Model

VOL. 3, NO.
6, J uly 2012 ISSN 2079-8407

Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences
2009-2012 CIS J ournal. All rights reserved.

http://www.cisjournal.org

848
Feeling Marginalized: Turnover of Public-Sector It Professionals
1
Dr. J ordan Shropshire,
2
Dr. Christopher Kadlec
1, 2
Department of Information Technology, College of Engineering and IT
Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
1
jshropshire@georgiasouthern.edu

ABSTRACT

Current market conditions are decreasing the desirability of IT jobs in the public-sector of the United States. Many IT workers
in state and local government are facing layoffs, furloughs, loss of benefits and increased payroll deductions. The present
circumstances challenge previous notions of support for those working in the public arena. This diminishes the primary
incentives associated with public work. Is it also encouraging the best IT professionals to leave? In this empirical study, it is
proposed that job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, affective commitment, perceived supervisor support, and
organizational rewards will be inversely related to turnover intention when job embeddedness is low. These assertions were
tested following a survey of 348 IT workers from 18 public-sector organizations. The results confirmed the hypotheses.
Collectively, the predictors accounted for 57.8% of the variance in turnover intention in the research model. This research
discusses the implications of these findings, and reviews limitations and future research directions.

Keywords: Turnover, Information Technology, Public-Sector, Work Environment

1. INTRODUCTION

The years 2010 and 2011 have given way to a
robust job market for experienced IT professionals. Many
firms are giving raises to their top performers. To fill key
positions, many Fortune 500 companies are paying signing
bonuses to attract the top talent [1]. The media is once again
printing stories of Silicon Valley tech firms bidding for key
software engineers [2-4]. Some are offering stock options,
onsite fitness centers, cafeteria plans, and extended contracts
to retain their staff [5]. In real terms, average salaries for IT
workers private-sector rose by 5.2% in the first six months
of 2011 [6]. By contrast, one source indicates that
compensation for IT workers on the state level has decreased
in the past three years [7]. Worse yet, many public-sector IT
professionals are facing additional rounds of layoffs,
furloughs, payroll deductions and loss of benefits [8-10].
Some state and local governments are restructuring
employee pension plans, as they cannot meet their liabilities
[11, 12]. Instead of filling vacant positions, many public-
sector organizations expect their remaining IT personnel to
work longer hours to make up for labor shortfalls [13].

The plight of the public-sector IT worker is a
reversal of earlier times. Traditionally, IT workers in public
service could expect relatively more job stability and support
than their counter parts private-sector [14]. Public-service
organizations were long considered places of permanent
employment with more stability [15]. These dictums are less
certain than they were in the past. Recent fiscal shortfalls
and years of overspending have drained public coffers [16].
IT workers in several states were recently forced to work
without a paycheck for periods as long as three weeks [17].
To make matters worse, negative publicity for the civil
service has increased by approximately 40% since 2009
[18]. Many political analysts have made the
overcompensation of public servants a central theme in the
past two years [19]. The television, radio, and print media
outlets have run a number of articles suggesting that public
pensions and benefits are bankrupting the system, and that
they should be stripped to a bare minimum [20]. Some
political figures have echoed support for these claims,
creating further alarm for those already feeling entrenched.
In sum, these circumstances, described in the practitioner
literature, are creating an unrewarding work environment.

This is problematic because research suggests that
public-sector employees emphasize factors other than just
their pay [21, 22]. Although salaries are generally lower,
civil service careers traditionally offer benefits and other
intangibles which may make up for wage differences [23,
24]. Previous studies indicate that public-sector employees
place a greater emphasis on factors such as employer
support, job stability, flexibility, quality of life, and a
reasonable workload [25]. Many choose to work in the
public-sector because they believe in the mission of their
respective organization [26, 27].

They support their organization in its work, and
believe it supports them. In effect, some public-sector
employees act as organizational citizens [28]. They see
themselves as an extension of the organization and act in its
best interests [29]. For these reasons, many are willing to
overlook various shortcomings.

But what happens when these intrinsic benefits are
diminished? This research considers the impact of these
diminished benefits for IT workers in the public-sector.
Based on earlier research, it is hypothesized that when the
quality of the work environment disintegrates, turnover
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ideation increases [30-32]. Specifically, it is proposed that
job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, affective
commitment, perceived supervisor support, and
organizational rewards will be inversely related to turnover
intention when job embeddedness is low. This model
represents two departures from previous research. First, this
research incorporates embeddedness as a moderator. It is
predicted that when public-sector IT professionals find it
hard to leave their work; they will suppress their desire to
leave [33]. However, if they are not embedded within their
position, now more than ever, they will consider new
opportunities. The present study provides an interesting
opportunity to test this assertion. The current instability of
the public-sector and the abundance of IT positions private-
sector are providing incentives to make changes. As a
second departure, the construct, organizational rewards, is
included as a predictor of turnover intent [34]. Given the
recent concerns regarding payroll and benefit restructuring,
it is expected that this variable will be more relevant than in
the past. The inclusion of this variable contrasts with
previous studies of turnover in the public-sector, which held
rewards as static. To sum, the present study tests these
assertions by surveying public-sector information
technology professionals and conducting a multivariate
analysis.

The remainder of this research is ordered as
follows: First, the background section provides an overview
of turnover research as it relates to the IT field. Next, the
proposed research model and antecedents are introduced. To
tests the hypotheses, the methods section describes the
procedure for collecting data, validating the instrument, and
developing the structural equation models. The results
section provides an interpretation of the analysis and
conveys support for the hypotheses. The discussion section
follows. It covers the major scientific and practical
implications of this research. Finally, limitations and
conclusions are provided.

2. BACKGROUND

Within the IT field, a number of articles have
explored the antecedents and results of turnover intention.
The majority of these studies employed turnover intention as
the dependent variable. Very few measured actual turnover
[35, 36]. However, there is widespread support for intention
as a precursor to actual behavior in psychology [37] and
within turnover studies [38]. Because the empirical evidence

supports the relationship [39], this research uses turnover
intention as well. A recent meta-analysis [40] of turnover
within the IT field identified several major categories of
turnover predictors. They are: desire to move, ease of
movement, job search, demographics, human capital,
motivation, job-related factors, and organizational
perceptions. The first category, desire to move, includes the
three dimensions of commitment and career and job
satisfaction [41, 42]. The second category consists of
perceived job alternatives [43]. The demographics group
includes age, gender, and marital status. The human capital
group includes factors such as education and job and career
tenure. The fourth group, motivation, is based on factors
which govern career aspirations. This includes constructs
such as growth need strength and career orientations [44,
45]. Another category includes job-related constructs such as
autonomy, ambiguity, and role conflict [46, 47]. Finally,
organizational perceptions such as social support have been
identified within the IT context [48]. Collectively, these
studies provide utility by laying the groundwork for the
present investigation.

J oseph ET. Al. offered a contextual model using
more contemporary turnover theories, specifically job
embeddedness theory [49].

3. CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

The present research seeks to understand turnover
intention among public-sector IT workers within the current
environment. There is no literature that describes the
pressure on IT workers to increase performance while
rewards are held constant or pushed downward. Therefore,
selection of turnover determinants was based on previous
theory from three domains: turnover in the IT field, general
turnover, and public service research. Construct selection
was based on the findings from this extant literature. Five
concepts were identified. They are job satisfaction,
perceived organizational support, affective commitment,
perceived supervisor support, and organizational rewards.
Based on previous research, each of these constructs is
expected to be inversely related to turnover intention.
Additionally, job embeddedness is included as a moderator
between the predictors and turnover intention, such that the
relationship will be strengthened when embeddedness is
lower. The constructs included in this model were
specifically selected because they most accurately represent
the current conditions which may be driving turnover
decisions. The proposed linkages are summarized in Figure
1. Each of the constructs is introduced in the following
sections.

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Fig 1: Research Model

3.1 Job Satisfaction

J ob satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable
emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job
[50]. One of the oldest constructs in the organizational
behavior paradigms, job satisfaction is an accepted
determinant of employee behavior [50-55]. J ob satisfaction
is not only an indicator of employee well-being and
psychological health [56], but also numerous organizational
outcomes such as work attendance, intention to remain in the
organization, motivation to transfer learning, turnover
intention, and actual turnover [42, 57, 58]. Literature, both in
and out of the IS field, suggests that the connection between
job satisfaction and work-related behavior is small but
significant [40, 50, 59, 60]. Across studies, the proportion of
variance in turnover behavior explained by levels of
satisfaction is generally found to be significant [39, 61]. One
longitudinal study showed that employees who changed jobs
had higher levels of satisfaction in their new positions than
workers who did not make employment changes [55]. It is
surmised that employees expect their job to provide a mix of
features (pay, benefits, promotion, or autonomy) for which
each employee has certain preferential values. The range and
importance may vary across individuals, but when the

accumulation of unmet expectations becomes sufficiently
large, there is less job satisfaction and greater probability of
withdrawal behavior [62]. Unchecked, this may eventually
lead to turnover [58]. Indeed, a number of previous studies
indicate that low job satisfaction is a determinant of turnover
intention [63-66].

Conversely, happier people are more likely to find
intrinsic value in their work, and work harder than those who
realize only formal compensation [67, 68]. To sum, certain
aspects of the work environment decrease job satisfaction,
which in turn increases employee motivation to leave the
firm. Therefore, the following hypothesis is conveyed:

HYPOTHESIS 1: Job satisfaction will negatively influence
turnover intention.

3.2 Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support (POS) is defined
as the degree to which an individual believes that the
organization values his or her contribution and cares about
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851
his or her well-being [34, 69]. Perceived organizational
support is an assurance that the firm will provide assistance
when it is necessary to effectively carry out ones job and to
deal with stressful situations [70]. A number of antecedents
of POS have been identified. One widely supported
determinant is procedural justice; employee perceptions of
the fairness in the ways used to determine the distribution of
resources among employees [71]. A related factor is
perceptions of office politics [72]. Other types of
antecedents involve recognition. They include recognition
[71], job security [73], autonomy [74], role stressors [75],
and training [76]. These conditions impact the individuals
perceptions of the organizations collective support. Based
on the composition of their perceptions, workers will feel
obligated to reciprocate their support through enhanced
commitment and performance. Previous studies have
identified several outcomes of perceived organizational
support. They include affective commitment [34, 68],
emotional support [77], mood [78], job involvement [79,
80], and performance [78]. When perceptions of
organizational support are negative, the consequences
include fatigue [81], burnout [60, 82], anxiety [81, 83],
withdrawal behavior [84], turnover intention [73, 85], and
turnover [76, 86]. Based on the extant literature, it is
expected that those IT workers who perceive negative
support will eventually decide to leave their respective
organizations. Therefore, the following hypothesis offered
for testing:

HYPOTHESIS 2: Perceived organizational support will
negatively influence turnover intention.

3.3 Affective Commitment

Affective commitment is defined as an employees
emotional attachment to and involvement in an organization
[87]. Some of the antecedents of affective commitment
include organizational rewards, procedural justice, job
satisfaction, and supervisor support [34, 88]. A range of
behavioral outcomes have been linked to affective
commitment. They include employee retention, job
performance, work quality, and personal sacrifice on behalf
of the organization [89]. Employees emotional bonds with
their organizations are considered an important determinant
of dedication and loyalty [90].

Affectively committed employees are characterized
as having a sense of belonging and identification which
increases their involvement in the organizations activities,
their willingness to pursue the organizations goals, and their
desire to remain with the organization [41]. Affective
commitment has also been associated with absenteeism and
turnover [88]. In fact, many studies have reported a
significant association between commitment and turnover
intention [91-97]. Based on the extant literature, the
following hypothesis is conjectured:
HYPOTHESIS 3: Affective commitment will negatively
influence turnover intention.

The extant literature further indicates that perceived
organizational support is a determinant of affective
commitment. In an earlier study [42] it was determined that
the emotional component of organizational commitment is
shaped by individual perceptions of the organization.
Specifically, it was found that perceived organizational
support has a significant impact on affective commitment
(and thus mediating the relationship to turnover intention)
[98]. In order to confirm this relationship within the present
context, the following hypothesis is proffered:

HYPOTHESIS 4: Perceived organizational support will
positively reinforce affective commitment.

Previous studies have also inferred that job
satisfaction is a determinant of affective commitment [99].
Furthermore, it is also expected that affective commitment
mediates its path to turnover. Affective commitment is based
on the emotions resulting from an employees appraisal of
his or her job. A high degree of job satisfaction correlates
with increased levels of affective commitment, while
dissatisfaction with ones job leads to low affective
commitment. Based on this evidence, it is appropriate to
extend an additional hypothesis:

HYPOTHESIS 5: Job satisfaction will positively reinforce
affective commitment.

3.4 Perceived Supervisor Support

Perceived supervisor support (PSS) is defined as
employees perceptions that their supervisor values their
contributions and cares about their well-being [100].
Although perceived organizational support and perceived
supervisor support are correlated, they have been shown to
be distinct constructs [101]. Supervisors have an important
role in developing employees perceptions of the
organization [102]. This has been noted in previous studies
of leader-member exchange [103-105]. Existing theory
indicates that supervisor attachments have distinct effects on
important outcomes [106, 107]. This includes work
performance [108], job quality [109], mood [78], and
commitment [110]. In addition, perceived supervisor support
has been found to directly impact turnover cognitions, apart
from attachments and attitudes related to the organization
itself [111]. This is supported by a number of previous
studies which linked supervisor support to turnover
cognitions and behavior [49, 76, 112-116]. Thus, the
following hypothesis is prescribed.

HYPOTHESIS 6: Perceived supervisor support will
negatively influence turnover intention.
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3.5 Organizational Rewards

Organizations use rewards such as compensation
and benefits as a means of demonstrating their support for
employees. The availability of appropriate rewards is a
critical source of work motivation [117]. It remains an
important element in employment relationships [118].
Increases in organizational rewards may elicit employees
reciprocation of effort to their organization [119]. This may
be manifested in greater willingness to stay with the firm
and contribute to its collective goals. Studies have shown
that organizations recognition of employee contributions
motivates individuals to expend extra effort in various
aspects of their jobs to further the organization [120, 121].
An inverse relationship between organizational rewards and
turnover has also been supported [76]. As firms decrease
their portfolio of rewards, employees withdraw their effort.
Based on the degree of the change, they may become
detached and emotionally distance themselves from the
program. Continued declines in performance rewards will
ultimately lead to separation from the firm [122]. Given the
relative disparity between public and private firm
compensation, and the unsteadiness of public pensions, it is
expected that declines in organizational rewards will lead to
turnover among public-sector IT workers. Based on this
evidence, it is expected that:

HYPOTHESIS 7: Organizational rewards will negatively
influence turnover intention.

3.6 Job Embeddedness

Embeddedness is defined as the combined forces
that keep a person from leaving an organization, community,
or group [123]. It is composed of contextual and perceptual
forces that bind people to the location, people, and issues
within a given entity. Specifically, job embededdedness
refers to how enmeshed a person is in the organization
where he or she works [49]. J ob embeddedness plays a role
in employee turnover because people dont always act
rationally [124]. They may make decisions based on
prescreened alternatives and act on pre-scripted behaviors.
This is most common following a shocking or jarring event,
such as receiving an unanticipated job offer, being
overlooked for promotion, or experiencing a family issue
[125]. J ob embeddedness prohibits turnover by absorbing
shocks [49, 124]. Although it has been supported as a
moderator and direct antecedent of turnover intention [126],
it has received relatively little attention within the IT field.
Because high rates of turnover, shorter organizational tenure,
and frequent moves are characteristic of the IT profession, it
may be that job embeddedness is less relevant in the
business arena [127]. However, public-sector workers
historically generate lower rates of turnover, creating more
opportunity to become embedded [128, 129]. It is expected
that IT professionals in the public domain, as with other
public-sector workers, will be impacted by job
embeddedness [130]. Specifically, job embeddedness is
predicted to influence the role of benefits such as job
satisfaction, commitment, rewards, and support on turnover
intention. Having already perceived some loss of benefits, it
is proposed that public-sector IT workers will be inclined to
leave when they face a significant change or shock in the
work environment. Given the current instability in the
public-sector, this scenario seems especially likely.
Therefore, the final hypothesis is prescribed:

HYPOTHESIS 8: Job embeddedness will moderate the
relationship between each of the predictors and turnover
intention, such that the relationship is stronger when job
embeddedness is lower.

4. METHODS

In order to test the previously-described
hypotheses, it was necessary to conduct a field survey of IT
professionals. The collected data were analyzed using
traditional survey methods and subjected to a multivariate
analysis with a series of structural equations. The results are
interpreted in terms of path strength for each proposed
relationship.

4.1 Sample & Procedure

To test the research model, the field study method
was employed and a research instrument was created for
gathering data. The target population was comprised of
public-sector employees currently working in the
information technology field. The sample consisted of the IT
workers within the university system of a state in the
southeastern United Sates. The university system included
18 loosely-federated universities and colleges. These
universities and colleges are in urban and rural settings and
have enrollments between two thousand and thirty thousand
students. Given the varied missions, independence, and
make-ups, the sample is being drawn from the public sector
of an industry as opposed to a tightly formed organization.
The computing function within each of the universities and
colleges encompasses the business processes that
organizations would have along with specialized fields
within each of the teaching units. Because of the size,
scope, and broad requirements of the university computing
function, the sample provides an encompassing cross-section
of IT functions and skills but within in the public-sector. By
keeping the sample from one state, the between state
variance is eliminated. The only groups of IT workers
excluded from the study were contractors, outside
consultants, and those classified as temporary laborers.
Included in the study were individual contributors, managers
of IT workers, and IT project managers. Clerical workers
employed within IT departments were excluded. These
individuals were not included in this study of turnover as
their employment with the organization is temporary by
nature. This was later determined to exclude approximately
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30% of the IT workforce. Those included in the sample were
given packets which contained a cover letter, a paper copy of
the survey, and a pre-addressed, stamped return envelope.
The cover letter introduced the survey and the researchers. It
also explained that the survey was confidential and that the
results would be published in an academic journal. No
inducements or gratuities were offered. Those who elected to
participate completed their surveys and returned them by
U.S. mail.

4.2 Instrumentation

The survey consisted of questions which
operationalized the constructs in the research model. The
measures were adopted from previously-validated measures.
J ob satisfaction consisted of six global indicators [131].
Since its inception, the measure has been used in a number
of studies and is well-supported [132]. Perceived
organizational support included eight formative scales that
were previously defined [69]. Six reflective items were used
to operationalize affective commitment [87]. The validity of
this measure has been confirmed in subsequent studies
[133]. Perceived supervisor support includes six formative
scale items that were defined in an earlier study [106].
Turnover intention was invoked using four reflective scales
[60]. Job embeddedness consisted of seven previously-
validated, reflective items [124]. Organizational rewards
included five global measures developed in a previous study.
The instrument also contained several constructs not related
to this study. Finally, demographic information was also
collected.

5. RESULTS

After allowing four weeks for surveys to be
returned, the data was tabulated into an electronic
spreadsheet in order to calculate demographics and purge
incomplete responses. Of the 884 distributed surveys, 348
were returned. This generated a 39.4% response rate,
sufficiently large to minimize non-response bias, even
according to the most stringent standards [134]. Some 21
incomplete questionnaires were dropped. An additional 8
surveys were rejected because a response set was detected
[135, 136]. A response set is the tendency among subjects to
respond to questions automatically and independent of the
content of the items [137]. This resulted in a final sample of
319. As summarized in Figure 2, the average IT worker in
the study is 32.3 years old, is male, and has been in his
current position for 1.2 years. This profile is consistent with
the state-wide demographics of all employees of the
University System (as reported by the Office of the
Chancellor). In addition, a test of common methods variance
(CMV) was conducted [138]. In this test, the first factor
from the principal components analysis was introduced into
a partial least squares model as a control variable. Because
the injected factor did produce changes in explained
variance it can be assumed that CMV is not problematic.

Fig 2: Sample Demographics

The validity of the measures was assessed prior to
model testing. As previously indicated, job satisfaction,
affective commitment, and turnover intention were found to
be reflective, while perceived organizational support and
perceived supervisor support were categorized as formative.
These determinations were made in accordance with pre-
established rules for classifying construct measures as
formative or reflective [139]. The classifications made in
this paper are consistent with previous studies. Because the
model contains formative constructs, a components-based
approach for structural equation modeling was appropriate
[140]. The Smart PLS software package [141] was used to
conduct the partial least squares (PLS) analysis.

The psychometric properties of the reflective
constructs were first considered. First, the factor loadings
were calculated in order to assess convergent and
discriminate validity. Such loadings indicate if items cross-
load or fail to significantly load on their respective latent
variable [142]. The convergent validity of items is
established when items load about .70 on their respective
construct and when the average variance extracted (AVE)
for each measure is above the .50 threshold. As depicted in
Table 1, the requirements for convergent validity are met.
The requirements for discriminate validity are based on the
average variance (AVE) extracted for each construct.
Discriminate validity may be assessed via two points of
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observation. First, it may be noted when the square root of
the AVE is greater than a particular constructs inter-
correlation with other construct. It is also identified when
item loadings are greater for their respective construct than
for other constructs in the model. As indicated in Table 2,
the conditions for discriminate validity are exceeded.

The reliability of reflective constructs was then
considered. For each construct, the internal consistency
measure was examined. Those variables which exceeded the
threshold of .70 were judged to possess sufficient reliability
[143, 144]. As presented below (Table 2) the internal
consistency measure for each construct was above .90,
which indicates that the constructs possess sufficient
reliability.

Having confirmed the suitability of the reflective
constructs, it was necessary to ensure the validity of the
formative measures. Formative construct validity is based on
correlations between items and constructs [145]. A modified
multi-trait, multi-method (MTMM) matrix of correlations
was constructed so that convergent and discriminate validity
could be inspected [146]. Convergent validity is based on
indicators that load significantly on their respective latent
variables. Discriminate validity is established when item-
construct correlations are greater than cross-loadings on
other constructs. As outlined in Table 3, the MTMM
confirms the discriminate and convergent validity for the
formative measures.

Table 1: Psychometric Properties of Reflective Measures

Construct Item
Construct
AVE SAT AFF TURN J E OR
J ob Satisfaction
(SAT)
SAT1 0.887 0.677 0.676 0.615 0.620
0.650
SAT2 0.894 0.628 0.610 0.553 0.512
SAT3 0.818 0.536 0.530 0.367 0.402
SAT4 0.659 0.477 0.339 0.312 0.346
SAT5 0.681 0.613 0.585 0.556 0.535
SAT6 0.866 0.603 0.609 0.488 0.504

Affective
Commitment
(AFF)
AFF1 0.695 0.803 0.612 0.682 0.518
0.688
AFF2 0.478 0.704 0.408 0.490 0.418
AFF3 0.602 0.868 0.546 0.589 0.545
AFF4 0.555 0.855 0.473 0.603 0.512
AFF5 0.674 0.855 0.591 0.609 0.572
AFF6 0.633 0.880 0.536 0.682 0.537

Turnover Intention
(TURN)
TURN1 0.631 0.574 0.939 0.500 0.461
0.803
TURN2 0.614 0.542 0.929 0.473 0.443
TURN3 0.647 0.601 0.815 0.564 0.589
TURN4 0.357 0.343 0.887 0.323 0.330

J ob Embeddedness
(J E)
J E1 0.549 0.639 0.479 0.802 0.470
0.657
J E2 0.546 0.639 0.552 0.887 0.579
J E3 0.434 0.542 0.465 0.818 0.439
J E4 0.412 0.566 0.377 0.797 0.447
J E5 0.429 0.517 0.406 0.734 0.444
J E6 0.468 0.570 0.459 0.783 0.412
J E7 0.606 0.697 0.498 0.843 0.557

Organizational
Rewards
(OR)
OR1 0.586 0.569 0.511 0.555 0.909
0.680
OR2 0.504 0.527 0.455 0.496 0.849
OR3 0.277 0.307 0.317 0.292 0.799
OR4 0.519 0.542 0.488 0.491 0.850
OR5 0.593 0.592 0.514 0.568 0.905

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Square-rooted AVE on Diagonal; RELI =Composite Reliability

Table 2: Correlations among Reflective Constructs

Table 3: Inter-Itemand Item-to-Construct Correlation Matrix

PSS =Perceived Supervisor Support; POS =Perceived Organizational Support
PSS1 PSS2 PSS3 PSS4 PSS5 PSS6 PSS POS1 POS2 POS3 POS4 POS5 POS6 POS7 POS8 POS
PSS1 -
PSS2 .614 -
PSS3 .586 .855 -
PSS4 .578 .756 .756 -
PSS5 .546 .681 .638 .721 -
PSS6 .444 .609 .593 .628 .667 -
PSS .740 .907 .890 .887 .839 .767 -
POS1 .335 .485 .482 .467 .385 .305 .495 -
POS2 .282 .478 .413 .446 .432 .331 .477 .716 -
POS3 .308 .485 .468 .469 .459 .378 .513 .675 .678 -
POS4 .342 .452 .454 .440 .333 .338 .471 .558 .525 .488 -
POS5 .378 .528 .472 .502 .478 .376 .546 .758 .818 .756 .551 -
POS6 .410 .531 .479 .518 .464 .348 .550 .771 .715 .719 .575 .823 -
POS7 .371 .529 .478 .488 .515 .387 .552 .756 .765 .741 .562 .844 .846 -
POS8 .323 .506 .465 .469 .444 .355 .513 .790 .755 .684 .539 .809 .790 .767 -
POS .397 .577 .535 .548 .509 .406 .740 .877 .867 .833 .673 .926 .909 .915 .893 -
Construct RELI SAT AFF TURN J E OR
J ob Satisfaction 0.91670 0.80648
Affective Commitment 0.92946 0.73796 0.82961
Turnover Intention -0.92428 -0.70708 -0.64209 0.89646
J ob Embeddedness 0.93031 0.61266 0.73834 -0.57559 0.81055
Organizational Rewards 0.91212 0.61551 0.62730 -0.56134 0.59409 0.82485
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After confirming the suitability of the
measures, the proposed model linkages were
evaluated using bootstrap sampling [140]. The results
of the analysis are presented in Table 4. As expected
all the hypothesized paths between turnover intention
and its antecedents were found to be statistically
significant. Furthermore, the links from job
satisfaction and perceived organizational support to
affective commitment were supported. Collectively,
the determinants account for 57.8% of the variance in
turnover intention and 67.4% of the variance in
affective commitment. The mediating effects of
affective commitment were tested by following a
previously-defined procedure [147]. Having
confirmed the impact of job satisfaction and
perceived organizational support on turnover
intention, it was determined that their indirect path
via affective commitment makes the direct effects
statistically insignificant. Finally, moderation tests
were found to sustain hypothesis 8. The moderating
role of job embeddedness on job satisfaction,
perceived organizational support, affective
commitment, and perceived supervisor support and
organizational rewards was confirmed at a .05 alpha
level.

Table 4: Outcome of the Hypothesis Tests

Hypothesis Path Coefficient T Value P-value Supported?
H
1
SAT TURN -.370 3.527 P=.0004
H
2
POS TURN -.131 1.968 P=.0503
H
3
AFF TURN -.174 2.409 P=.0168
H
4
SAT AFF .373 5.952 P=.0001
H
5
POS AFF .512 4.528 P=.0001
H
6
PSS TURN -.171 2.272 P=.0248
H
7
OR TURN -.182 2.501 P=.0129
H
8
Moderations -- -- P=.0163

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

Fig 3: Structural Model

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857

6. DISCUSSION

In the era of government instability, IT workers are
an interesting case. As with any other public sector
employee, they are subject to layoffs, furloughs, loss of
benefits, and payroll deductions. More importantly, tacit
benefits associated with public-sector work are rapidly
disintegrating. In this research, we found that job
satisfaction, perceived organizational support, affective
commitment, perceived supervisor support, and
organizational rewards are particularly important to IT
professionals working in government. Further, job
embeddedness moderates their relationship with turnover
intention. The study indicates that as the factors which draw
many individuals into public service are eroded, turnover
intention will increase. At the same time, private sector
demand for IT professionals is increasing. The net result is
that public-sector IT workers have little motivation to
remain in their current positions, and plenty of intriguing job
opportunities in the private-sector.

It is expected that the exodus of talented IT
professionals into the private-sector will continue [129].
This leads into the question of who will replace them. Those
who have seen their parents, friends, and relatives lose their
pensions and benefits would doubt the long term
commitment of public organizations to their employees.
People previously considering encore careers in public
service may reconsider their perceptions of job satisfaction
and commitment among public-sector workers. Unable to
appeal to future organizational citizens and/or deliver
generous benefits, the most salient route for public-sector
recruiting will involve overt enticements such as increased
salaries. Having tarnished the perception of being a stable,
supportive place to work, this may be the only immediate
option. Given the level of competition for skilled IT labor in
the private sector, this could be very costly.

Is it possible for the public-sector to rebuild its
reputation among IT workers? Although market demands,
salary increases, and structural changes could lure IT
workers back into the public sector, it is less likely that they
will form long-term organizational commitments.

7. LIMITATIONS

Although this study was conducted in keeping with
current IS research practices, it is not completely without
limitations. First, the study uses intention as a surrogate for
actual behavior. It is generally more desirable to measure
actual performance. However, previous studies of IT worker
turnover have confirmed the use of turnover intention as an
acceptable predictor of actual turnover [40]. Another
possible limitation concerns the sample. Although a large
sample was drawn from individuals across a state-wide

system, it is possible that the results may vary among states.
Thus, there is a potential risk the findings may lose
generalizability. Given the size of the state and the number
of employees in this public-sector system, it is expected that
its IT workforce is a representative cross-section. Therefore
the sample frame seems reasonable enough for interpretation
across state and local agencies.

8. CONCLUSION

Beside quantitative benefits, public-sector IT
workers reported a loss of commitment, support, and
satisfaction with their jobs. This combined with an
abundance of lucrative opportunities in private industry are
making their jobs less desirable. Previously, employees were
more likely to act as organizational citizens and believe their
long-term interests were tied to those of their organization.
For many, this is no longer the case. Instead of looking out
for the best interests of the organization, many IT workers
are retreating from their previous beliefs and are considering
exit strategies. If unchecked, these conditions will make it
increasingly difficult to attract and retain talent. This
research provides value by calling attention to this relevant,
timely issue. It was determined that the tenets of
organizational citizenship are a critical factor in retaining IT
workers. When job satisfaction, perceived organizational
support, affective commitment, perceived supervisor
support, and organizational rewards decrease, public-sector
IT workers begin to consider leaving their positions.
Although noteworthy, this research is only a first step
towards addressing this problem. Future research should be
aimed at reversing the decline of organizational citizenship
if a skilled labor shortage is to be averted.

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