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GLOTODIDAKTIKA

What is applied linguistics?
- a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories,
methods, findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas
of experience
Glottodidactics
- glotta (from Greek) = language, speech, dialect
- didaskein = to teach
- the study of foreign language learning and teaching
Methods
Meta = by means of, in pursuit or quest of
hods = way
- method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the
particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught and the order in which content will be
presented
Approach
- refers to the theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source
of practices and principles in language teaching
- Reform Movement is thus considered to be an approach to language teaching. Why?
- Direct Method = one of the methods derived from the Reform Movement

Theory of language
The structural view
- This is the first and the most traditional view: language is a system of structurally related
elements for the coding of meaning
- language: a structure consisting of certain substructures
- the target of language learning: mastery of the elements of this system
these methods embody this particular view of language ; the Audiolingual Method; TPR, Silent
Way
although the students mastered the structures, they were not able to use language for
communication



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The functional view
- language = vehicle for the expression of functional meaning
- this theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than grammatical
characteristics of a language
- Wilkins Notional Syllabuses is an attempt to spell out the implications of this view of language
for syllabus design
- notional syllabus: grammar, lexis, topics, notions & concepts
- the ESP movement: taking into account learner needs!

The interactional view
- language = vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of
social transactions between individuals
- language = a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations
- TBLT, CBI

Theory of language learning
- What are the psychological and cognitive processes included in language learning?
- What are the conditions that needed to be met in order for these processes to be activated?
- Monitor model - Krashen

Design
In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional
system. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider
objectives of a method: some methods focus on the oral skills
how language content is selected and organized within the method: the syllabus selection
of language items (functions, topics, tenses) to be used within a course or method;
types of learning tasks and activities Audiolingualism: dialogues, drills, pattern practice
roles of learners and teachers

A BRIEF HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
Background
- What prompted the rise of modern foreign languages?
- because of the political changes in Europe, Latin gradually became displaced as a
language of spoken and written communication
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- the study of classical Latin became the model for foreign language study from the
seventeenth to the nineteenth century
- modern languages: appeared in the curriculum in the 19th century
- they were taught using the same procedures that were used for teaching Latin
- grammar rules, vocabulary lists, sentences for translation
- speaking the foreign language: not a goal!
- by the 19th century: this approach became the standard way of studying languages in
school
- this approach became known as the Grammar Translation Method

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
the object of Grammar-Translation Method was to know everything about something
rather than the thing itself
the Classical Method; in the United States: the Prussian Method
the goal of foreign language study: to learn a language in order to read its literature or in
order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from
foreign language study
GT - detailed analysis of grammar rules, followed by translating sentences and texts into
and out of the target language
language learning consists of memorizing rules and facts
most important skills: reading & writing; no attention is paid to speaking and listening
sentence: basic unit of teaching and practice much of the lesson is devoted to translating
sentences into and out of the target language
vocabulary selection: based on the reading texts used; words are taught through bilingual
word lists, dictionary study and memorization
accuracy emphasized high standards in translation
grammar is taught deductively, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are
then practiced through translation exercises
the first language = medium of instruction - it is used to explain new items and to enable
comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the students native language
this method dominated FL teaching from the 1840s to 1940s
GT techniques:
- translation of a part of the text
- reading comprehension questions
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- antonyms/ synonyms
- deductive grammar teaching
- fill-in-the-blanks
- memorization
- using words in sentences
- composition essay

THE NATURAL (SERIES) METHOD
Francois Gouin, The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages, 1880.
Gouin developed an approach based on his observations of childrens use of language
he believed that language learning was facilitated through using language to accomplish
events consisting of a sequence of actions
the Gouin series:
- I walk toward the door I walk
- I draw near the door I draw near
- I get to the door I get to
- I stop at the door I stop

the most important part of the sentence: the verb!
teaching language directly (without translation!) and conceptually (without grammatical
rules and explanations!)
Gouin claims that there is a need to present new teaching items in a context that makes
their meaning clear; the use of gestures and actions to convey the meanings of utterances
Gouin used situations and themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral language
(series)
50 series, each divided into exercises
each exercise contains equal number of words: 16 verbs, 12 nouns, 5 adjectives and 5
adverbs + additional words (for substitution)
oral approach to language
900 hours are needed to learn a language!

THE DIRECT METHOD
the natural language learning principles (making second language learning more like
first language learning)
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Direct Method the most widely known of the natural methods!
Context, demonstration, gestures, illustrations
the Berlitz Method: Maximilian Berlitz
Principles and procedures
no translation, no mother tongue
classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language
meaning is to be conveyed directly through demonstration and action
only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught
oral communication skills were build up in a carefully graded progression organized
round question and answer exchanges in small intensive classes
grammar was taught inductively
new teaching points were introduced orally
concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures: abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas
both speech and listening comprehension were taught
correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized
the Direct Method: the first language teaching method that caught the attention of
language teachers difficult to implement in public school education!
the beginning of the methods

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
What was the origin of the Audiolingual Method?
World War II the entry of the United States into World War II had a significant effect on
language teaching in America. To supply the US government with people who were fluent
in languages and who could work as interpreters and translators
ASTP- Army Specialised Training Program was established in 1942 fifty-five
American universities were involved (engineering, science, dentistry, psychology)
the Army Method
Leonard Bloomfield founded American structuralism
Language in 1933
Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages, 1942
influenced the organization of ASTP courses
behaviourist attitude towards language; language is a system of verbal habits learner can
acquire those habits through repetition, imitation and drill
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core of the FL, according to Bloomfield, consists of everyday situations and objects!
Start from the beginning! to learn a foreign language, a student must try to ignore the
features of other languages, particularly the features of his own language.
Languages are different!
Language learning is learning, learning and overlearning! knowing a language is a
matter of practice
training programs to master American Indian languages
the objective of the army programs was for the students to attain conversational
proficiency. Since this was not the goal of conventional language courses in the US the
new approach was necessary. Linguists (Bloomfield)
The technique they used was called the informant method this technique used a native
speaker of a language (source of phrases, words nad sentences)
the informant + the linguist this method used a native speaker of the language the
informant the linguist who supervised the learning experience
the student and the linguist were able to take part in guided conversation with the
informant, and gradually they learned how to speak the language, as well as to understand
much of its basic grammar
students in such courses studied 10 hours a day, 6 days a week
15 hours of drill with the native speaker, and 20 to 30 hours of private study spread over
two to three 6-week sessions
the program lasted about two years
After the war
- ideas and techniques behind the ASTP
- 1942 1944
- linguists and applied linguists: increasingly involved in EFL teaching
- foreign students entered the US to study in universities; they recquired training in English
- first institutes specializing in the training of EFL teachers
University of Michigan, 1939
- result: emergence of ALM

Audiolingual Method
Theory of language
- Audiolingualism: combination of structural linguistics, contrastive analysis, Oral Approach
and behaviourist psychology the term Audiolingualism was coined by Professor Nelson
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Brooks in 1964
derived from structural linguistics language: a system of structurally related elements for
the encoding of meaning
elements in a language were thought of being linearly produced in a rule-governed way
language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description
(phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.)
linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems
* phonemes morphemes phrases clauses sentences
learning a language includes mastering the elements of language and learning the rules by
which they are combined
speech is language: the primary medium of language is oral we learn to speak before we
learn to read!
speech: priority in language teaching

Theory of learning
Behaviourism : anti-mentalist approach human being is an organism capable of
wide repertoire of behaviours. The occurrence of these behaviours depends on three
crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour; a response
which is triggered by a stimulus and reinforcement, which serves to mark response as
being appropriate.
Stimulus what is taught or presented in the foreign language
Response learners reaction
Reinforcement the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher vital element in the
learning process because it increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again and
eventually become a habit

Learning principles
1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation: good
habits are formed by giving correct responses, not by making mistakes.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target
language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form
3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis
- inductive grammar teaching rules are given after the students have practised a
sufficient number of drills/patterns
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4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned
only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.

Learner roles
- they play a reactive role by responding to stimuli
- they are not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes
- they listen to the teacher, imitate accurately and respond to and perform controlled
tasks
Teacher roles
- teacher-dominated method
- the teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and
monitors and corrects the learners performance

* * *

+ - mainstream language teaching: communicative approaches to language teaching
- alternative approaches: developed outside of mainstream language teaching
Silent Way
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Community Language Learning (CLL)

THE SILENT WAY
author: Caleb Gattegno (1972)
this method is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible
in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as
possible

The Silent Way: learning hypotheses
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats
what is to be learned
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (meditating) physical objects such as
pronunciation charts and rods
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned

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Theory of language
structural approach to the organization of language to be taught
sentence: the basic unit of teaching
the teacher focuses on propositional (basic) meaning, rather than communicative value
- no social context
- artificial situations
students are presented with the structural patterns of the target language new material
is broken down into its elements

grammar learning: inductive
vocabulary: central dimension of language learning; choice of vocabulary: crucial!
vocabulary functional (prepositions, numbers, pronouns, quantifiers, temporal relations)
first language learning: the learner needs to return to the state mind that characterizes a
babys learning - surrender
SL is radically different from MT acquisition
artificial approach: successful learning involves commitment of the self to the language

Objectives
general objective: to give beginning-level students oral and aural facility in basic elements
of the target language
the general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in the TL and correct
pronunciation
an immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of
grammar
syllabus: structural lessons are planned around grammatical items and related
vocabulary
Gattegno does not provide details regarding the selection and arrangement of grammatical
and lexical items to be covered

Learning tasks and activities
have the function of encouraging and shaping the students oral response without direct
oral instruction from the teacher
teacher models a word or sentence and then elicits learner responses; learners then go on
to create their own utterances by putting together old and new information
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charts, rods and other aids are used to elicit learner responses
learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility the absence
of explanations requires learners to make generalizations, come to their own conclusions
and formulate whatever rules they themselves feel they need
teacher silence: the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way

Teacher roles
to teach presenting of an item once, using non-verbal clues to get meaning across
to test eliciting and shaping of student production in as silent way as possible
to get out of the way (silently monitoring)
teacher uses gestures and charts to elicit and shape student responses

Student roles
repeating the sentences
constructing new sentences

Materials
coloured rods (Cuisenaire rods)
used to link words and structures with their meaning in the target language to avoid
translation
colours, size comparisons, representing people, building maps etc.
colour-coded pronunciation charts (Fidel charts)
contain symbols in the target language for all the vowels and consonants
vocabulary wall charts

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE TEACHING
Charles A. Curran
Counselling learning: application of counselling techniques to learning
CLL the use of Counselling-Learning theory to teach languages
counselling: one person giving advice, assistance, and support to another who has a
problem or is in some way in need
teacher: the counsellor
learners: clients
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humanistic techniques: they engage the whole person (emotions, feelings, linguistic
knowledge and behaviour skills)
whole person learning

Theory of learning: stages
1. dependent
- positive, encouraging environment
- students are not afraid to ask questions
2. self-assertive
- students become more independent because they gradually acquire the language
3. resentful and indignant
- student wants to break free
- student doesn't want advice from the teacher
4. tolerant
- the learner can accept critisism
- students advanced level of knowledge
5. independent
- student learned everything becomes a teacher to somebody else

Objectives and syllabus
explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in CLL (linguistic or
communicative competence is specified only in social terms)
CLL does not use a conventional language syllabus
the progression is topic-based, with learners nominating things they wish to talk about
CLL syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learners communicative
intentions + the teachers reformulations of these into suitable target-language utterances

CLL tasks and activities
translation a learner whispers a message or meaning he or she wants to express, the
teacher translates it into the target language
group work
recording students record conversations in the target language
transcription students transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded for
practice and analysis of linguistic forms
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analysis students analyze and study transcriptions of TL sentences
reflection and observation students reflect and report on their experience of the class
listening students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might
have elicited in class interactions
free conversation students engage in free conversation with the teacher or other learners

Learner & teacher roles
learners: members of a community; they learn through interacting with the community
learning is seen as something that is achieved collaboratively
learners are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to support fellow members of the
community, to express feelings (joy, frustration)
teachers: change with stages (supportive, provides assistance, monitors, corrects, gives
advice)
the teachers role is initially linked to that of a nurturing parent. The student gradually
grows in ability, and the nature of the relationship changes so that the teachers position
becomes somewhat dependent on the learner.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
James Asher
a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action
it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity
in a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a
parallel process to child first language acquisition: speech directed to young children
consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin
to produce verbal responses
120 hours of instruction before they are ready to speak

TPR: approach
reflects a grammar-based view of language
Most of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary
items can be learned from the skilful use of the imperative by the instructor.
Asher views the verb (in the imperative!) as the central linguistic motif around which
language use and learning are organised!
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TPR can also be linked to trace theory of memory: the more often or the more
intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be
and the more likely it will be recalled

Learning hypotheses
1. First and second language learning are parallel processes
- children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak (L2
learners should follow the same process)
- children respond physically to spoken language (parental commands) this
develops their listening comprehension
- once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established speech
develops naturally out of it
2. Child language learner acquires language through the motor movement - a right
hemisphere activity
when a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere learning has taken place, the left
hemisphere will be triggered to produce language and to initiate other, more
abstract language processes
3. The absence of stress is an important condition for successful language learning
the key to stress free learning: to recapture the relaxed and pleasurable
experiences that accompany first language learning

Objectives and syllabus
to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level
aim: to produce learners who are capable of uninhibited communication that is intelligible
to a native speaker
specific instructional objectives: not elaborated they depend on the learner needs
syllabus: sentence based, grammatical and lexical criteria are primary in selecting
teaching items
TPR requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items
grammar is taught inductively
a fixed number of items should be introduced at a time (12-36 per hour)


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Activities
imperative drills: the major classroom activity; they are used to elicit physical actions
and activity on the part of the learner
conversational dialogues: delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction

Learner roles
listener and performer
learners listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher
learners are expected to respond also to new combinations of previously taught items
learners are encouraged to speak when ready

Teacher roles
central role - plays an active and direct role
gives them the opportunity to learn
teacher decides what to teach; he/she should write a detailed lesson plan
the teacher has the responsibility of providing the best kind of exposure to language
teacher controls the language input students receive
should allow speaking abilities to develop at the learners own natural pace
in giving feedback to the learners, the teacher should follow the example of parents giving
feedback to their children: the teacher should refrain from too much correction in the early
stages

Aids and materials
for beginners: teachers voice, action and gestures
classroom objects
later learning stages: supporting materials
pictures, realia, word charts
specific situations





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COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
- 1970s/ 1980s paradigm shift
- alternative methods: TPR, Silent Way, Counseling-Learning
- mainstream teaching: communicative movement
- CLT; NA, TBLT, CBI
speaking, communication, move the focus aeay from grammar
Background
- Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1957 criticizad structural theory of language
Language is creative competence (underlying knowledge) performance
(actual communication)
British applied linguists emphasized the functional (practical use) and communicative
potential of the language
proficiency # mastery of structures
- changing educational realities in Europe: the need to develop alternative methods of
language teaching was considered a high priority
- the work of the Council of Europe towards the development of a language teaching system
suitable for teaching all the languages used in the Council's member countries
- in 1971, a group of linguists (the Expert group) was invited by the Council
the outcome: The Treshold Level by J.A. van Ek series of detailed syllabus
specifications, at several different language learning levels
* CEFR - Common European Frame of Reference for Languages things you are able to do
with language (today)
- D.A. Wilkins Notional Syllabuses, 1976 proposed a functional or communicative
definition of language
impact on communicative language teaching
systems of meanings notions and functions
- a functional view of language: systems of meanings behind the communicative uses of
language
- based on an analysis of learners' social and/ or vocational communicative needs
- functions (what people want to do with language): evaluating, persuading, arguing,
informing, agreeing, questioning, requesting, expressing emotions
- (semantico grammatical) notions (what meanings people want to convey): time, quantity,
space, location and motion

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The Treshold Level
1. learning objectives: language teaching as diverse as learners' needs, but have to be
based on learners' common needs
treshold level system consisting of situations and language you
might need

2. What was revolutionary for language teaching?
- the apparatus of sentence formation, the grammar and lexicon, were not seen as ends in
themselves, but as means to communicative ends
- communicative effectiveness becomes the criterion by which the learners' success (and that
of the teaching programme) is to be judged, rether than the error-free performance of formal
excercises

the work of the Council of Europe
theoretical basis for the communicative approach to language teaching
application of these ideas by textbook writers
acceptance of the ideas by teachers
communicative language teaching

Theory of language
- the goal of language teaching: communicative competence (Hymes, 1972) vs. competence
(Chomsky)
- Chomsky: - an ideal speaker
- an ideal speech community
- Hymes: - context
- the society
- actual communication

Communicative competence
- Canale & Swain (1980), Canale (1981)
- pedagogically motivated model
- they identify four dimensions of communicative
competence:
grammatical competence
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sociolinguistic competence
discourse competence
strategic competence

Communicative competence
- underlying system of knowledge and skill required for communication
- knowledge and skill in using this knowledge when interacting in actual communication
competence / performance
knowledge / skill = theory (what a student knows about language) / practice (how well
he uses knowledge in actual communication)

Grammatical competence
- concerned with the mastery of language code (verbal or non-verbal)
- vocabulary, word formation, sentence formation, pronunciation, spelling and linguistic
semantics
- focuses directly on the knowledge and skill required to understand and express accurately
the literal meaning of utterances

Sociolinguistic competence
- addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in
different sociolinguistic contexts depending on contextual factors such as status of
participants, purposes of the interaction and norms or conventions of interaction
- appropriateness of utterances refers to both appropriateness of meaning and appropriateness
of form
- appropriateness of meaning concerns the extent to which particular communicative functions
(commanding, complaining), attitudes and ideas are judged to be proper in a given proper
- appropriateness of form concerns the extent to which a given meaning is presented in a
verbal and/ or non-verbal form that is proper in a given sociolinguistic context

Discourse competence
- concerns mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified
spoken or written text in different genres (types of text: oral and written narrative,
argumentative essay)
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- unity of a text is achieved through cohesion in form and coherence in meaning
- cohesion deals with how utterances are linked structurally and facilitates interpretation of a
text
- coherence refers to the relationship among the different meanings in a text
Strategic competence
- mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action
for two main reasons:
to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to limiting conditions in
actual communication (e.g. momentary inability to recall an idea or grammatical
form) or to insufficient competence in one or more of the other areas of
communicative competence
to enhance the effectiveness of communication (e.g. deliberately slow and soft
speech for rhetorical effect)

SUGGESTOPEDIA
Background
- a method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator Georgi Lozanov
- a specific set of learning recommendations derived from Suggestology
- Suggestology: science concerned with the systematic study of the non-rational and/ or
unconscious influences
- memorization in learning: accelerated by up to 25 times
- language learning: can occur at a much faster rate than we believe
- inefficiency in language learning: due to psychological barriers
- learners do not use the full mental powers (only 5 to 10 per cent!)
- negative feelings/limitations: need to be dessugested
- Suggestopedia: developed to help students eliminate negative feelings
- application of the power of suggestion to pedagogy
- psychological barriers: must be dessugested
- Teacher: suggesting to the students that learning is easy
- optimum state for learning: relaxed and focused
- music, environment, teacher & student relationship
- music: vital for the approach
- Baroque music: Bach, Hndel, Vivaldi and Telemann

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Theory of language and learning
- Lozanov does not articulate a theory of language
- emphasis: memorization of vocabulary pairs
- lexis is central!
- the material

Theoretical components
1. Authority
- people remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an authoritative
source
2. Infantilization
- authority is also used to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of parent to child
3. Double-planedness
- the conscious plane: learners attend to the language and the linguistic message
- the subconscious plane: factors influencing the linguistic message
the physical environment: the classroom, the musical
background, the shape of the chairs, the personality of the
teacher
4. Intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness
- varying the tone and rhythm: helps to avoid boredom and to give meaning to the linguistic
material
- intonation and rhythm are coordinated with the musical background
- concert pseudo-passiveness: a relaxed attitude
- this state: optimal for learning

Objectives and syllabus
- to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly
- course lasts 30 days, consists of 10 units
- classes held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week
- central focus of each unit: a dialogue consisting of 1,200 words
- dialogues are graded by lexis and grammar
- unit study: organized around 3 days


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Learner roles
- carefully prescribed
- mental state: critical to success
- learners must maintain a pseudo-passive state in which the material rolls over and through
them
- expected to tolerate infantilization
- expected to acknowledge the absolute authority of the teacher
- groups: socially homogenous, twelve in number, divided equally between men and women
- learners sit in a circle

Teacher roles
- to create situations in which learners are the most suggestible
- to present the material in the way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention
- shows absolute confidence in his method
- displays fastidious conduct in manners and dress
- organizes properly and strictly observes the initial stages of the teaching process: this
includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality
- maintains a solemn attitude toward the session
- gives tests and responds tactfully to poor papers
- stresses global rather than analytical attitudes toward material
- maintains a modest enthusiasm

Procedure
- first part: oral review
- second part: new material is presented and discussed
learners read the dialogue and its translation
grammar/ vocabulary/ content
- third part: concert session






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TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
1. What is the purpose of TBI?
- students have to complete a task
2. What are the steps the teacher takes?
- elicit vocabulary to set context (questions)
- detailed instructions
- students design their own utopia
- students present their work to the class
3. What possible student groupings are mentioned in the video?
- group work (consensus building)
- individual work
Phases of the lesson
1. Pre-task activity: new vocabulary; question-and-answer-session
2. Task activity: drawing utopia
3. Post-task activity: presenting the drawings

Definition of TBLT
an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in
language teaching
TBLT draws on the principles of Communicative Language Teaching:
Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning
Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote
learning
Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process

Task
a central unit of planning and teaching
an activity which has meaning as its primary focus
success in task: evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome
tasks bear resemblance to real-life language use



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Theory of language
1. Language is primarily a means of making meaning
2. Multiple models of language inform TBI
3. Lexical units - central in language use and learning
4. Conversation central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition

Theory of learning
1. Tasks provide both input and output processing necessary for language acquisition
2. Task activity and achievement are motivational
tasks improve learner motivation and promote learning
3. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes

Task types
Jigsaw tasks
Information-gap tasks
Problem-solving tasks
Decision-making tasks
Opinion exchange tasks

Learner roles
group participant
monitor students must attend to both the message in the task and the form of these
messages
risk taker and innovator many tasks require learners to create and interpret messages for
which they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience

Teacher roles
selector and sequencer of tasks
preparing learners for tasks
consciousness raising if learners are to acquire language through participation in
tasks they need to attend to or notice the critical features of the language they use and
hear

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CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
1. What is CBI?
- a method which integrates the learning of language with the learning of some other
content
2. What is language across the curriculum movement?
- the movement which was launched in England in 1970s; aim: to integrate the teaching of
reading and writing into other subject areas

an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the
content or information that students will acquire, rather than a linguistic or other type of
syllabus
language that is being taught is used to present the subject matter
the students learn the language as the by-product of learning about the real-world
content
Language across the curriculum
Every teacher, an English teacher
Language skills should be taught in content subjects

Central principles
People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a means
of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself
CBI better reflects learners needs for learning a second language

Theory of language
1. Language is text- and discourse- based; students should study texts such as letters, reports,
essays, book chapters
2. Language use draws on integrated skills students are often involved in activities that link
the skills, because this is how the skills are generally involved in the real world
3. Language is purposeful language is used for specific purposes: academic, vocational,
social



24

Theory of learning
1. People learn a second language more successfully when they use the language as a
means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself
2. ....when the info they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful and leading to a
desired goal
3. Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others for
example, geography
4. Students learn the best when the instruction addresses their needs.
5. Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners students bring important
knowledge and understanding to the classroom

Why is CBI called a method with many faces?
- a form of language immersion; there are many models of CBI:
In Canada, Anglophone children learning their academic subjects in French
adjunct model
- students enroll in a regular academic course
- in addition, they take a language course that is linked to the academic course
- the language teacher helps them process the language in order to understand the academic
content presented by the subject teacher; he also helps them complete academic tasks
(writing term papers)

sheltered language instruction
- both native and non-native speakers of a language follow a regular academic curriculum
- for classes with non-native speakers, instruction is geared to students developing second
language proficiency
- instructors support their students through the use of particular instructional techniques and
materials it offers the significant advantage that second language students do not have to
postpone their academic study until their language control reaches a high level

competency-based instruction
- adult immigrants
- students develop their second language skills at the same time that they are learning vital
life-coping or survival skills such as filling out job applications or using the telephone

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TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

- speaking; writing productive skills involve language production
*passive skills
- listening; reading receptive skills involve receiving messages
*active skills meaning is extracted from discourse

INTEGRATING SKILLS
- Is it possible to teach each skill separately? No!
- skill-mixing
In the language classroom:
speaking as preparation and stimulus
- students discuss a topic as an introduction to a listening/ reading task
texts as models
- providing students with models of spoken and written texts
texts as preparation and stimulus
- written and spoken texts are used to stimulate students into some other
kind of work
integrated tasks
- it is usually impossible to complete a task in one skill area without
involving some other skill
SPEAKING
In the language classroom
- accuracy/ fluency - tonost/ tenost
a supporting role (accuracy)
- teaching language use (message oriented) vs. teaching language usage (language oriented)
- current approaches: lean strongly towards message orientation
ALM accuracy lack of real communication





26

Types of classroom speaking performance
1. IMITATIVE
- focus on a particular element of language form
- Is drilling a legitimate part of communicative language classroom? Yes (certain
situations)
2. RESPONSIVE
- short replies to teacher or student- initiated questions
- these replies are self-sufficient: do not extend into dialogues
3. TRANSACTIONAL (DIALOGUE)
- concerned with the transfer of information
- an extended form of responsive language
- message-oriented use of language
- language: clear, specific
- accuracy and coherence of communication are important
4. INTERACTIONAL (DIALOGUE)
- the primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships
- listener-oriented use of language
- activities:
+ telling stories/ jokes
+ describing a person or a place
+ recounting the plot of a film, play or book
+ giving a short talk
5. EXTENSIVE (MONOLOGUE)
- students sometimes give extended monologues (oral reports, summaries, short
speeches)

Model for teaching speaking
1. General discussion new vocabulary
2. Teacher sets the activity instructions; demonstration
3. Teacher monitors the activity
4. Summary; error correction

1. lead in
- we engage the student with the topic
27

2. teacher sets the task
- we explain exactly what the students are going to do
- we may need to demonstrate the activity
3. teacher monitors the task
- going round the class
4. task feedback
Classroom speaking activities
role play
advantages:
- everyday situations
- encourages participation from a large number of students
- students do not have to find original things to contribute
- the opportunity to act and assume other personae
- students practice language which varies according to the setting,
formality of the situation, degree of politeness
disadvantages:
- difficult to manage
- depends on the willingness and motivation of students to change
personae
information-gap activity
- student/ pair/ group has information which the other students do not have
- info must be shared in order to achieve an outcome
- examples: solving a puzzle, drawing a picture, putting things in the right order
discussions
- students are introduced to a topic
- students get into pairs/ groups to discuss the topic in order to reach a solution
- grouping/ pairing students? (one person will always do more than others; students
refuse to talk in the target language)
- students should be clear what they are to discuss, why they are discussing it and what
outcome is expected
- examples: formal debate; unplanned discussions
prepared talk
- students make presentations on a topic of their own choice
28

- they need time and help to prepare their talks
- other students should be given a task to carry out as they listen
Teaching pronounciation: goals
functional intelligibility
- spoken English in which accent is not distracting to the listener
*Our goal as teachers od English pronounciation should therefore be more
realistically focused on clear, comprehensible pronounciation
functional communicability
- students' ability to function successfully within the specific communicative situations
increased self-confidence
- students need to gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood
speech monitoring abilities
- teaching students to pay attention to their own speech as well as to the speech of
others
- good learners attend to certain aspects of speech and try to imitate them
Problems with speaking activities
- lack of confidence
- anxiety
- mother tongue use easier
- feedback (teachers give feedback to reduce students' anxiety)
inhibition
nothing to say info cards (to help them)
low or uneaven participation (ask questions)
mother-tongue use







29

WRITING
Differences between spoken and written discourse
permanence
- written discourse is fixed and stable; reading can be done at whatever time, speed
and level of thoroughness the individual reader wishes
- spoken discourse moves on in real time; the listener must follow what is said at
the speed set by the speaker
explicitness
- written text is explicit; it has to make clear context and all the references
- spoken discourse: some info can be assumed and need not be made explicit;
context & situation (for eg., this, here)
density
- the content is presented much more densely in writing
- in speech, the information is diluted and conveyed through many more words;
repetitions, fillers
detachment
- written discourse: detached in time and space from the reader
- speaking: takes place in immediate interaction, with the availability of immediate
feedback
organization
- written text: organized and carefully formulated; grammar & vocabulary
- spoken discourse: improvisation, stream-of-consciousness kind of language
standard language
- writing: standard variety of the language
- speech: may sometimes be in a dialect
a learnt skill
- writing skill: taught and learned deliberately
- speaking skill: acquired intuitively (mother tongue)
Why is writing a difficult skill for many learners?
- problem: a learnt skill, accuracy, cohesion, no audience



30

Teaching writing: the main objective
- to get learners to acquire skills and abilites they need to produce different kinds of written
texts similar to those an educated person would be expected to produce in their own
language
writing as a means *to complete an excercise (grammar)
- writing is widely used within foreign language courses as a convenient means for
engaging with aspects of language other than the writing itself
- copying vocabulary and grammar rules; answering comprehension questions;
doing written tests
- students practice a particular language point
writing as an end
- the writing itself as a main objective
- micro level: spelling, punctuation, handwriting
- macro level: focus on content and organization of specific texts
- learners are asked to express themselves
- narrating a story; writing a letter/ postcard/ an essay
writing as both means and end
- combining purposeful and original writing with the learning or practice of some
other skill or content
- examples: written response to a controversial article (reading & writing); writing
of anecdotes to illustrate the meaning of idioms (writing & vocabulary practice)

Teaching writing
* 1.) lower elementary students: - alphabet, basic words/ sentences
- the mechanics of writing
2.) upper elementary: - accuracy, content
3.) secondary school: - communicative perspective
mechanical aspects of writing a necessary instrumental skill without which meaningful
writing cannot take place; young EFL students
we gradually move on to focus on accuracy & content of the message
eventually, communicative perspective becomes more central to writing activities


31

Early writing tasks: coping with the mechanics
- mechanics: letter recognition, letter discrimination, word recognition, basic rules of
spelling, punctuation and capitalization
- English presents the learner with a number of unique problems related to its orthographic
rules, even in cases in which the learner comes from a first language that uses a version of
the Roman alphabet
- students tend to look for one-to-one letter-sound correspondence but
- the letter c has the sound k when followed by the vowel letters a, o, u, l, r (car, cone, cute,
classic, cry)
- the letter c has the sound // or /k/ when followed by the letter h (chocolate, choir)
- we need to alert the students to the fact that correspondence in English is not between letter
and sound but between the letter and its immediate environment (sound-spelling
correspondences)!
- by practicing the proper pronunciation of sounds in relation to given spelling patterns, we
can provide learners with a good basis for pronunciation as well as for the skills of reading
and writing

How do we teach mechanics? (aims)
1. to enhance letter recognition
2. to practice sound-spelling correspondences via all four language skills
3. to help the learners move from letters and words to meaningful sentences


Types of tasks
Recognition and writing drills used at the early stage of reading and writing:
1. matching tasks
2. writing tasks
3. meaningful sound-spelling correspondence practice
More advanced writing tasks
- these tasks start shifting their goal from the focus on mechanics of writing to basic
process-oriented tasks
- focus on accuracy and content of the message; detailed instructions!
32

lists (things to do - things completed; shopping list - for plural) combining spelling
rules with morphological rules and with the logical creation of a meaningful message
notes and messages (invitations etc.)
letters to friends (personal experiences)

Types of classroom writing performance
imitative (writing down)
- at the beginning level, students will simply write down English letters,
words and sentences in order to remember English orthographic code
- example: dictation
Dictation: procedure
1. the text is read at a normal pace, with students just listening
2. the second reading: the teacher pauses after each phrase to allow students to write
3. the third reading: gives the students the opportunity to read over the texts and make
corrections
intensive (controlled)
- appears in controlled, written grammar exercises
- does not allow much creativity
- guided writing activities: serves to focus the students attention on language
features that are difficult for them
questions-answers practice
translation exercises
multiple-choice exercises
fill-in-the-blank exercises
dicto - comp
the cloze procedure
Dicto-comp: procedure
1. a paragraph is read at the normal speed, two or three times
2. teacher (after reading the text) puts key words on the board as cues for students
3. students rewrite the paragraph to the best of their recollection
Cloze passage
- can be created in 2 ways:
by random deletion of words (e. g., deleting every seventh word)
33

by deletion of a specific item (e. g., articles)
* the second type is more suitable for grammatical focus
- source: a published text or student writing
self - writing
- taking notes; diary or journal writing
display writing
- essays; written tests
real writing
- genuine communication of messages (postcards, notes, personal messages)

READING
Types of knowledge
syntactic knowledge
- a barlim, a wol nouns (because of an indefinite article)
- can taddle - verb
morphological knowledge
- barl - barlim (barl + -im = barlim; farm - farmer etc.)
linguistic (systemic) knowledge
enables readers to work on the text; good readers recognize, and decode quickly and
accurately, words, grammatical structures and other linguistic features and are
unaware of the process as they engage in this; in other words, a fluent reader has a
good knowledge of language structure and can recognize a wide range of vocabulary
automatically
* common knowledge
cultural background
general world knowledge

sociocultural knowledge (*knowledge of social conventions)
- church stram church tower
general world knowledge
- knowledge of the structure of the desk (dimp box/ drawer)
genre knowledge
* sets up our expectations
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- science fantasy novel: setting - future; the watch - anachronism
schematic knowledge

Reading as a complex, interactive process
- current research views reading as an interactive, sociocognitive process!
- reading includes a text, a reader + a social context
- a reader enters a dynamic relationship with the text as the reader struggles to make sense
of it (1
st
interpretation of the term interactive)
- a psycholinguistic guessing game
- In what way is this relationship dynamic?
- How do fluent readers read?
In reading, an individual constructs meaning through a transaction with written text
that has been created by symbols that represent language. The transaction involves
the readers interpreting the text, and the interpretation is influenced by the readers
past experiences, language background and cultural framework, as well as the
readers purpose for reading.
top - down processing
- the application of prior knowledge to working on the meaning of the text
- reader generates meaning by employing background knowledge, expectations,
assumptions, and questions, and reads to confirm these expectations
- conceptually - driven processing
bottom - up processing
- decoding of the letters, words and other language features in the text
- reader builds meaning from the smallest units of meaning to achieve
comprehension
- data - driven processing
- students must use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms to impose order on
the signals
- we need to keep in mind that the processes are in constant interplay; a reader is involved in a
continual shift of focus between them



35

Working with text: general framework

1. pre-reading instruction (pre-reading activities)
2. during-reading instruction (while-reading activities)
3. post-reading instruction (post-reading activities)
Pre-reading instruction purposes:
- helps students access background information that can facilitate reading
- provides specific info needed for successful comprehension
- stimulates students interest
- sets up student expectations
Pre-reading activities
1. previewing the text
- examining the features of the text (illustrations, captions) to determine the
general topic and relevant vocabulary
2. skimming the text
- to decide what the main ideas of the text are
3. answering questions / formulating questions
4. exploring key vocabulary
5. reflecting on info from previously read texts
During-reading activities
1. summarizing key ideas
2. examining emotions or attitudes of key characters
3. looking for answers to questions
4. writing down predictions of what will come next
5. mistakes in the text
6. titles + paragraphs
Post-reading instruction
- extends ideas and info from the text
- ensures that major ideas and supporting info are well understood
- post-reading tasks often require students to use information in other tasks


36

Post-reading activities
1. completing a graphic organizer (table, chart) based on text information
2. answering comprehension questions
3. comparison (two texts on the similar topic)
4. summarizing
5. vocabulary tasks

Styles of reading
intensive reading
- a classroom oriented activity in which students focus on the linguistic or
semantic details of a passage
- attention given to surface structures for the purpose of understanding
meaning, implications etc.
extensive reading
- usually performed outside the classroom
- includes large quantities of material & reading frequently and consistently
- readers
skimming
- reading for gist (quickly running ones eyes across a whole text for its gist)
- used to get a global impression of the content of a text
- usually followed by more focused reading
scanning
- involves searching rapidly through a text to find a specific piece of
information
- scanning exercises: looking for names / dates; finding definition of a key
concept etc.; purpose: extracting specific info without reading through the
whole text






37

LISTENING
The role of listening in the FL classroom
in the 1940s, 1950s & 1960s:
- listening: neglected, over-looked & taken for granted (along with reading)
- passive skill
- listener-as-tape-recorder
- Audiolingual Method not much attention was given to listening beyond its role in grammar
and pronunciation drills and learners imitation of dialogues
- some ELT methods have assumed that listening ability will develop automatically through
exposure to the language and through the practice of grammar, vocabulary and
pronunciation. The Audiolingual Method, while perceiving listening as the primary skill in
the sequence listening, speaking, reading and writing, at the same time provided only
restricted practice of dialogues, which had the main aim of presenting and practicing
language forms.
- in reality, listening is used far more than any other single language skill in normal daily life:
out of 100% of our daily interactions, 45% belongs to listening, 30% to speaking, 16% to
reading and 9% to writing
from the 1970s:
- today, the centrality of listening in language learning is well established; listening is
recognized as a core component of 2nd language proficiency
- through reception, we internalize linguistic information without which we could not produce
language; listening competence is universally larger than speaking competence
- speaking + listening comprehension = communication - speaking in itself does not constitute
communication unless what is said is comprehended by another person; teaching the
comprehension of spoken speech is therefore of primary importance if the communication
aim is to be reached (Rivers)
- TPR - role of comprehension given prominence as learners were given great quantities of
language to listen to before they were encouraged to respond orally
- the Natural Approach: recommends a significant silent period during which learners were
allowed the security of listening without being forced to speak



38

What makes listening difficult?
The characteristics of spoken language: clustering, redundancy (rephrasing, repetition,
elaborations), reduced forms, performance variables (false starts, pauses, corrections),
colloquial language, rate of delivery, stress, rhythm & intonation, interaction
(conversation: negotiation, clarification, turn-taking, topic nomination, maintenance,
termination; to learn to listen is to learn to respond and to continue the chain of
listening and responding)

Understanding spoken discourse
Bottom-up processing
- refers to using the input as the basis for understanding the message
- we use our knowledge of language and our ability to process acoustic signals to make sense
of the sounds
- in other words, we use information in the speech itself to try to comprehend the meaning
- we segment speech into identifiable sounds and impose a structure on these in terms of
words, phrases, clauses, sentences and intonation patterns
- data is analysed at successive levels of organisation - sounds, words, clauses, sentences, text
- we use clues to infer meaning from the developing speech (the placement of stress, the use
of pauses, non-verbal behaviour; lexical knowledge to assign meanings to words and use
logical reasoning to infer relationships between them; syntactic structure: we expect a typical
structure of noun phrase as agent, verb phrase as action, followed by a noun phrase as
object)
- the role of memory - the load on the short-term memory is heavy, as listeners try to hold
various parts of the message in mind while inferring meaning and deciding what is
necessary to retain
Top-down processing
- the use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of the message
- knowledge that a listener brings to a text, sometimes called inside the head information
- we make links between the spoken message and various types of prior knowledge which
listeners hold inside their heads
39

- prior knowledge - schematic knowledge - mental frameworks we hold in our memories for
various topics
- one category of schemata used by listeners are formal schemata - knowledge we have of the
structure of some speech events (Once upon a time....)
- a second category of schemata is that of content schemata - general world knowledge,
sociocultural knowledge & topic knowledge
- script - routines; some listening situations are quite predictable
bottom - up processing - often insufficient for comprehension
both processes function simultaneously and are mutually dependent
example: a story at first the narrative is virtually incomprehensible; however,
once a schema is provided to apply to the narrative Getting rid of a troublesome
neighbour the reader can make use of top-down processing and the elements of
the story begin to fit into place as the writer describes a series of actions she took to
try to annoy her neighbour and cause him to leave

Stages of teaching listening
The pre-listening stage - objective: to contextualize the text
ideas for pre-listening activities:
- informal teacher talk and class discussion
- looking at pictures and talking about them
- making list of possibilities & ideas
- reading questions to be answered after listening
- discussing true/ false questions
- filling in the gaps
- pre-viewing the language that will be heard
- writing questions which learners would like to be answered after listening
- predicting and speculating
While-listening stage - link with the pre-listening tasks; listening for gist/ listening for
specific information



40

Types of listening:
1. listening for gist- students only focus on the main ideas
2. listening for specific information- scanning; students should focus on what they
are listening for
ideas for while-listening activities:
- marking / checking items in lists
- making notes
- making lists of items
- checking the text filled during pre-listening
- text completion
- true - false
- multiple-choice questions
- detecting mistakes in pictures
- putting pictures in order
- marking items in pictures
- following a route (on a map)
- completing grids
- spotting mistakes in the text
Post-listening stage - integration with other skills through the development of the topic
into reading, speaking or writing activities.
ideas for post-listening activities:
- discussion
- form/chart completion
- answering comprehension questions
- true/false
- sequences (putting things in order)
- identifying the mood, attitude and the behaviour of the speaker
- visualizing (describing people and places)
- role-play
- compositions



41

Types of classroom listening performance
1. reactive
2. intensive
3. responsive
4. selective
5. extensive
6. interactive

LEARNING AND TEACHING VOCABULARY
Word frequency
- measured by counting how often a word or word form occurs in a large sample of spoken or
written language, such as BNC
- top 50 words structure words (part of grammar)
- words vary extremely in how often they are used
- frequency is only one factor in the choice of words to teach
- meaning
- appropriateness

Knowledge of words
What do you know about a word like man if you speak English?
man = ovjek; luomo is this the only thing you know a word and its translation?
- Forms of the word
1. pronunciation
2. spelling
- Grammatical properties
1. grammatical category
a man - noun (noun phrase, S/O, plural, possessive form)
to man - verb (verb phrase)
2. possible and impossible structures
He manned the barricades.
* It manned the barricades.
3. word building: manlike, unmanly
- Lexical properties
1. collocations
42

man to man, my good man
2. appropriateness
my man
- Meaning
1. general meanings
male, adult, human being
2. specific meanings
A human being / One of the pieces used in chess
acquiring a word: # form + a translated meaning acquiring a word is not just linking a
form with its translated meaning
vocabulary is connected to the systems of phonology and orthography through the actual
forms of the words
vocabulary is connected to the systems of morphology & grammar through the ways that
the word enters the grammatical structures
vocabulary is connected to the system of meanings through the range of general and
specific meanings
effective acquisition: not just the learning of individual words and their meanings in
isolation!
the task of vocabulary learning is a substantial one for the EFL learner (native-speaker
children on entering school already have a productive vocabulary of some 2,000 to 3,000
words!)
Types of meaning
referential / denotative meaning
- if a word has reference to an object, action or event in the physical world this can be
described as its referential or denotative meaning
- however, even the task of learning vocabulary in relation to physical objects is complicated
by the fact that languages reflect the world in different ways and use different categories to
describe it; for example, people usually have two grandmothers (some languages have 2
different words! in English: maternal/paternal grandmother)
aunt / uncle
ujak / ujna; stric / strina; tetak / tetka


43

connotative meaning
- as well as denotative meaning, learners have to deal with the complexities of connotative
meaning
- this term relates to the attitudes and emotions of language user in choosing a word
- it also relates to the influence of these on the listeners or readers interpretation of the word
for e.g. ambitious - positive / negative (interpretation depends on the context of use
and the impression the speaker or writer is trying to create)
- connotative meaning - derives from a mix of cultural, political, social and historical sources
and learners will be aware of this phenomenon in their own language
- developing appropriate awareness of connotative meaning: extensive exposure to authentic
reading and listening materials

TEACHING GRAMMAR
Background: prominence
grammar has always been prominent in language-teaching literature and research
historical reasons
- the Latin / Greek tradition
- 20th century: structural linguistics & transformational grammar
- 20th century methods: grammar translation (correct grammar), audio-
lingualism (little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the
language the focus was on immediate and accurate speech); communicative
approach
Is learner mastery of correct grammar a major aim in (communicative) language
teaching?
And what is correct grammar anyway?
spoken English grammar / E-grammar
we should continue to teach conventional correct forms because:
a) students expect to be taught what they see as standard grammar
b) teachers see teaching of acceptable grammar as part of their professional
obligations
c) features of spoken English grammar (ellipsis, non-sentence fragments,
unconventional sentence structure, fillers) and E-grammar (abbreviated
44

forms, less capitalization and punctuation): unacceptable? features of spoken
English grammar and E-grammar might confuse our students
A tentative conclusion
correct, standard grammar remains a valid and a legitimate objective of teaching
teachers should be aware of the need to prioritize the forms essential for international
communication
some learners can pick up accurate linguistic form from exposure to target language,
few learners are capable of doing so efficiently - relevant research has shown that
teachers who focus students attention on linguistic forms during communicative
interactions are more effective than those who never focus on form or who only do so
in decontextualized grammar lesson
it follows, then, that most teachers and researchers agree with the need to teach
grammatical form they advise doing so by focusing on form within a meaning-
based or communicative approach! balance between grammar and communication!
focusing on grammatical forms during communicative interactions rather than forms
in isolation is one way to prevent the pendulum from swinging beyond its point of
equilibrium

What is grammar?
since our goal is to achieve a better fit between grammar and communication, it is not
helpful to think of grammar as
- a discrete set of meaningless decontextualized or static structures
- prescriptive rules about linguistic form






when teaching grammar, we must take into account the fact that grammar structures not
only have (morphosyntactic) form (structure), they are also used to express meaning
(semantics) in context-appropriate use (pragmatics)
45

these dimensions are wedges of a single pie chart, thus showing that the dimensions are
not hierarchically arranged they are all equally important
the arrows connecting one wedge of the pie with another illustrate the interconnectedness
of the three dimensions a change in any one wedge has consequences for the other two

s possessive form
1) form of possessive/ structure
- inflecting regular singular nouns and irregular plural nouns not ending in s with s or by
adding an apostrophe after the s ending of regular plural nouns and singular nouns ending in
the sound /s/
2) meaning of possessive/ semantics
- possession
- description (a debtors prison)
- amount (a months holiday)
- relationship (Jacks wife)
- part/whole (my brothers hand)
- origin/agent (Shakespeares tragedies)
3) use of possessive/ pragmatics
- When is the s used to express possession as opposed to other structures that can be used to
convey the same meaning?
- the possessive determiner (her toys)
- of the form (legs of the table)
- ESL / EFL books often say that the of the possessive is used with nonhuman head nouns
and s with human head nouns there are certain conditions where this rule does not apply
(native speakers often prefer to use the s even with inanimate head nouns if the head
nouns are performing some action the trains arrival)

The learning process (Hedge)
- the learning (acquisition of grammar) involves a number of processes:
1. Noticing
students must notice items of language in order to interpret the relationship
between form and meaning after items have been noticed and the relationship
between form and meaning interpreted, those items become a part of intake into
46

the learning process (for example, a student must notice that dont seems to
occur in regular ways in English)
2. Reasoning and hypothesizing
adult learners in particular tend to use their capacity to analyze new language
they are able to see patterns in language, create hypotheses about the rules these
patterns might demonstrate and gradually revise their hypotheses
they seem to use a set of strategies for analysing the language and reasoning about
it these have been described by Oxford (1990) as
reasoning deductively students apply rules they already know to
working out the meaning of what they hear; many adults say that they
need to have the language system laid out explicitly with rules from
which they can work deductively
analysing contrastively comparing first and second language and
working out their similarities and differences
translating & transferring transferring is what students do when they
apply knowledge of one language to the understanding or production of
another
3. Structuring and restructuring
as learners work out new rules, these have to be integrated within their
interlanguage
evidence: errors
4. Automatizing
once a student can achieve regular and consistent responses in conversation to a
certain type of input, then it can be said that the language involved has been
automatized; through the repeated practice of the successful form its use will
ultimately become automatic

CEFR and HNOS
Grammatical competence - knowledge of, and ability to use, the grammatical resources of
a language
Grammatical competence - the ability to understand and express meaning by producing
and recognizing well-formed phrases and sentences in accordance with the principles of
language (as opposed to memorising and reproducing them as fixed formulae)
47

Presenting grammar
degrees of explicitness
1. deductive approach
2. inductive approach
1. deductive approach relies on reasoning, analysing and comparing
- presentation of an example
- explanation (comparison may be done between the target language and the native language)

- students practice (producing sentences) with given prompts
- PPP model
The deductive approach is criticized because:
grammar is taught in an isolated way
little attention is paid to meaning
the practice is often mechanical
advantages of the deductive approach:
it could be very successful with selected and motivated students
explaining complex grammar rules
accuracy as the main criterion of success
2. inductive approach - the teacher induces the learners to realise grammar rules without any
form of explicit explanation
the rules will become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples
discovery learning - learners discover for themselves how language works

Teaching grammar: possible tasks & ways of presenting
time lines
games
oral exercises: repetition, substitution, translation exercises
multiple-choice exercises
fill-in-the blank exercises
the cloze procedure