Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range
1. Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body There are two types of metabolic reactions; anabolic and catabolic: Anabolic reactions: building up large molecules from small ones. Catabolic reactions: breaking down molecules into smaller parts. These reactions occur through the use of a: Catalyst: Substances that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction but are not used up in the process. nzyme: A biological catalyst (a protein manufactured by cells, that speeds up the rate of reactions in organisms but are not used up in the process). ole of an !n"yme in #etabolism: The role of an en"yme in a metabolism is to increase the rate of chemical reactions by decreasing the acti$ation energy of a reaction. %f these reactions were allowed to occur at their normal rate it would be too slow to keep an organism ali$e. !n"yme &hemical &omposition: !n"ymes are proteins and are therefore made from amino acids. The amino acids of a protein molecule form long chains that fold o$er to form a three dimensional shape. !$ery type of en"yme has a specific shape as it is made up of a specific pattern of amino acids. 'ithin their structure, en"ymes ha$e acti$e sites that are usually composed of three or four amino acids. The acti$e sites are the areas that substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. 'hen an en"yme binds to a substrate it makes a new molecule called the en"yme substrate comple(. )ue to the specificity of their acti$e sites, each type of en"yme will only catalyse one reaction type. Specificity on Substrates: !n"ymes act on substrates. %t was once belie$ed that only one specific en"yme (or combination of en"ymes) can react with one specific substrate (or combination of substrates). This is demonstrated by the lock and key theory proposed by *erman scientist !mil +ischer in ,-./. %t e(plains en"yme action by likening the en"yme to a lock and substrates to a key. 0nly a specific key is able to open its matching lock. 1ust as the key is specific to the lock so is a substrate specific to an en"yme. An en"yme will not work unless the substrate matches its acti$e site. 0nly then will the reaction be catalysed. 2owe$er it was later disco$ered that the substrate enters in and binds to the en"yme shaping the acti$e site and properly aligning the en"yme for the reaction to take place. 0ther substrates may fit into the acti$e site, but unless they are able to properly shape the en"yme, a reaction will not be catalysed. %nduced fit theory by 3S scientist )aniel 4oshland, ,.5- !. Identify the p" as a #ay of describing the acidity of a substance p": A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance p2 is a way of describing the acidity of a substance $. %plain #hy the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency !n"ymes usually function at a specific temperature and p2 range. 'here the en"yme functions in the body determines what its optimum temperature and p2 range will be. %f an en"yme is sub6ect to e(treme p2 and temperatures changes outside its normal ranges, it firstly slows the rate of the reaction they are catalysing and then result in change shape and block the acti$e site of substrates. This is called denaturing. )enaturing means that an en"yme is useless as the substrate cannot bind with the acti$e site and will no longer be able to function properly or catalyse reaction. 0nce an en"yme is denatured the change is permanent, the en"yme cannot be reformed into its original shape. &hanges in temperature and p2 can breaks bond in the protein molecule and o$erall disrupt their three7dimensional shape 8 making them unspecific to the substrate. The maintenance of a constant internal en$ironment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency as it maintains the optimum le$el that the en"ymes can react at while maintaining their specificity. &hy is it important to be specific' The specificity shown by en"ymes confers upon li$ing systems enormous potential for $ery precise control of chemical reactions. This precise control is a basic feature of life. (. )escribe homeostasis as the process by #hich organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment "omeostasis: is the maintenance of a stable internal en$ironment %t is a process by which organisms maintain a relati$ely stable en$ironment. %n an organism en"ymes control all the metabolic processes. !n"ymes work optimally in an en$ironment where their optimum conditions are met. %f the en$ironment surrounding the organism does not remain relati$ely stable then the rate of en"yme catalysed reaction decreases. This decreased rate could affect an entire metabolic pathway that might produce an essential compound and could result in fatality. Therefore maintaining the homeostasis is important9 %n multicellular organisms, cells need to maintain their internal balance regardless of the e(ternal en$ironment. An e(ternal en$ironment may $ary greatly but the internal en$ironment can be relati$ely unchanging and stable. This is because when metabolic reactions occur in cells they cause changes in the intracellular en$ironment but our bodies ha$e processes that :uickly act to counter any changes and return to the stable state. This continual maintenance is called homeostasis. !(ternal en$ironments ha$e abiotic and biotic factors that affect it but an organism;s internal en$ironment is more $ariable as it is controlled by the organism;s body processes. *.B. : !n"ymes often ha$e the prefi( <ase= Subtrates often ha$e the prefi( <ose= e.g. The substrate, cellulose is broken down by the en"yme, cellulase. +. %plain that homeostasis consists of t#o stages: detecting changes from the stable state, counteracting changes from the stable state *egative ,eedbac- .ystem: is where the response to the stimulus is to reduce and counteract the change. %t causes the body to respond so that a re$ersal in the direction of a change occurs. /ositive ,eedbac- .ystem: is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the change instead of reducing it. This does not result in homeostasis. The >egati$e +eedback System 2omeostasis works in two stages: Stage ,: )etecting change from a stable state: %n this stage a receptor detects a change in a specific $ariable from the desired stable le$el of the $ariable. Stage ?: Counteracting changes from the stable state: An effector recei$es the message that an undesirable change must be counteracted and the $ariable restored to its desired le$el. This is how the negati$e feedback system occurs: ,. .timulus: All organisms recei$e information from the $arious parts of their bodies and from their en$ironment in the form of stimuli. %t can be either e(ternal or internal. ?. 0eceptor: A $ariation in either the internal or e(ternal en$ironment is detected by a receptor. Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell are all receptors. @. Control Centre 1Central *ervous .ystem 2 C*.3: 0nce a $ariation is detected, a message is sent to the control centre. This then replies by sending a message to the effector to counteract the $ariation. /. ffector: The effector is normally either a muscle or gland that responds to the message and counteracts the $ariation. 5. 0esponse: This is the action of counteracting the $ariation. 4. 5utline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes The ner$ous system is made of the brain, the spinal cord and sensory and motor neurons. The ner$ous system enables the detection of e(ternal and internal en$ironmental changes to the body and then coordinates the responses the body will make to counteract these changes. %t is made up of two interacting elements, the central ner$ous system and the peripheral ner$ous system: &entral >er$ous System: &omposed of the brain and the spinal chord. The spinal chord transmits messages from the receptor organs $ia the sensory neurons to special regions of the brain. 'hen one of these regions recei$es stimuli from the sensory neurons it then coordinates the correct response necessary to counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs $ia the motor neurons. Aeripheral >er$ous System (A>S): &omposed of all neurons outside the &entral >er$ous System (&>S). These include sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit messages from the receptor organs to the &>S (brain). #otor >eurons transmit messages from the &>S (brain) to the effector organs to acti$ate a response. 6. Identify the broad range of temperatures over #hich life is found compared #ith the narro# limits for individual species Bife is found o$er a broad range of temperatures on planet earth. 'here climatic temperature can $ary from 7C5 o & to abo$e 5D o &. 2owe$er, most indi$idual species ha$e narrow temperature limits and they cannot e(ist in habitats that ha$e great $arying temperatures. This is because they possess beha$ioural and physiological adaptations that enable them to maintain their temperature within this narrow range. 7. Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and e%plain ho# these responses assist temperature regulation ctotherms: are organisms whose body temperature is determined by their surroundings. e.g. plants, in$ertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish ndotherms: are mammals that ha$e physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body temperature within a narrow range irrespecti$e of the ambient temperature. e.g. birds and mammals /hysiological Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the organism functions .tructural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to the organism;s shape and si"e Behavioural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the organism acts. 0ed 8angaroo: The red kangaroo is the largest marsupial in Australia. %t li$es in the grasslands of dry arid central part of the country. %n this habitat, the red kangaroo e(periences temperatures $arying from 5 o & in the winter months to @- o & in the summer months. +or this reason, it needs many adaptations to accommodate these dramatic changes in temperature and retain its optimum temperature range is @C.5 o &. Climate Physiological Structural Behavioural Cold conditio ns (winter months) Increased metabolic rate to create more heat within the body Layer of fur creates and layer of insulation between the skin and the hair and allows the kangaroo to stay warm Basking in the sun Warm conditio ns (Summe r months) Decrease in metabolic rate which reduces the amount of heat within the body 7 Panting to release heat 7 Exposed areas of skin on the forelegs to increase evaporative cooling of the blood from this area 7 hunting blood from the tail to the exposed areas of the skin on the forelegs to increase heat loss! 7 "octurnal 7 Licking forelegs to increase evaporation from the skin 7 itting in the shade )iamond /ython: The diamond python li$es in a $ariety of habitats including rainforests, temperate forest, grassland, ca$es and hollow trees. %t eats small mammals, bats, birds and li"ards. %t;s optimum temperature range is around ?D o & howe$er this depends on the ambient temperature the python;s surroundings. Climate Physiological Structural Behavioural Cold conditions (winter months) Lies on eggs and shivers to increase the temperature of incubation Dark in colour to absorb heat and can therefore tolerate colder temperatures than most snakes 7 Basks in the sun to raise body temperature 7 #ibernation 7 $igration to warmer areas Warm conditions (summer months) 7 Is nocturnal% so hunts at night to escape the heat during the day 7 Burrowing during the day &ompare the responses of endotherms and ectotherms: !ndotherms need to ha$e a high metabolism rate to maintain this optimum temperature rate in cold conditions and as a result need to eat large amounts. !ctotherms do not need to do this howe$er they ha$e greater restrictions placed on their acti$ity as a result. %n hot conditions endotherms must ha$e specific adaptations to these en$ironmental changes to regulate heat gain so not to raise their temperature abo$e their optimum temperature le$el as this can cause se$ere damage. This is the same for both endotherms and ectotherms in relation to cold climates. !ctotherms are not found in e(tremely cold climates. 9. Identify some responses of plants to temperature change Alants are ectothermic and so cannot maintain a constant temperature. Therefore they ha$e a range of adaptations to help them sur$i$e in a $ariety of temperatures. 0esponse to :emperature Change 0eason ;eaf ,all #any plants in hot conditions reduce their surface area that is e(posed to the sun by dropping their lea$es. This reduces the amount of water lost in transpiration 0adiation Some plants reduce the amount of heat recei$ed by ha$ing shiny lea$es that reflect solar radiation "eat<shoc- /roteins Aroduced by plants when they are under stress from $ery high temperatures. They are thought to stop the denaturing of the en"ymes within the cell, so allow normal cell reactions to continue :ranspiration The mo$ement of water through the plant helps to cool the plant during hot conditions. This is also effecting when e$aporation of water occurs from the stomates of the leaf )ie bac- %n harsh conditions, shoots of a plant may die. 2owe$er the soil and roots will begin to grow again when fa$ourable conditions return 5rientation of leaves Some plants orientate their lea$es in such a way that it reduces the amount of sun rays that make contact with the surface area of the leaf. e.g. eucalyptus Ice formation bet#een cells #ost plants are able to tolerate fairly low temperatures compared to animals. This is due in part to their cell walls as when temperatures drop bellowing free"ing, ice will form outside of the plant cells. This is because the solution within the plant cells is higher in solutes (and therefore higher free"ing point) than the solution between the cells. %ce will therefore form between the plant cells, which are protected from ice crystals by cell walls. 2owe$er this is ineffecti$e if temperatures drop too :uickly, such as during a frost. 1=. Identify data sources, plan, choose e>uipment or resources and perform a first<hand investigation to test the effect of: increased temperature, change in p", change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme1s3 77777777777777777777777777777777See <!n"yme Action= Arac !(periment77777777777777777777777777777 77777777777See <Substrate &oncentration and !n"yme Acti$ity= Arac !(periment7777777777 777777777777777See <+irst7hand %n$estigations with !n"ymes= Arac !(periment77777777777777 77777777777777777777See <!ffect of p2 on en"yme acti$ity= Arac !(periment77777777777777777777 /0AC ?/0IM*: 1, !, $, ( 11. @ather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a model of a feedbac- mechanism 77777777777777777777777See e(amples of feedback mechanisms in notes7777777777777777777777777 1!. Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777See :uestions in notes7777777777777777777777777777777777777777 /lants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium 1. Identify the form1s3 in #hich each of the follo#ing is carried in mammalian blood: carbon dio%ide, o%ygen, #ater, salts, lipids, nitrogenous #aste, other products of digestion .ubstance :ransported form Carbon )io%ide 1a #aste product of respiration in cells3 7 )issol$ed in plasma 7 &on$erted into carbonic acid and then hydrogen carbonate ions in red blood cells 7 Eind to haemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin 5%ygen 1needed for respiration3 Attached to haemoglobin in red blood cell forming o(yhaemoglobin &ater 1solvent of plasma3 )issol$ed in plasma .alts 1composed of positive and negative ions, used for body processes3 )issol$ed in plasma as ions ;ipids 1digested lipids are re< synthesised into tri< glycerides in the epithelial cells that line the small intestine3 'rapped in a coat of protein to form a package called chylomicron *itrogenous #astes 1metabolic #astes e%creted by the body3 )issol$ed in plasma as urea, uric acid and creatinine 5ther products of digestion 1amino acids, sugars, vitamins, glycerol and nitrogenous bases3 #ainly water soluble and are transported dissol$ed in plasma !. %plain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin The red blood cell has no nucleus so can carry as many haemoglobin molecules as possible. 2aemoglobin is a comple( protein molecule which is made up of four long amino acid chains, each one assembled around the atom of iron. %ron easily combines with o(ygen. The adapti$e ad$antage of haemoglobin is that is increases the blood;s carrying capacity of o(ygen by one hundred times. As a result of the haemoglobin being able to carry more o(ygen, there is more o(ygen a$ailable for cells. Therefore gi$es an organism the ability to become more comple(. $. Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function Blood Vessel Structure Function Arteries blood travelling away rom the heart 7 &hick muscular walls 7 'alls are elastic 7 mooth inner layer 7 (ope with the high pressure of blood being pumped out to the body 7 Enables expansion and contraction to ad)ust to the amount of blood *owing through at any one time 7 +llows blood to *ow with ease 7 &hese three aspects of an arteries, structure allow the artery to expand as it -lls with blood when the heart beats and contract as the heart relaxes! &his results in a force to help push the blood through the body! Veins blood travelling towards the heart 7 &hinner muscular walls 7 'ider diameter 7 .alves 7 &his is in response to the lessened amount of pressure as the blood is not being pumped hard as it returns to the heart 7 +llows increased amounts of blood to *ow through veins and return to heart 7 Prevent blood from *owing backwards in the vein Ca!illaries 7 + single layer of *at overlapping cells 7 +llows a single -le of red blood cells to pass through% maximising the opportunity for the exchange of gases% nutrients and wastes between the blood and the tissue cells! In this way the body,s tissues are e/ciently supplied with the substances they need while wastes are removed! (. )escribe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in #hich these changes occur The chemical composition of blood changes as it mo$es around the body. This is as a result from the continuous e(change of substances between the blood and the surrounding tissues. %n general, blood mo$ing through the body;s tissues deli$ers o(ygen and glucose for cellular respiration as well as nutrients. %n general, blood mo$ing away from the body;s tissues carries carbon dio(ide and nitrogenous wastes for disposal. :issue Main Changes in Blood ;ung 7 %ncrease in o(ygen 7 )ecrease in carbon dio(ide Ailli of small intestine 7 %ncrease in glucose and other products of digestion (amino acids, lipids, $itamins, minerals, water) 8idneys 7 )ecrease in nitrogenous wastes (salts and water to form urea) 5ther body tissues 7 )ecrease in o(ygen 7 )ecrease in glucose 7 %ncrease in carbon dio(ide +. 5utline the need for o%ygen in living cells and e%plain #hy removal of carbon dio%ide from cells is essential >eed for o(ygen in li$ing cells: 0(ygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues throughout a body. These cells need o(ygen so that the process of cell respiration can occur. &ell respiration is essential as it pro$ides energy that is needed for metabolic process (e.g. protein synthesis) and if these processes do not occur it can result in fatality. >eed for remo$al of carbon dio(ide in li$ing cells: The products of respiration are carbon dio(ide and water. +or most li$ing cells that do not photosynthesis, carbon dio(ide is a waste that must be remo$ed as it can become poisonous if too concentrated in a cell. A high concentration of carbon dio(ide dissol$ed in the cytoplasm of a cell can lower of the p2 le$el making the li:uid more acidic. This would result in denaturing en"ymes in the cell and lowering their acti$ity which can result in fatality of the cell. 4. )escribe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in %ylem and phloem tissue "ylem (dead tissue) trans!orts water and dissolved minerals Phloem (living tissue) trans!orts sucrose# !roduced in !hotosynthetic tissue to other regions o a !lant# as well as hormones and any other organic material made by the !lant$ 7 'ater has tensile strength because of the cohesion of the molecules. They tend to stick together as well as to the tube by adhesion. The smaller the diameter of the tube the molecules are in, the greater the tensile strength. This results in a capillary action that helps the water mo$e through the plant. 7 Transport of the organic material through the plant is called translocation. 7 The organic material is actively transported around the plant through the use of sie$e tubes. 7 The energy re:uired for the acti$e transport is pro$ided by companion cells. 7 A high concentration of water in the soil is absorbed by the root hairs which ha$e a lower concentration of water. This is caused by osmosis and is called osmotic pressure. 7 The water then mo$es through the corte( into the 7 'hen the sugar lea$es the phloem to enter a sin- (a place that uses organic material made elsewhere) there is an increase (ylem in the $ascular tissue and transported through the plant. This o$erall process is called root pressure. of water in the sie$e tube in that region. This increases pressure in the sieve tubes. 7 'ater then mo$es out of the sink tubes and this results in higher pressure in the sie$e tube and lower pressure at the sink tube. 7 The difference in pressure pushes the materials to mo$e to the sink to be used in different ways. 7 *ases enter and lea$e the leaf through the stomata. #ost of the water lost by the plant is in transpiration through the stomata. 7 The walls of the mesophyll cells are moist and when the sun shines the air spaces around them e$aporate the water. 7 As water e$aporates, water mo$es out of the cells to ensure that the walls of the mesophyll are kept moist. %n turn, water mo$es from the small (ylem $essels into the mesophyll cells. This is called transpiration pull. 6. /erform a first<hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dio%ide on the p" of #ater 7777See <!ffect of )issol$ed &arbon )io(ide 0n the p2 of 'ater= Arac !(periment7777 /0AC ?/0IM*: + 7. /erform a first<hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and #hite blood cells and dra# scaled diagrams of each 77777777777777See <#easurement of the Si"e of Elood &ells= Arac !(periment77777777777777 /0AC ?/0IM*: 4 9. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allo# measurement of o%ygen saturation and carbon dio%ide concentrations in blood and describe and e%plain the conditions under #hich these technologies are used &hat is o%ygen saturation' 7 0(ygen saturation is relating to the measured amount of o(ygen in the blood. 7 >ormal o(ygen saturation in the human body is about .FG. "o# does measuring these concentrations help' 7 helps doctors in diagnosis of patients and in monitoring them while in hospital 7 gi$es information about the ability of the lungs both in pro$iding o(ygen to the body and remo$ing carbon dio(ide from the body. 7 gi$es information on the kidneys; ability to reabsorb or e(crete bicarbonate ions to maintain normal body p2. &ho needs this tested Bmonitored' Aatients: 7 undergoing any procedure that re:uires anaesthesia or sedation 7 with abnormal breathing 7 in intensi$e care 7 in accident and emergency facilities 7 who are premature new born babies 7 who shows dangerously low o(ygen le$els or high le$els of carbon dio(ide "o# is it measured' Ad$ances in biotechnology and electronics ha$e resulted in the production of biosensors that ha$e made analysing blood more accurate. %n hospitals, a Aulse 0(imeter is used to monitor the o(ygen saturation of the blood and in dramatic cases, blood is taken from an artery for Arterial Elood *as Analysis. &hat is a biosensor' A sensor is a de$ice that translates a physical or chemical property into an electrical signal that can be measured. The key component is the transducer or signal7con$erting element that con$erts the property to be measured into a signal. &hat is a /ulse 5%imeter' 7 Aulse o(imeters measure the amount of o(ygen in arterial blood (blood being pumped from the heart to the body cells). 7 They consist of a sensor or probe that is attached to a part of the body such as a fingertip. 7 'hen o(ygen combines with haemoglobin the colour of the blood changes from dark red (unsaturated) to bright red (saturated). 7 Bight from two light emitting diodes is passed through the finger and the amount of light energy transmitted is detected by two light detecting sensors. The light energy $aries depending on the le$el of o(ygenation of haemoglobin in the blood. 7 Two diodes are commonly used, one emitting red light (F5Dnm) and the other infrared (./Dnm). 0(ygenated blood absorbs red light whereas deo(ygenated blood absorbs more infrared light. There is a large difference in the amount of red light absorbed by the o(yhaemoglobin compared to haemoglobin. 7 Ey calculating the absorption at the two wa$elengths the processor can compute the proportion of haemoglobin which is o(ygenated. 7 The signal is first amplified, then the o(ygen saturation is calculated and the result displayed on the screen. An alarm rings if o(ygen saturation falls below a certain le$el, usually about .DG. 7 0(imeters gi$e no information about the le$el of carbon dio(ide and therefore ha$e limitations in the assessment of patients de$eloping respiratory failure due to carbon dio(ide retention. &hat is Arterial Blood @as 1AB@3 Analysis' 7 Arterial blood is taken from easily accessible artery; either the wrist, upper arm or groin. 7 The syringe that is used contains a small amount of heparin, to pre$ent the blood from coagulating. 0nce the sample is obtained, care is taken to eliminate $isible gas bubbles, as these bubbles can dissol$e into the sample and cause inaccurate results. 7 The sample is then packed in ice and taken to the laboratory. 2ere, the blood sample is put into a machine which measures the o(ygen saturation, p2, the partial pressures of o(ygen, carbon dio(ide and the bicarbonate concentration (amount of carbon dio(ide carried in blood). 7 The p2 is measured with a glass bulb that contains a known solution of known p2. 'hen this sensor is placed in an unknown p2 the difference between the two solutions is calculated and so p2 of the solution is determined. 7 Elood p2 is a reflection of the concentration of hydrogen ions in blood. A high concentration gi$es a low p2 (acidic) and a low concentration gi$es a high p2 (alkaline). 7 Aartial pressure of o(ygen shows the concentration of a gas in a medium and therefore displays how much o(ygen the lungs are deli$ering to the blood. %t is measured using a &lark o(ygen sensor. 0(ygen from the blood sample diffuses through a gas7permeable membrane where it causes an electrical current to be generated. The amount of current generated is proportional is proportional to the concentration of o(ygen in the sample. This is measured and the result reported. 7 &arbon dio(ide le$els are tested by a sensor, based on the design in$ented in ,.F5 by Se$eringhaus. The sensor detects p2 changes in a small $olume of bicarbonate solution separated from the sample by a gas permeable membrane. As carbon dio(ide crosses the membrane, the following reactions occurs: carbon dio(ide (&0 ? )
H water (2 ? 0) carbonic acid (2 ? &0 @ ) hydrogen ions (2 H ) H hydrogen bicarbonate ions (2&0 @7 ) Any change in hydrogen ion concentration changes the p2. This is measured by the internal p2 sensor. p2 as a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ion can be related to the concentration of carbon dio(ide. This calculation is made and the result reported. 7 'hen carbon dio(ide is present in normal amounts, the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate creates an acid7base balance in the blood, helping to keep the p2 at a le$el where the body;s cellular functions are most efficient. The lungs control the carbonic acid le$el and the kidneys regulate the bicarbonate. %f either organ is not functioning properly, an acid base imbalance can result. )etermination of bicarbonate and p2 le$els, then, aids in diagnosing the cause of abnormal blood gas $alues. 1=. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products e%tracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products Component Composition Cse &hole blood &ell and plasma Iolume replacement in cases with large blood loss Blood cells ed blood cells, white blood cells, come platelets and little plasma Anaemia /latelets Alatelets Se$ere bleeding /lasma Alasma, all coagulation factor Eleeding, where there is a deficiency in coagulation @ranulocytes Bymphocytes, neutrophils, some red blood cells and platelets Bow neutrophil count Cryoprecipitate +ibroginogen Ion 'illebrand;s disease 2aemophilia A Antiheamophillic factor +actor I%%% 2aemophilia A ,actor I? concentrate +actor %J 2aemophilia E ,actor I? comple% +actor %%,I%%, %J, J 2ereditary factor I%%, %J, J deficiency 2aemophilia A with factor I%% inhibitors Albumin Albumin 5G, ?5G Eurns, $olume e(pansion needed Intravenous gamma globulin %g* antibodies %mmunodeficiency diseases Antithrombin III concentrate Antithrombin %%% isk of thrombosis 11. Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons #hy such research is needed &hat is artificial blood' A blood substitute that can be used to pro$ide fluid $olume and carry o(ygen in the $essels. %t remains in circulation until blood $olume is restored and then artificial is safely e(creted. &hy is it not al#ays used' 7 %s routinely used but not commonly. This is because it only transmits o(ygen but not nutrients, so cannot be used in long term treatments. 7 Also it does not contain white blood cells, so cannot resist $iruses from outer en$ironment. &hy does it 7 there are not enough blood donors e%ist' 7 there is a shortfall in blood supply 7 it has a longer shelf life then donated blood 7 it is easily produced and de$eloped at a fast rate and works for all blood types &hat is the demand for it' Scientists ha$e been trying to de$elop a blood substitute since the ,.@Ds. The military ha$e been seeking a $iable product at least a in the ,.CDs and commercial $entures ha$e added to this research since the early ,.-Ds. &hat research e%ists today' >orthfield Baboratories %nc in &hicago ha$e de$eloped KAoly 2ome;. This is basically recycled human blood that is uni$ersally compatible, substantially free of $iral contamination and has a one7year shelf life. &hat has been achieved today' Aerfluorocarbons: These are compounds deri$ed from hydrocarbons by replacement of hydrogen atoms by fluorine atoms. They are commonly used in eye surgery as temporary replacements of the $itreous humour in retinal detachment surgery. Alasma substitutes: Any li:uid used to replace blood plasma and $olume of blood. %t is also used to treat dehydration. 1!. Choose e>uipment or resources to perform a first<hand investigation to gather first<hand data to dra# transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and %ylem tissue 777777777See <%n$estigating the mo$ement of materials in plants= Arac !(periment7777777 /0AC ?/0IM*: 6,7 /lants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, #ater and #aste products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid 1. %plain #hy the concentration of #ater in cells should be maintained #ithin a narro# range for optimal function 'ater inside a cell is essential for life. Too little or too much can result in serious problems and most cells will die if their water content is changed significantly. %t is necessary for many reasons: %t is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such as nutrients and wastes) in and between cells. %t is the sol$ent in which many important ions and molecules re:uired for metabolic reactions are dissol$ed. They are only able to mo$e when in a:ueous solution as can they diffuse across and between cells. #etabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution. 'ater itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions e.g. cellular respiration +or optimal functioning of cells is reliant on their water content being kept within a $ery narrow range. The concentration water inside the cell (intracellular fluid) must match the concentration of water outside the cell (interstitial fluid). This is called isotonic. %f these concentrations do not match, water will mo$e by osmosis from the area of higher concentration to lower concentration. This lea$es cells $enerable to losing or gaining to much water. !. %plain #hy the removal of #astes is essential for continued metabolic activity 777777777777777777777777777777777777See Aoint 5 in abo$e section77777777777777777777777777777777777777 &ells are the sites of many metabolic reactions which keeps the cell function and therefore the organism ali$e and healthy. 2owe$er these metabolic reactions produce wastes and if these wastes are not properly remo$ed it can poison the cell. %t can also change the p2 of the cell and pre$ent en"ymes from working which stops metabolic acti$ity that are $ital for the cell and organisms life. $. Identify the role of the -idney in the e%cretory system of fish and mammals The kidney is part of the urinary system and is the main organ in$ol$ed in the e(cretion of wastes and osmoregulation in fish and mammals. 5smoregulation: maintenance of a constant concentration of salt ions and therefore water le$els within the body regardless of the concentrations within the en$ironment The role of the kidney is to: 7 !(crete wastes 7 #aintain osmoregulation 7 #aintain appropriate p2 le$els in the blood (. %plain #hy the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inade>uate in removing dissolved nitrogenous #astes in some organisms %n unicellular organisms, the e(cretion of dissol$ed nitrogenous wastes occurs solely by the processes of diffusion and osmosis. These are both forms of passi$e transport. The cell membrane is selecti$ely permeable, allowing water molecules to enter by osmosis when necessary and nitrogenous wastes to e(it by diffusion. 2owe$er, multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of L...diffusion and osmosis to e(crete their nitrogenous wastes. They are made up of L...millions of cells so therefore must rid themsel$es of their wastes by other L...methods. Acti$e transport is one method whereby ions are mo$ed against a concentration L..gradient through proteins. +. )istinguish bet#een active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian -idney /assive :ransport: diffusion of molecules from regions of high concentration to low concentration without the e(penditure of energy Active :ransport: The net mo$ement of particles against a concentration gradient from an area of high concentration, with the e(penditure of energy The mammalian kidney is designed to use acti$e transport to mo$e ions against their concentration gradient and therefore e(crete wastes. /rocess )efinition Application to -idney function )iffusion The mo$ement of substances from areas where they are in high concentration to regions where they are in low concentration. Solutes in the filtrate will tend to diffuse out through the tubule walls into the tissue fluid and the blood, but once the concentrations are e:ual there will be no further net diffusion. %f all of a substance needs to be reabsorbed then acti$e uptake must occur. 5smosis 0smosis is the mo$ement of water only through a semi7permeable membrane from a region where there are less solutes in the water to a region where there are more solutes. (egion from higher to lower concentration) .-G of water needs to be reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood. %t can mo$e by osmosis only if there are more solutes outside the tubule than inside the tubule. Active upta-e 'here the cell membrane acti$ely selects which substances can pass through it into the cell. Barge protein molecules in the cell membrane are in$ol$ed in this. %n order to absorb all the useful molecules from the filtrate, acti$e uptake must be in$ol$ed. This is because diffusion will no longer work once the concentration of the substance is the same of the inside and outside of the tubule. .ecretion The cells lining the tubule can acti$ely secrete harmful substances into the tube. )rugs such as penicillin and aspirin and other poisons are added to the fluid in the tube. Eecause a lot of the urea which forms part of the glomerulus filtrate diffuses out of the tubule, this must be secreted back into the tubule. #ost of the process of reabsorption is by acti$e uptake. This is why the kidney has such a high respiration rate. 'ater can only mo$e by osmosis so the kidney must ensure that there is a high enough salt concentration around the Boop of 2enle to absorb the sufficient amounts of water. 4. %plain ho# the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition The functional unit of the kidney is called the nephron. The nephron functions to filter the blood of metabolic wastes, make and secrete urine and reabsorb water to maintain homeostasis. There are millions of nephrons in the kidney;s corte( and medulla. The reabsorption of water from the urine allows the nephron to regulate body fluid composition. Aurpose of nephrons 7 To reabsorb useful molecules 7 4eep unwanted molecules in the tubule 7 Ealance the p2 of the blood 7 #aintain the correct osmotic balance in the blood (waterMsalt) /art of the *ephron Main function 1and ho# it is achieved3 @lomerulus An area of high blood pressure in a knot of capillaries which has a semi7permeable membrane allowing for the remo$al of small molecules and ions from the blood stream. Bo#mans Capsule A cup shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus that collects material forced out of the blood /ro%imal Convoluted :ube 7 The first substances reabsorbed by acti$e transport are glucose, sodium chloride, bicarbonate and potassium ions. 7 2ydrogen ions are pumped into the tubule at this point to help maintain blood p2. 7 'ater is also reabsorbed by passi$e transport. (sodium gradient) ;oop of "enle 'ater is reabsorbed into the blood through passi$e diffusion. %f the concentration of blood is $ery high then more water is reabsorbed. )istal Convoluted :ube 7 The end point for acti$e reabsorption. 7 Some sodium and potassium are reabsorbed here to ad6ust the p2 of the blood. 7 'ater will also pass out by passi$e diffusion. 7 The final filtrate is formed. Collecting )uct 7 #aterials remaining after reabsorption of wastes mo$e through this tubule. 7 #ore water is collected into the bloodstream. The waste in the tubule is urine which is passed into the pel$is of the kidney. 6. 5utline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and A)" 1anti<diuretic hormone3 in the regulation of #ater and salt levels in blood The kidneys play a ma6or role in maintaining water and salt le$els in the blood. They are aided by hormones produced by the body;s endocrine system. The two main hormones in$ol$ed in osmoregulation are Anti7diuretic hormone (A)2) and Aldosterone. Aldosterone: hormone produced by the adrenal corte( that regulates salt and water balance Anti<diuretic hormone 1A)"3: hormone produced by the hypothalamus that control reabsorption of water in the kidneys Aldosterone Anti<diuretic "ormone 7 A conse:uence of low water le$els is low blood pressure, as a result of lessened blood $olume. This change in blood pressure is detected by the receptors in the kidnies resulting in the release of Aldosterone 7 Aroduced by the adrenal glands located 6ust abo$e each kidney 7 Aldosterone acts to control the reabsorption of solutes, specifically sodium. The higher the le$el of aldosterone, the more permeable the walls of the nephrons are to sodium. So sodium ions and therefore water are absorbed back into the blood. 7 2ypothalamus has osmoreceptors that detect a rise in the concentrations of solutes in the blood (low concentration of water). 7 As a result A)2 is released into the blood stream by the pituitary gland 7 Tra$els in blood to distal tubule of kidney 7 %ncrease the permeability of distal and collecting tubule walls so that more water is reabsorbed 7 This resulted in an increase in the amount of water returned to the blood and a decrease in the amount of urine produced. 7. )efine enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations nantiostasis: maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to $ariations in the en$ironment !stuaries are areas where saltwater from the ocean mi(es with freshwater from one or more ri$ers. This results in fluctuating salt le$els caused by tidal mo$ements. 0rganisms that li$e in this habitat undergo enantiostasis. This means they employ $arious tactics to cope with changing salinity. 0rganisms that ha$e special physiological mechanisms that allow them to control salt le$els in their bodies are called osmoregulators. e.g crabs 0rganisms that can tolerate their body salt le$els mo$ing up and down in parallel with the le$el of the en$ironment are called osmocomformers. They conform to the e(ternal en$ironment. e.g. some species of algae Alant e(ample: *rey #angro$e (see point ,5) Animal e(ample: )ugong 7 )ugongs li$e in wide shallow bays and areas protected by large inshore islands such as Shark Eay in 'estern Australia. They are herbi$ores feeding on seagrass. )rinks seawater and acti$ely secrete minimal amounts of concentrated urine. 9. )escribe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising #ater loss 'ater loss generally occurs as a by7product of transpiration. %f a plant needs to reduce water loss it must close its stomata to do this. 2owe$er, the plant also needs to photosynthesise and respire, processes that need the stomata to be open for gas e(change. Adaptation /lant "o#' /hyllodes Acacia group eplaced lea$es with a modified leaf steams called phyllodes. They are green and able to photosynthesise life a leaf but contain fewer stomata per s:uare centimetre than normal lea$es. Therefore reduces transpiration and water loss for the plant. 0educe size of leaves Casuarina equisetifolia educes the amount of stomata present on the leaf;s surface and therefore reduces transpiration stream. .un-en stomates 'ollemi Aine Bea$es ha$e stomates that are set into or Ksunken; into the leaf. The stomates ha$e no direct contact with the sunlight so water e$aporation is reduced. "airy ;eaves Aaper )aisy Bea$es and sometimes stems are co$ered in hairs to reduce water loss. The hairs trap water that has e$aporated from the plant, increasing the humidity around this area. This humidity decreases the transpiration rate. ;eaf curl +la( Bilies 'ill curl their lea$es when temperatures get too high. #ost of their stomates are located on the upper side of their lea$es so when the lea$es roll up, the stomates are on the inside protected from heat and e$aporation. ;eaf shape >ati$e Aig +ace *rows on sand dunes so e(posed to sunlight practically all day. Bea$es are triangular in shape to reduce the surface area e(posed to sunlight and decreasing water loss. 1=. /erform a first<hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian -idney by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the e%cretion of #aste products 7777777777777777777777777777See <)issection of 4idney= Arac !(periment77777777777777777777777777 /0AC ?/0IM*: 9 11. @ather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis #ith the function of the -idney :reatment /eritoneal )ialysis "aemodialysis 8idney :ransplant "o# it #or-s Elood is purified inside the body using the peritoneum (the membrane that lines the abdominal ca$ity) as a natural filter )ialysis solution enters the abdominal ca$ity $ia catheter 'astes diffuse and e(cess water mo$es by osmosis from inside peritoneum membrane down the concentration gradient into the fluid The waste filled solution is then drained from the ca$ity and disposed of This process is performed twice in each session both morning and night. !ach e(change takes /5 mins Elood is remo$ed from patient;s artery Eefore passing through the dialyser an anticlotting factor, 2eparin is added to the blood Aasses through the dialyser 8 blood tra$els ne(t to and in the opposite direction to dialysate Separated by a cellulose acetate membrane that allows diffusion of wastes and e(cess water out of the blood down the concentration gradient 'ater bath 8 maintained at body temperature (@C o &) pre$ents shock and organ failure oller pump 8 maintains pressure +unctioning kidney from li$ingMbrain deadMrecently dead person is surgically implanted 0ther kidneys need not be remo$ed )onor must be an e(act match to decrease risk that the patient;s body with re6ect the foreign organ #ost dialysis patients are on the donor list in hope of a matching kidney e:uires in$asi$e surgery with general anaesthetic :reatment /eritoneal )ialysis "aemodialysis 8idney :ransplant Advantages Aersonal choice of treatment time %n$ol$ement in self care Bess se$ere cardio$ascular instabilities Bess diet and fluid restriction StaffMorganises treatment 0nly @ sessions a week egular contact with people in dialysis centre >o need for dialysis treatment Eetter :uality of life educed medical costs >o dietMfluid intake restrictions )isadvantages Aermanent catheter in abdomen 2igh risk of infection Aotential weight gain +our e(changes needed a day %nfle(ible treatment schedule Tra$el to dialysis centre Two needle sticks to e(tract blood as part of treatment &annot mo$e during treatment )ietMfluid intake restrictions >eed for fre:uent physician $isits Aain from surgery Bifelong medication to pre$ent re6ection Suppressed immune system 1!. /resent information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people #ho cannot secrete aldosterone The pituitary produces a hormone that influences the secretion of hormones from the adrenal corte(, including aldosterone. %f the adrenal corte( gland is affected by a disease (e.g. Addison;s disease) it can result in the gland producing insufficient le$els of all adrenal corte( hormones. This includes the hormone aldosterone. As a result people with insufficient le$els of adrenal corte( hormones re:uire multiple hormone replacement therapy. This includes a synthetic form of aldosterone which is called fludrocortisone. The replacement is needed because the aldosterone secreted from the adrenal gland carries out the $ital process of: 7 control of blood pressure and body fluid composition. 1$. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and e%plain the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and fresh#ater fish Isotonic: 'hen the two solutions ha$e the same concentration of solutes. There is therefore no net mo$ement of solutes by diffusion and no net mo$ement of water by osmosis "ypertonic: The name gi$en to the fluid which contains the greater amount of solutes. 'ater will flow into a hypertonic solution by osmosis "ypotonic: The name gi$en to the solution which contains the lesser amount of solutes. 'ater will flow out of this solution by osmosis. *itrogenous #aste product :o%icity .olubility in #ater :ypes of animals producing this #aste Ammonia 2igh 2igh +ish Crea #edium #edium Terrestrial mammals Cric acid Bow Bow %nsects, reptiles, birds 0reshwater 0ish $arine 1altwater2 0ish 7 &issues hypertonic to surroundings 7 (oncentration gradient results in a loss of salts and an uptake of water 7 0ish must counter these changes to maintain homeostasis 3! Does not drink 4! 5idney contains glomeruli and secretes copious amounts of very dilute urine that contains ammonia! &ubules actively reabsorb "a(l! 6! 7ill membranes permeable to water 8! 7ills actively absorb ions! ome ammonia leaves gills at the same time 7 &issues hypotonic to surroundings 7 (oncentration gradient results in a loss of water and an uptake of salts 7 0ish must counter these changes to maintain homeostasis 3! Drinks seawater 4! $inimal urine produced! 5idneys lack glomeruli! &ubules actively secrete $g9 8 6! 7ill membranes are relatively impermeable to water 8! 7ills actively secrete sodium from chloride cells: chloride ions follow! 0reshwater and saltwater -sh are both osmoregulators! &errestrial $ammal Desert &errestrial $ammal 7$ammals must produce urine to be able to excrete their nitrogenous waste; urea 79xidation of proteins results in 7 Produces very concentrated urine 7 Little water loss occurs as most is retained through urea% as well as carbon dioxide and water 7&his can cause water loss kidneys 1long loop of henle2 1(. Cse available evidence to e%plain the relationship bet#een the conservation of #ater and the production and e%cretion of concentrated nitrogenous #astes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals Tarrkawarra (Spinife( 2opping #ouse): Bi$es in desert and semi7desert regions of &entral and 'estern Australia #ain food is dry seeds. The amount of water these contain depends on the humidity of the air. This is greater at night than day. The mice are nocturnal so collect food at the most humid time so absorbs water. &omes out at night to a$oid heat of day Iery little water loss in urine #ice huddle together in burrows during hot days. The air surrounding the group increases in humidity and has the effect of reducing water loss from the skin and allows water to enter the mouse (instead of water loss to the en$ironment). The longer the loop of henle for the animal the greater water preser$ation (li$e in desert) 1+. /rocess and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments "alophytes: A plant that successfully inhibits areas of high salinity. Aossess $arious adaptations to assist them in sur$i$ing high salt le$el in their surroundings. #ost plants cannot tolerate salty condition in saline en$ironments the solute concentration in the soil is greater than it is inside the plant;s root and so water tends to mo$e out by osmosis. %n addition, an e(cess of sodium ions inside cells inhibits en"ymes acti$ity and can result in a decrease in the uptake of essential potassium ions. /lant /rocess of .alt 0egulation .alt marsh plant 1Sarcocornia quinqueflora) Salt collected in swollen leaf bases then are shed from the plant Atriple% 1saltbush3 Sodium ions are concentrated in salt glands within the leaf which e$entually e(pand and burst, releasing the e(cess salt. /almerDs @rass 1Distichlis palmeri3 Salt lea$es the plant through the cells on the leaf, builds up on the leaf surface and is ultimately washed away *orthfol- Island /ine !(posed to salty air and pre$ent salt from entering their lea$es by co$ering the stomates with a thin layer of cuticle @rey Mangrove 7 Salt is secreted in from the cells of the plant onto the lower surface of the leaf and into bark. The lea$es are then dropped and water dissol$es the salt off the bark. 7 The endodermis in the roots forms a barrier against the passage of most salt into the (ylem so the (ylem contains reasonable fresh desalinated water. 14. /erform a first<hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in the conservation of #ater 777777See <%n$estigating 'ater &onser$ing Structures in Alants= Arac !(periment7777777 /0AC ?/0IM*: 1=