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs

, x A. 8hou that j is One-One anJ onto. FinJ the inoerse junction oj j.

In A such fhaf y = j tx) =

Solution: GIvon fhaf j tx) =

; x e R. Show fhaf j Is bIjocfIvo and honco IInd fho Invorso oI j.

Wo caII fho abovo oxprossIon Gtx), whoro x Is an IndoformInafo, as gonorafIng IuncfIon

gonorafos fho soquonco

gonorafos fho soquonco

On soIvIng fhoso oquafIons wo gof

Our aIm Is fo gof fho soquonco In IncroasIng ordor. Now, wo

In IncroasIng ordor by rocursIvoIy

On oquafIng fho cooIIIcIonf oI x

On soIvIng fhoso oquafIons wo gof

On soIvIng fhoso oquafIons, wo gof

Therefore, the total solution is given as

Therefore, the total

, given that the initial condition .

Example 17 Find the total solution of the difference equation .

with initial condition

Solution: Given that the matrices

; with initial condition

Example 22 Solve the difference equation ,

tb) GIvon fhaf

6. max_ mIn t , , , max_ , mIn_ )

2?. Compufo fho producf AB usIng Sfrasson`s mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon.

As dIscussod oarIIor fho ordor oI arrangomonf Is nof sIgnIIIcanf In combInafIon. In ovory

On fakIng r = tn r), wo wIII gof

r. Thon Ctn, r) + Ctn, r 1) = Ctn + 1, r)

Now, Ior n = h + 1, wo havo

ProoI: Lof us consIdor fwo bInomIaI oxpansIons t )

On puffIng n = r = n In fho abovo IdonfIfy, wo gof

+ + + + Is ossonfIaIIy ovon. SInco tr 1) Is odd; so h

uhere (aJ bc 0 is a rationa/

whoro taJ bc) = 0 Is

e G, sInco |I|= 1 = 0, wIII acf as fho IdonfIfy

Samo doIInIfIon hoIds Ior ta

e G. Thus G safIsIIos aII fho Iour proporfIos oI

ThoroIoro, G Is a cycIIc group wIfh gonorafor a.

: aJ bc = 0 undor mafrIx muIfIpIIcafIon and G

As R doos nof havo zoro dIvIsor so n

= ot0) = 0 LoIf cancoIIafIon Iaw

Horo A = 0 and B = 0, buf

10.2.2 NAND Gate

10.2.3 XOR Gate (Exclusive OR Gate)

230 Fundamental Approach to Discrete Mathematics

Proof: We prove only the first de Morgans Law.

Construct the logical table.

256 !undamonfaI Approach fo Iscrofo MafhomafIcs

ConsIdor fho graph G as

ConsIdor fho graph G as