II
F-
:s
./
fii
.,
I...l
A
A
,-
"
A , A. f'RI"'I,A,R( L,,. IHCO
Z . SHIr.LD
Steering the shield.
FIG. 14(b)
built inside the tail section,}' a small annular is
left above the lining where the soil would be
loose and may cause subsidence of the surface of the
overburden, by its settlement. As a precaution against
this, the annular space is pressure grouted with good
cement or rich cement mortar. During prQPulsion
the shield has a natural tendency to rotate, which
though helpful in excavation, may cause shifting of the
centre line.
Plenum process or compressed air method:
The essential principle of this method is the use of
compressed air and is very well suited for soft or water
bearing ground. The use of compressed air for
subaqueous work was first. thought of by a French
inventor M. Triger.
OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 25
The method consists in forcing air under suitable
pressure into an enclosed space like a tunnel heading,
to force back percolating water or water mixed soil
and thus stabilise the area of excavation.
Equipment: The following equipment IS
necessary for this method:
(i) Air lock and accessories.
(ii ) Bulkhead to fix the air lock.
(iii) Safety measures during emergency.
(iv) Air compressor.
1. Air lock: It is a long air tight cylindrical
steel chamber, with two doors, one at each end and
both opening inwards. These door openings are
provided with gaskets to keep them air tight when
closed. The lock is provided with necessary valves to
adjust the air pressure inside it to atmospheric or
tunnel working pressure. A 4" diameter bulls eye is
provided on the doors for inspection when the doors
are shut tight. Amenities like electric lights, and wooden
benches for seating the miners are also provided inside
the lock. The average size of such locks is 6' dia.
and 30' length. Fig. 15 shows a typical air lock fixed
to a bulkhead ready for use.
Air lock fixed in bulk-head.
FIG. 15
2. Bulkhead : It is the air tight diaphragm in
which the air lock is fixed. It divides the working face
TUNNEL ENGINEERING '
from the completed outside section of the tunnel. This
partition wall experiences very heavy pressure and
has to be designed and constructed strong enough to
resist it. It is generally constructed of thick concrete
or steel, and well keyed into the arch lining of the
tunnel as a protection against slipping. The lock is
fixed with the inner end flush with the bulkhead
face on the working side to avoid compression due
to compressed air pressure inside of the tunnel.
3. Blow line: It consists of a 4" dia. pressure
pipe running from the tunnel-heading to the outside.
It is provided with a valve near the inner end and is
normally used to exaust fouled air from the heading.
In case water collects on the floor of the working face
(due to insufficient air pressure), it could be collected
and blown out, by suitably placed well points connected
to the blow line (see fig. 16).
Well-point blow line arrangement.
FIG. 16
4. Air compressors: They are usually situated
outside the tunnel and are connected to the locks by
proper pipes, control arrangements and pressure indi-
cators. A pressure of about 15 Ib.Jsq". to 20 -lb. Jsq".
may have to be maintained during working periods.
Man locks and material locks: In large
diameter t unnels, separate locks are provided on the
same bulkhead, one to convey the excavated muck
called material lock and the other exclusively for the
passage of labourers, called man lock. The former
should be capable of accommodating trucks and
OTIlER METIIODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 27
locos running on track, to assist transport of material
and removal of excavated material from the heading.
The latter is generally made large enough to hold the
passage of one full shift labour in or out of the working
face to conserve the use of compressed air.
Duration of work in compressed air for
labourers: (a) For pressures upto 18 lb./sq". the
working period could be about 8 hours with at least
an hour in free air.
(b) For pressures from 20 lb./sq". to about
30 Ib. /sq". the working period is reduced to 4 hours
with at least 2 hours in free air.
Precautions to be observed are:
(i) The regulation working period based on
the compressed air pressure should never be ex-
ceeded.
(ii ) Decompression back to normal air pressure
should be gradual.
(iii) Suitable refreshments and sufficient rest are
essential to recoup the miner after work.
Compressed air pressure: Theoretically
043Ibs./sq". air pressure is required to support 1 ft.
head of water. In porous soils, there will be
resistance of soil particles to the flow of water,
thus tending to reduce the supporting air pressure,
to an extent of 15% to 25%. But if an impervious
soil overlies a porous soil, it will prevent escape of
air coming through the porous soil and tends to build
a reverse pressure adding to the hydrostatic head.
Under such circumstances the soil surrounding the
tunnel section has to be drained by well points con-
nected to the blow line, in order to reduce the hydro-
static pressure.
28 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
In large tunnels, it could be observed (fig. 17)
that if P pressure at the tunnel axis and the air
pressure in;the tunnel is made equal to it, then there
A
I I
P3
f_.,
I
1
1
I-!:_'
I P. l
,--
p
I p
I P+l
1- --
I P+z
p
1----
L _
P+3
Pressure distributi on diagram
(showing inadequate pressure on tunnel floor and
excess air pressure on the roof.)
FIG. 17
will be an excess of air pressure over the hydrostatic
head at the crown equal to P- P
a
and an equivalent
insufficiency of air pressure at the floor. A numerical
. example win make it clear. Consider the diameter
of the tunnel to be 20 ft. and the over burden. at the
crown to be 60 ft., equivalent hydrostatic head. Then
the supporting pressure actually required for this
will be 60 X 43 or 258 lbs.Jsq". Next c'onsider
the tunnel axis, where the head will be 70 ft. and air
pressure required will be 301 lb.Jsq".; similarly the
air pressure required at the floor will be 344 lb. Jsq".
Thus, if the supporting air pressure is made equal
to the pressure at the axis, the crown will have an
excess pressure over the hydrostatic head, causing
loss of air, due to the unbalanced pressure of 43
OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS 29
lb.fsq". and due to a similar excess of the hydrostatic
head or the air pressure at the floor, there will be an
inflow into the tunnel under a head of 1 0 ft. The
main objective is to conserve the air pressure and
generally enough air pressure to support at the crown
is us.ed, while the percolation, due to the unbalanced
pressure is dealt with by well points and other means.
C HA P T E R IV
COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS
1. Clay: This is an ideal soil for tunneling
by compressed air methods. As the tunnel work
proceeds the lining work should follow in its wake to
minimise the effect of subsidence. For a tunnel
driven at a depth of h ft. below surface level, the crown
pressure will be wh lb./sq. ft. if w is the wt. of the
overburden clay per c.ft. To support this we would
. wh Ib / " . d h I
reqUIre T 44 . sq . aIr pressure IllS I e t e tunne.
But owing to the natural arch of the soil which aids
in supporting and with judicious use of liner plates
the air pressure required may be got reduced to 75 %
of the theoretical pressure. No timbering need be
used (fig. 18).
Compressed air in clay.
FIG. 18
2. Gravel: The worst soil for tunneling by
this method is gravel, as it is very porous and permits
escape of air, and makes it difficult to sustain suffi-
cient working pressure inside the tunnel. _ Good
clay is used fo1' plugging the leaks and liner plates
are used for the face and roof.
3. Sand: Sand is a very pervious material,
but if the grains are small has some cohesion. The
compressed air penetrates a short distance into the
mass, when a point of equilibrium is reached, where
a surface called bulb of support is formed. Breast
COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS 31
boards are used for the face work and liner plates in
conjunction for the crown and floor, while concreting
follows as a permanent lining (fig. 19. )
Compressed air in saturated sand.
FIG. 19
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING
Volume of air required: The actual
volume of air required depends on the quality of
the soil to retain air. A common rule is to
provide 20 c.ft. free air per minute per sq. foot
of face area. This presupposes a perfectly air tight
lining, with joints properly plugged with clay. Air
compressors with a capacity of 40,000 c.ft. free air
per minute at a max. of 50 lbs. per sq. inch pressure
are usually specified for tunnels of ordinary size.
Airholding: Air escapes through porous soils
taking the line of least resistance. One of the best
methods to conserve air is to do the concrete lining
close to the heading. A coat of neat cement wash
applied to the concrete, stops air leaks through the
pores of the fresh concrete lining.
Blows: This is one of the worst dangers that
could happen and occurs when the air creates a direct
escape to the surface. This will cause an instantane-
ous pressure drop within the tunnel, and the whole
atmosphere becomes fogged. This danger is gene-
rally fought both from within and without. In I
subaqueous work, large loads of clay, kept ready in
scows for such emergencies are dumped on the river
32 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
bed forming a blanket, about 150 ft. wide and 10 ft.
to 12 ft. thick, over the affected area and some distance
ahead of it. Within the tunnel, ev.ery effort should
be made to concentrate on maintaining full air supply
by directing all supply into the tunnel. The escapes
should then be methodically tackled and plugged
which of course is a very hard and laborious job.
Fire hazard: The excess oxygen in compressed
air greatly increases this danger, which becomes very
difficult to control, once it starts. Inflamable materi-
als going into the tunnel should be a minimum, and
smoking should be strictly prohibited. 'Velding
operations should be well controlled. Proper fire
fighting apparatus should be installed and in sufficient
numbers to meet bad fires.
Pre draining tunnel ground: As air pressure
in the ground region will generally be inadequate to
completely stop ground percolation, drainage of the
ground area by a system of well points will consid-
erably reduce this trouble, if not completely eliminate
it. In compressed air tunneling the well points can
conveniently be connected to the blow line (fig. 16).
This method affords good drainage in porous ground
like gravel and also helps to lower the subsoil water
table in the surrounding area.
Working conditions for labour: The period
of work in compressed air is regulated by law. The
duration of work under different pressures is indi-
cated under the chapter dealing with compressed air
tunneling. The decompressing rate is also . an im-
portant factor and varies with the working pressures.
Safe decompression rates are as follows:
For 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. 2 lbs. per minute.
20 Ibs. to 30 lbs. 15 1bs. per minute.
Men having a cold should not be allowed to work
as they are liable to become afflicted by "blocking"
which causes severe pains.
CHAPTER V
TUNNELING IN ROCK
..,.,General: Tunneling in rock is mostly an opera-
tion that has to be carried out at considerable depth
below the natural ground surface, the work being carri-
ed out in hilly tracts. The economics of such a means
of communication is obvious as it greatly reduces
costly rock cutting and reduces distances. Such
tunnels have been constructed with advantage for
carrying railway, water, highway and for diversion
of water from one valley to another across the inter-
vening ridge. Compared to soft soil tunneling, the
operation is very costly and it is imperative that great
care has to be exercised in accurately carrying out the
work. Even the slightest deviation will entail enor-
mous waste of money. Also any over cutting will
entail great expenditure in re-sectioning .
. Rock is a material which is self supporting and
does not require much timbering or other types of
supports of a cumbersome nature, except occasionally
in regions where loose rock is met with. Thus, it
admits of operations in many sections along the
length of the tunnel, which greatly helps to expedite
the work.
/Faces of operation: These faces of operation
or attack are opened up by:
(1) A system of vertical shafts.
(2) A system of pilot tunneling.
A. B. C. D. are additional faces of' attack.
Faces of attack.
FIG. 20
_., (1) System. of vertical shafts:
line at suitable points shafts are sunk
On the tunnel
(see fig. 20).
34
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
It could be seen that if n is the number of shafts that
are possible 2n plus 2 faces of attack are available.
/(2) System. of pilot tunnels: Sometimes it
may be found that a lateral or horizontal approach
to the tunnel line may be closer and shorter com-
pared to the deep vertical shafts (fig. 21 ). In such
circumstances a tunnel of small size called a pilot
Pilot tunnel method.
FIG. 21
tunnel is driven parallel and close to the proposed
main tunnel, and short cross connecting tunnels are ./
driven from it to reach the proposed main tunnel
to create operational faces (fig. 21 ).
Methods of tunneling in rock:
/ The popular methods are:
( 1 ) Drift method.
(2) Heading and bench method. '
(3) Full face method .
.fi. Drift m.ethod: It consists in driving a small
sized heading, centrally at top or bottom of the face,
which is later enlarged, by widening and benching.
The top drift method is popular and the main opera-
tions involved are:
(a) Boring or blasting a top centre heading or
drift, end to ' end.
(b) Widening and enlarging the drift.
( c) Benching in stages.
TUNNELING IN ROCK
The sequence IS illustrated in fig. 22.
t-
7
'-f
TOP He.AO''':'''1].T
" 2 1 2'0 \
I 1 \
. ' j
, ,
: I
I 3 I
I '
I I
I_ - - - - - - - - - - __ -'
CRoss SECTION
Drift method.
FIG. 22
35
Briefly described, a drift of 7' X 7' min.) size <2E-
sufficient to accommo ate the tunne mg mac mery
abour, and mucking equipment is first driven end to
of the tunnel. As_ the heading work proceeds, the
_entre line is checked and on iron
ci9gs fixed to- the roof. Once the drift is accurately
r -l
,
,
,r
,
..I
_L ____ _ _______ ____ _
LONGI TUDINAL SECTION
Benching,
FIG. 23
tunneled out, the widening o_Eeration is commenced
bv blasting tlie SI es 0 t e' art t to the required
This com letes the tQP heading. The
benchin IS carried out in $tages (fig. 23) and lowered
down to grade in a series of ana horizontal
cuts. The disadvantage of this method lies in the
36
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
fact that as the enlarging and benching work com-
mences, mucking tracks have to be shifted fre uently
from bench to bench. But the advan ages are tHat
elaborate supporting platforms are not necessary for
drilling operations, and during heading work, muck-
ing work goes on undisturbed. The main feature I
of this method is that a small preliminary section
for the full length has been accurately driven, which
will cOJ?siderably economise the excavation work .
../' 2. Heading and bench tnethod: This
method involves, the driving of the top portion in
advance of the bottom portion as illustrated in fig. 24.
CRoss SfS110N 5ECTIO.K
Heading and Bench method of tunneling.
FIG. 24
If the rock is hard and self supporting the top heading
advances ahead, by one round over the bottom, so
\
that heading and benching follow each other. But
in case the rock is badly broken, the top heading will
need support, and the bench will afford the platform
\
for this. In this method also, the advantages and
disadvantages are similar to the Drift method.
_/' 3. Full face tnethod: This method is con-
veniently adopted for tunnels of small cross sectional
area. The full face is opened out once for all and
driven. Tunnels upto 10ft. dia. could be conveniently
handled by i etliod. As the full section has to
be tackled, extra units of tunneling equipment will
become necessary, but the method has the advantage
of expeditious completion. Also mucking tracks
could be laid once for all on the tunnel floor and pro-
gressively extended.
TUNNEUNO IN ROOK
37
/Mucking: uckin means of the
debris from !he tunnel jnt r' a_gooQ_
distance outside the tunnel ent nee n all ig
tunnel constructions this is to be reckoned as a
item of expenditure ,an ex_peditious and efficient _
remova of muck, considerably minimises the working
Tippmg waggons run on temporary tracks,
carry the blasted material from or near the 'working
face', to the entrance through the formed tunnel.
Loading and unloading these waggons are carried
out by mannual labour. Self tipping waggons, in
conjunction with modern muck handling machinery
like power shovels are also employed in recent practice.
Other aspects.
1. Drilling: Preliminary to
firing the blast for rock excavation,
of blast holes have to be drilled.
depends the yield.
charging and
effective pattern
On this pattern
A drill hole l!_ormal to face will break out gap
inclined a_t to the face (fig. 25). Two adjacent
holes fired simultaneously remove sections A and B.
.& __
Theory of blasting and breaking,
FlO. 25
In order to achieve satisfactory results it is
important to create an opening by a concentrated
blast over a small section and break the surrounding
area in sequence. Such holes which initiate the
process are called 'cut holes'. A good blast with
38
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
a good yield results by a cut hole inclined at 45
0
to
the face. A pair of such holes act as if actually
grabbing the material in between and pulling
it out. In short the cut holes start the break and
the burden is gradually loosened and breaks up with
the help of other holes, called "easers" and "lifters".
In positioning the holes another important factor to
be borne in mind is that if a charge is placed equi-
distant from two faces at right angles, it will break
out 225 times as much as on a single face. If
three faces are involved the yield will be 3t times
that on one face. The foregoing factors are very
important in devising the pattern for the drill holes.
Two important patterns, based on these facts are
indicated here.
Drill-hole patterns:
(1) Pyramidal cut pattern.
(2) Centre cut pattern.
I. Pyramidal cut: It is shown in fig. 26. The
cut holes (i ) are inclined inwards from the face
roughly forming the side edges of a pyramid. These
are closely assisted immediately by the or
relievers, (ii) spaced between. Further from these
60TrOM RIM HOLt
Pyramidal cut method.
FIG. 26
are the "lifi rs" at the bottom and back holes at top,
(iii) both of which are called - On the
TUNNELINO IN ROOK
39
sides the "side holes", (iv) assist the break. The se-
quence of firing is denoted by these numbers, the
interval being a few seconds.
2. Centre cut 'V'-type cut pattern: In
this pattern the cut holes are a series of parallel holes
horizontally drilled and slightly inclined (fig. 27).
0 0 0
3
;l.
t
0
I
40 2. a:.":)
eDt.
Q4
01 t 0
.t. 0::"" c::D 2.-
01
1
0
40 a:::> <": :1> 04
0
Z
3
3
0
0 0
Centre Cut method.
FIG. 27
The other holes are placed as in the pyramidal pattern
to assist in the break.
Depth of bore holes: With the present day
high speed drills, 8' to 10' depth of bore holes is quite
common. Coupled with high explosives this gives
a very good yield.
Precaution in locating drill holes: Drill
holes should not cut through faults or seams in the
rock, as this will cause the gases of explosion to escape
along the least line of resistance viz., through these
joints and cause no breakage of the rock.
Types of drills and their use: The standard
types of 'rock drills are:
(1) The drifter
(2) The jack hammer.
They operate on compressed air at a pressure
of about 60 lb. per sq. inch to 80 lb/sq". The drilling
speed is about 1 ft. per minute. The drill bits, have
cutting edges of tungsten carbide steel, a very hard
metal. '
40
TUNNEL ENGINEE1UNO
Support for drills: As these drills are very
heavy and very fast, they need rigid and strong supports,
on which they are mounted and directed. These
columns are fabricated out of telescopic steel tubing
3" to 4t" in diameter and are called 'jumbos' (fig 28).
Use of Jumbos for mounting drills.
FIG. 28
They are fixed in, the tunnel horizontally or vertically
. like tunnel braces and the drills are mounted on them
and worked in any direction conveniently.
The drills are also equipped with devices to work
'dry' or 'wet'. In the wet type water is passed through
the drill to the drill hole, to minimise dust nuisance.
The compressed air used to work the drills helps to
ventilate the tunnel working face as it passes out of
the drill. Compressors used should be capable of
maintaintng an air pressure of 100 IbsJsq". constantly.
Explosives: odem practice 'eli nite' is
the ex losive popularly used. As a measure of safety
electnc blasting is done1_-using caps'
for the cut holes and'CIe a caps' for_Qther_holes. The
avera e ield of blasted- roc per pound of ,explosive
'is 100 c. t. .
- Safety precautions in rock tunneling:
flunneling being an underground operation, is a hazar-
dous one and measures to protect the workers against
accidents, sometime fatal, are essential. In rock
tunnels, blasting leaves loose or shattered rocks not
completely detached. This causes rock falls, during
drilling on account of vibration.
TUNNELING IN ROCK 41
In soft soils, huge earth slides take place without
warning, trapping the workmen. Fire inside the
tunnel is another serious hazard. The principal
measures to increase safety are:
(I ) Removal of rock protrusions by hammering
immediately in the wake of blasting, known as 'scaling'.
The hammer stroke should sound hard and not hollow;
Hollow sound indicates loose rock.
(2) Isolated big blocks, loosened, but tempo-
rarily perched should be promptly propped up, and
afterwards safely cleared.
(3) If soft strata is traversed, the roof should
be supported in the wake of the excavation.
(4) Open flames, electrical short circuiting etc.
should be scrupulously avoided inside the tunnel.
(5) Good first aid equipment should be near
at hand and excellent fire fighting equipment with
adequate water supply if possible should also be made
readily available.
./
CHAPTER VI
SHAFTS
/ Shafts are vertical tunnels, reaching from the
ground surface down to the tunnel roof. They afford
manifold advantages and uses in constructing tunnels.
When the position and course of the tunnel are correctly
aligned and accordingly set out on the surface, shafts
are sunk at suitable points on this tunnel line to aid
tunneling operations.
Advantages of shafts:
(l ) They greatly expedite the work by adding
two faces per shaft for driving.
(2) They afford outlets for excavated material
and means of access into the tunnel for building
materials.
(3) They could be used as pumping shafts in
case of large influx of water.
(4) They help correct alignment and help carry
the centre line into the tunnel proper.
(5) In long tunnels they afford ventilation and
are useful for exhausting smoke and foul air out of the
tunnel.
Shafts in rock: The operation consists of
(i) drilling and blasting and (ii) mucking. Themethod
of excavation conforms to that of tunneling in hard
rock.
1. DrilliDg: The centre cut or pyramidal cut
pattern of drill holes is adopted. In the case of large
shafts stepping is resorted to, to facilitate mucking
and drilling to go on simultaneously. Fig. 29 indicates
these details.
2. Mucking: Generally done by hand and
loaded into buckets and lifted up. A simple method
SHAFTS
43
is shown in fig. 30. Twin buckets could be used so
that as one rises the other descends. The explosive
,
,
.>------
Stepping in shafts.
FlO. 29
charge should be so controlled that the blasted pieces
weigh between 20 lb. and 200 Ibs. for easy handling.
Hoisting muck from shaft.
FIG. 30
Timbering: Though there is generally no
horizontal pressure exerted, in rock shafts, timbering is
found necessary, to carry guides for the cages and
support lagging. Lagging is used to prevent small
pieces of rock breaking loose and falling on and
injuring workmen.
'sets' are frames made of two side plates
and a pair of end plates. This is divided into two
compartments, for a ladder way and a hoist way (see
fig. 31). The sets are spaced at 5 ft. centres and each
'set is hung from the one above by means of 'hanging
bolts'. The sets are made about 4" less alround and
fixed to the sides by blocks and wedges.
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
Pumping: Shafts are usually wet. The wet seams
are sealed off by cement grouting. When pumping
has to be resorted to, "sinking pump" is used, slung
from the lowest timber set. The pump should be
dIsconnected and hoisted up before commencing
blasting.
PLAN
,"
11 m mel 11
Iii ,
II ,I
T,
I'
'i
,
,.
I
1
. I,
,
I:.:
SECTION
Timbering for shafts in rock.
FIG. 31
Raising: If the rock is of a good variety, shafts
are also "raised" from the tunnel heading, instead of
being sunk from above. This has the advantage that
the blasted muck drops into the tunnel and pumping
will not be necessary. Both these make this method
cheaper. The initial size of shaft that is raised is not
SHAFTS 45
more than about 5 ft. diameter. This is subsequently
enlarged.
Shaft sinking in soft ground: The shafts
are not usually very deep, except when driven for
foundations. Broadly these could be divided into
(i) shallow shafts and (ii ) deep shafts.
(i) Shallow shaft: Method of sinking (fig. 32) :
An open excavation to a suitable depth is first made
\
, 11111111 ,'lijIIlRI
",riot<
'''CO (,.
ING - -
I
,,--
I
I
Shallow shafts in soft soil.
FIG. 32
at the site. In this excavation are placed two "timber
sets" at proper interval and braced with a diagonal
piece of timber.
The sheeting consisting of Ii" to 3" thick board
is placed around the sets and kept in position by the
back filling.
The sheets are driven into the ground and
simultaneously digging below the sheets, is carried
oqt, taking care to see that the sheets are kept vertical.
After this first set of sheeting is fully driven, the
frames are properly strutted and wedged.
A slight benching or margin is given and the
second stage of excavation is commenced and com-
pleted similarly.
46 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
As sheets are driven, the timber sets should be
located and fixed at predesigned depths to withstand
the side pressures.
(ii) Deep shafts: Where the depth is great a
modified system of vertical forepolling is resorted to.
Short poling sheets of 5' to 6' are used and driven
flaring out from timber sets and keeping the sheets in
position by double wedges. The arrangement of
sheeting and sets is illustrated in fig. 33.
Deep shaft in soft soil.
FlO. 33
Design of shaft supports: I t is based' on the
horizontal pressure at several depths. This IS gIven
by the formula,
H = K.W.D.
where
H is the horizontal pressure in lbsJsq. ft.
W is the weight of soil in pounds per cubic ft. and
D is the depth in feet below the surface. K is a
constant depending on the type of soil. The value
of K for different soils is given in the table below:
47
Soil Value of K
----------- ---- ----
Damp clay.
Moist sand and gravel.
Wet sand.
Coarse gravel.
Water.
16
22
34
60
1
For deep foundation work, caissons or wells
have to he sunk in situ.
Precautions in shaft sinking work in soft soils:
1. Avoid general movement of earth behind the
. sheeting by keeping sheets tightly against the surface
of the soil.
2. Deflection of sheets should be prevented as
this will tend to cavity formation behind the sheets.
3. Top set near the ground surface should be
strongly strutted and of heavy section, (though
theoretically, such strength is not required) to
withstand, considerable amount of surcharge due to
live loads, like cranes, material heaps and machinery
usually placed at the month of the shaft.
Protection round the shaft opening: I t is
usual to construct a 3' high wall round the edge of
the shaft opening, to form a protective fencing. This
also prevents the surface water flowing down the shaft.
CHAPTER VII
LINING
,
The objects of providing a tunnel with permanent
II mg are manifold.
( ] )
(2)
I t gives correct section to the tunnel.
It withstands soil pressure when driven 111
soft soils.
(3) It reduces losses in friction and erosive action,
and ensures stream line motion, when the
tunnel has to carry water by providing a
smooth passage at good velocity, free from
turbulance.
(4) J.t forms a good protective covering to
certain types of rocks prone to air slaking.
(5) It keeps the inside of the tunnel free from
water percolation.
(6) It supports large slabs of rock which might
have become loosened during blasting.
Materials for lining,'
./' Masonry: Brick masonry was the standard
material for tunnel lining, but is now rapidly going
out of use, except in the case of underground sewers,
as bricks are more acid resisting and suitable 'to carry
sewage.\ A great disadvantage in using brick lining is
the difficulty in back packing the space between the
tunnel roof and the extrodas of the arch which at
best has to be hand packed and is imperfect. At a later
stage this may cause uneven pressures on the arch
lining. The packing material employed is usually spalls,
sand and brick bats, well rammed. On account of so
many indeterminate factors in design, a very heavy
section may be necessary the construction of which
becomes cumbersome and costly.
TUNNEL LINING 49
..../'" Stone masonry: It has more or less the same
disadvantages as brick lining and in addition is very
heavy necessitating very strong centres. But is still
used for lining the sides.
Cement concrete has become the standard
material for tunnel lining in both rock and soft soils.
Its main advantage lies in its plasticity which allows
it to be well packed between the form and the soi l.
The waterproof qualities of cement concrete, makes
for a first class watertight lining. It could be used to
form an unbroken ring right round, forming a shell.
If unusual soil pressures have to be reckoned with,
the thickness could be controlled and reinforced,
suitably.
,_,/' Timber: IS one of the oldest lining materials
l' ough of late, it is slowly yielding place to concrete.
It is used both as a temporary support during construc-
tion and as a permanent support later.
Modern practice is to use either timber for semi-
permanent lining and cement concrete as a standard
practice. An attempt will be made to describe these
two types of linings in detail. Masonry linings more
or less follow the same modus operandi as concrete,
like erection of centring, construction of the arch,
easing of centres etc., except that the material is
different.
Design of thickness of lining: Stresses in
tunnel lining primarily originate in earth pressure.
The laws of action of earth pressures at least are only
approximate and involve indeterminate factors. The
designer is therefore well advised to primarily depend
on judgement and precedent, guided by theoretical
analysis, which may indicate the nature of the stresses.
The empirical formula commonly applied to
obtain a working section is
50
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
T = 1)
where T = Thickness of lining in inches
and D = Diameter of tunnel in feet.
But this thickness is restricted to a mInImUm of
9", irrespective of the material used for lining.
Good hard rock is of course self supporting and
needs a nominal lining if properly scaled.
Firm soil is usually considered to exert only a
downward pressure on the arched roof and though
the sides are lined no great consideration is attached
to the side or horizontal pressures in designing. As
a long tunnel generally passes through varied geological
strata, no hard and fast rule could be prescribed. The
nature and geological structure of the soil met with
should be the primary guide in designing the lining
and method of its construction. General practices of
providing linings are indicated in (fig. 34).
General lining practice.
FIG. 34
(a) In firm soil only a roof arch is provided,
resting on benches cut in firm rock at the
sides.
(b) If rock is less solid, side walls of" masonry
are also added.
(c) In soft or treacherous soil an invert is added
in addition, to protect the side walls from
moving in as also to resist the upward
pressure of the soil.
J. TiIDber lining: The lining consists of a regular
timber arch, formed of straight segments connected
TUNNEL LINING
51
together, and approximating to the intended curvature.
At the springing the segments are carried on wal
plates of heavy timber, and supporting posts. The
segments are arranged in three, five or seven piece
sets and are spaced about .1 feet centre to centre longi-
tudinally. A timber toggle is used between adjacent
sets as a lateral spacer. The whole arrangement is shown
in fig. 35.
DETAIL .
Typical arch set of five piccrs.
FIG. 35
'arts of timber lining: _
(i) Segments: They should not be too long, as it
is safer to carry the roof load under arch action rather
than beam action.
(ii) Wall plate: It supports the arch rib at the
springing line and is the weak link in the lining system
as it has to be bear compressive load across the grains,
the safe load not exceeding about 300 Ibs. per sq. inch.
52 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
/ '(iii) Posts: They arc usually set vertical under the
Wall plates one under each arch rib. Their tops are
connected to the wall plate by dowels and at the foot
they arc supported on double wedges on blocks .
../ (iv) Collar braces: These are introduced at
each joint of the arch segment, in the form of toggles
to prevent the segment twisting out of line. The posts
are also provided with horizontal braces, generally in
the centre. The sizes of these braces should not be
less than 4"x6" .
/ (v) Laggings: These are of 3" to 4" thick
planking laid on top of segments. They should be
placed close, to retain the fill .
.../ Packing: As soon as the timber arch is erected,
it is 'blocked' from the roof by using wooden blocks
for the purpose. Then the wedges at the foot of posts
are driven tight. Dry packing with muck, or lean
cemen t concrete ( 1 : 3 : 6) shot in to the space, fills
the gap between lagging and the roof. If concrete is
used, it should be of a stiff consistency.
This type of lining, lasts for about 10 to 15 years,
especially if the tunnel atmosphere has constant
humidity. It is customary to make a thorough inspec-
tion of this construction at least once in six months to
see if the timber has started to decay in any place.
Timber arch is a serious fire hazard and fire fighting
measures become an obligatory equipment ' in such
tunnels. A good principle would be to gradually replace
the timber lining by concrete, as the timber .starts to
decay. Miners, mostly prefer timber lining temporarily
or permanently, on account of the warning the timber
gives by 'groaning' when subjected to unforseen forces,
tending to cause collapse.
Concrete lining:
Work: Concrete lining is done using proper
form-work. The form should show the true outline
TUN:-IEL LINING
53
of the finished tunnel section .. s tunnel lining work
is divided into three operations corresponding forms
or moulds are used. Thus:
(11 Ground mould is used for Ooor lining or
invert concreting (fig. 36).
Ground mould.
FIG. 36
(2) Leading frame is th name applied to
the side wall form (fig. 37).
1
/' / f
I TOPlEVEL 0
,
Leading frame.
FIG. 37
(3) Trusses are used as centres for the roof
arch (fig. 38).
1. Ground :mould: It consists of wooden frame
or pattern exactly the form and dimension of the cross-
section of the floor lining. The frame is made out of
3" thick plank to fit the floor curvature correctly.
The mould is made in two halves joined together during
54 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
use by a splice plate. This helps handling the mould
in a restricted space like the tunnel interior.
LAGGING
Types of centres.
FIG. 38
Two moulds are used at a convenient distance
apart and chords are stretched across from one to
the other to give the true profile of floor surface and
to which the concrete is laid. The moulds are placed
exactly at right angles 10 the tunnel axis, the level
and positions properly checked by a transit. Some-
times only one mould may be enough in the forward
position, the finished lining furnishing the back mould.
2. Leading frame: It is made of planks of good
thickness one edge cut to the curve of the side excava-
tion and the other edge to conform to the inper face
of the finished side wall. The frames are set with the
lower end resting on the finished invert or a quoin
provided for the purpose. The top of the frames after
alignment is correctly checked with a spirit level and
adjusted horizontally.
Short heights of the wall section are blocked and
over the sides and brought up to the
sprmgmg.
3. Centres: These are constructed similar to
the form work used for arches but are so designed as
TUNNEL LINING
55
to leave sufficient head room in the centre for con-
venience of working (fig. 38). Centres may have to
support roof pressures also in addition to the weight
of the lining and are therefore constructed very
systematically, and properly trussed. Any standard
method of easing these centres, could be employed,
the more popular one being the use of double wedges.
The curing period for the arch should never be less
than 7 days to 10 days, and easing should never take
place before this period.
Steel forms and their use:
Two principal types will be explained, VIZ.,
(i) Separate side wall and arch forms.
(ii) Telescoping forms.
(i) Separate side wall and arch forms:
This is a standard arrangement of tunnel forms for
large tunnels. In this method the invert is first laid
(fig. 39). On this is laid a track for carrying form
Use of separate side wall and archform system.
FIG. 39(a)
units for the sides and the arch, one following the
other. Side wall concreting is shown in fig. 39(a) when
from a platform (to which concrete is hoisted by a
ramp) concrete is poured down into the side forms.
As this form unit is moved forward, it is followed by
56 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
the arch form unit shown in fig. 39 (b). The arch forms
are filled by concrete placers. The form unit in this
method are of the non-telescopic type.
FIG. 39(b)
(ii) Telescoping forms: The roam ribs are
made up of sections hinged together, so that a back
unit could be collapsed and moved forward under
form units erected and in use, without disturbing,
concreting. This type is very suitable for tunnels upto
20 ft. to 25 ft. diameter. As the tunnel size increases
TELE.5COPING S TE.EL FORM .
Telescoping steel form. FIG. 40
the hinged sections become too heavy for handling,
and erecting. The traveller carries jacks for erecting
and collapsing the rib sections. Fig. 40 illustrates the
use of this type of form.
TUNNEL LINING
57
Placing concrete: For small tunnels 4 ft. to
10 ft. in diameter hand placing is quite satisfactory.
The laggings are arranged wais.t high and the sides
are concreted first. Then gradually the concrete is
lifted for the regions near the crown. The gap in the
crown section is concreted in the longitudinal direction
or by pressure method. To assist in this, temporarily
a detachable key plate is inserted at the crown, of
sufficient size, with a knock out block at the bottom
(fig. 41 ).
Hand placing in small tunnels.
FIG. 41
For bigger jobs the modern practice is to place
concrete by the help of pneumatic concrete placers
which force concrete through a pipe into the space
above the centering. The discharge pipe leads to the
far end of the crown, feeding the concrete,
over the crown; the concrete slides down the sides
C' TR I!;S
SET
Placing concrete by a gun.
FIG. 42
of the form. The pipe is gradually withdrawn as
concreting proceeds. The near end is blocked by a bulk
58 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
head of steel, through which. the pipe IS passed.
Fig. 42 clearly indicates the process.
Curing concrete: Generally if the humidity
inside the tunnel provides enough moisture for this
purpose, no further curing may be needed. Otherwise
perforated pipes are fixed to the tunnel roof, through
which water under pressure is sprayed on to the con
crete. If water is not easily procurable in the vicinity
owing to arid conditions, the best method is to spray
paint the concrete surface with bituminous paints or
other ready made asphaltic compounds immediately
on stripping.
ON THE SEQUENCE OF LINING A TUNNEL:
The sequence of placing the , lining around
depends on various factors . The more popular methods
are:
( I )
/'
(2)
/
(3)
/'
Placing the entire lining in one opera-
tion: This method is conveniently adop-
ted in the case of small circular tunnels,
in which concreting is done in short lengths.
Placing the invert first, and the rest of the
lining next: This method provides a rigid
base on which the formwork for the sides
and roof could be supported. A good
procedure would be to commence concret-
ing the invert from the most interior section
towards the portal; this will save the newly
laid concrete from being used as a hauling
floor before it sets.
Placing the invert first, the sides next and
finally the roof: This is especially suitable
for large tunnel sections, where it may be
advisable to separately pour the three
sections as a matter of constructional con-
venience. This is the most convenient
method and is very popular.
C 11 APT E R VIII
DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS
In tunnel driving, water comes from two sources;
wash water, used for washing drill holes and ground
water, from the ground through which the tunnel is
driven. Controlling this water consists in preventing
excessive quantities from hindering work and remov-
ing all the water by suitable means, out of the tunnel.
An exploding charge may open up a ground water
source, unexpectedly admitting a very large quantity
of water into the tunnel.
Pre-drainage: Where seepage is small and
comes down from the tunnel roof, it is made to flow
over a temporary pitched roof of corrugated sheets
on to longitudinal side drains and so led out (see
fig. 43) .
ORRUGATED
Corrugated sheet to drain roof seepage.
FIG. 43
Ground water is subject to great variation and
it would be advisable to drill exploratory holes ahead
of and deeper than the face to be removed, to investi-
gate whether the ground is badly broken up and
estimate the quantity of the ground water ahead.
If this exploration successfully indicates the existence
of ground water, it may be possible to grout off heavy
60
TUNNEL ENGINEERfNG
discharges and stabilise the formation before tunnel-
ing ,approaches this difficult zone.
Removal of water: The quantity of water
that accumulates is collected in sump wells and
pumped out of the tunnel. When the tunuel is long
it may be necessary to have more than one sump well,
so that from the face, the water could be pumped
into sumps of increasing capacities by a system of
"gathering pumps" and ultimately pumped out of
a sump well located near the portal. The sump
wells also help in the settlement of solid materials.
Any type of centrifugal pump could be used,
and stand by pumps may have to be provided to
cope up with unexpectedly large inflows. In design-
ing the pipe line, only, frictional force has to be pro-
vided for. But in the system of gathering pumps,
long delivery lengths are split to suitable or economic
lengths to accommodate normal sizes of pipes. Steel
pipes of diameter varying from 3" to 6" ar.:: generally
used, without sacrificing, floor working space.
Permanent drainage: The completed tunnel
section has to have some kind of permanent drainage
arrangement. A very simple method of drainage is
to construct drainage ditches (fig. 44) longitudinally,
- .
Central drainage duct.
FIG. 44
sloping towards the portals or shafts, from where
they could be pumped out of the tunnel by suitable
pumps.
CHAPTER IX
TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST
PREVENTION
Object:
lation during
are threefold,
It is necessary to provide proper venti-
tunnel construction; the main objects
( 1 )
(2)
(3)
To supply fresh air to the working crew.
To remove injurious and obnoxious fumes
and gases of explosion.
To safely remove the dust caused by drill-
ing, blasting and mucking.
Natural and Mechanical ventilation: When
a drift is driven from portal to portal, it provides
fair ventilation during the enlarging operations, parti-
cularly when the tunnel is a short one. In long
tunnels this natural ventilation is inadequate, and
mechanical ventilation becomes necessary.
Volume of air considerations: During work-
ing, each worker should be supplied with 200 c. ft.
to 500 c. ft. of fresh air constantly. Any compressed
air used for the drills is usually contaminated with
oil and dust when released from drills and should not
be expected to be helpful. After each explosion the
air near the face is filled with fumes and dust and is
unfit for breathing. This foul air has to be exhausted
and replaced with fresh air, before the workmen
start removing the debris from the explosion. The
time lapse between exploding the charge and com-
mencing mucking will be about 30 minutes within
which time, the ventilating system, should clear the
tunnel and supply fresh air. Generally the following
conditions determine the form and capacity of the
ventilating system.
62 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
(1) Length and size of tunnel.
(2) Amount of explosive and frequency of
blasting.
(3) Temperature and humidity inside the tunnel.
Mechanical ventilation: Mechanical ventila-
tion is provided by one or more electric fans or
blowers, which may blow fresh air into a tunnel or
exhaust the dust and foul air from the tunnel. There
are three systems of ventilation viz:
(1) Blowing.
(2) Exhausting.
(3) Combination of blowing and exhausting.
Blowing:
Fresh clean air is blown through pipes near to
the working face and as it flows back to the portal
through the tunnel, it moves the dust and gases
with it. This system has the advantage of supplying
fresh air right near the working face, but the
disadvantage lies in that the foul air, smoke and
dust slowly move out, fogging the atmosphere
inside the tunnel , especially in long tunnels.
Exhausting:
In this method the foul air and dust, an:! drawn
into an exhausting duct near the working face, there
by creating a flow of fresh air into the tunl)el from
the enterance or portal. This method has the
special advantage of quick removal of dust, and
smoke from the working face.
Combination of blowing o;nd exhausting:
Many recent systems have tried to combine
both blowing and exhausting, utilising the advan-
tages in either system. Immediately after the
TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST PREVENTION 63
blasting operation, the exhausting system is operat-
ed for 15 to 30 minuites, to immediately remove
the objectionable air, after which, the blowing
system operates for the rest of the working period
to supply fresh air. The reversal of operations
can be carried out by a valve and duct arrange-
ment as shown in fig. 45. The fan rotates only
in one direction, but the valves A, Band C could
be so manipu.lated either to exaust from or blow
into the tunnel.
t
...J
UJ
Z
Z.
::J
r-
E)(A.U5TII-IG . BLOWING .
Combination of blowing and exausting.
FIG. 45
Dust prevention: The various operations in-
volved in tunnel excavation, such as drilling, blasting
and handling muck cause dust accumulation in the
tunnel atmosphere. This dust laden air constitutes
a serious health risk, unless the dust concentration is
limited. In rock tunnels particularly, this hazard is
very serious, as extended breathing of the silica dust
causes a dangerous lung decease known is "silicosis",
which often proves fatal.
In fact, state laws control tunneling practices and
are designed to safeguard workers, by permitting a
limited dust concentration inside the tunnel, which
could be safe.
Dust control ntethods: The various methods
used to minimise dust accumulation are:
64 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
(1 ) Wet drilling.
(2) Use of vacuum hood.
(3) Use of respirators.
Wet drilling: Modern drilling machines carry
arrangements by which water could be used to wet
and remove the cuttings, from the drilled holes. This
prevents dust flying, to a considerable extent.
Use of vaCUUDl hood: A hood is fitted around
the drill steel at the rock face, which is connected to
an exaust pipe, through which the drilled rock dust
is sucked and removed safely out of the tunel (Fig. 46).
Vacuum hood.
FIG. 46
Use of respirator : Well designed respirators
worn by the miners offer the best and most uptodate
protection against dust inhalation. It is a method
which is becoming increasingly popular in modern
tunneling practice.
SYLLABUS
Docks and Harbours:
Action of waves and wind, currents, and br akwaters;
construction of docks and quay walls; construction of wet and
dry docks. Lock and Jock gates. Transit shed and ware houses.
Tunnel Engineering:
Excavation for deep trenches in waterlogged soils for pipes and
sewers. Tunneling in rock and soft soils. Shield tunneling;
use of compressed air in tunneling. Shafts and headings. Lining
of Tunnels. Drainage and ventilation of tunnels.
, !
,
,: i'
" ,
" .
II" t I
., . .LUll
, . . ..... .
I U.tliUUITY OF SCI ENCES
Ui, I\ Eh_'!TY lI JIl..HY. MN1AlOHE
AccesSlOn .... .. .
D.te ........ .. ........ ... ......... .. ...... .
INDEX
(Section I)
A
Advantages of tidal basins 30
Advantages of wet docks 30
Air breakwater 9
Air compression
Artificial harbour
Artificial roadstead
B
Barge method
Bonded ware house
reak waters
-Classification
-heap or mound
-method of protection
-method of formation
C
Commercial harbour
D
15
I
3
22
62
17
]7
17
18
19
5
Design and Construction of
Basin or Dockwalls 33
ocks 29,30
Dock entrances 35
-caissons for
-ship caisson
-sliding caisson
-sizes of
Dock floor design
Dredges, types
-dipper
-grapple
-continuous bucket or
35
35
35
36,39
41
64
65
66
ladder 66
-hydraulic or suction. 67
Dredging, maintenance 64
Dry docking construction 41
Dry docking 39
E
Entrance locks
49
Entrance width of harbour 6
F
Floating docks, types 42, 43
- advantages and
disadvantages 46
-design consideration of 45
-off shore type 44
- rigid type 43
-self docking type 43
Forces on a graving dock 39
Form and arrangements of
basin and docks 30
G
Graving or dry dock
H
Harbours
37
Height and length of waves
10,11,14
K
Keel and bilge blocks 42
Lift dry dock
Littoral drift
-
L
48
7
68
Lock foundation
Lock gates
-forces on
-shape of
-working of
M
49
51,52
52,53
54
55
Marine railway 46
Mound construction
methods 21
Mound ,,-ith superstructure 19
N
Natural roadstead
Natural phenomena
o
Open berths
Q.
7
29
5G
wall, design 56, 57, 58
-types and construction of
58,59,60
-joints in 60
R
Repair docks classification 37
Requirements of
commercial harbour 5
INDEX
Requirement'> of
- fishing harbour
- harbour of refuge
- transit sheds
River ports
s
!)
4-
61,62
30
Shape of docks and
--diamond shape
- inclined quays
- rectangular shape
basins 31
31
32
31
Stablility of mounds
Staging method
T
21
23, 27
Tides, spring and neap 8
Transit sheds 61
W
\,yalJ breakwater advantages
and disadvantages of 26
- bonds in 28
--forces on 24, 25
Wall on concrete bag
foundation 27
Ware houses 61 , 62
Water hammer 15
"Vater waves
Water action
- dynamical effect of
Waves and wincl
8
12
13
8
INDEX 69
(Section If)
A
Advantages of tunneling 3
Air holding 31
Air lock 25
Air pressures 27
Alignment and grade 4
American method of driving
10,15
Approach 4
Army method of tunneling 14
B
Bar drill mounting 40
Belgian method of
tunneling I 7
Benching
Blowers
Bulkhead
c
62
25
Case method of tuneling 14-
Cast Iron lining 2:1
Centre Cut 39
Cen tre drift 34
Centre line transfer 7
Column drill mounting 40
Compressed air tunneling 24
- in clay 30
- in gravel 30
- in sand 30
Compressor requirement
of air 26,3 I
Concrete lining form work
-hand placing 57
-pumping 57
Cross-sections, shape of 9
Curve, Central line on 6
D
Design of thickness oflining 49
Ditch for drainage 60
Drainage of tunnels 59
Drift method 34
Drill hole pattern 38
Drill types 39
Drill supports 40
Dust prevention 61
- Respirator 64
- Vacuum hood system 64
- Wet drilling 64
E
English method of tunneling 16
Economics of tunneling 3
F
Faces of operation 33
' Fans (see blowers)
Fire hazaards 32
Fiv(; piece timber set 51
Fore poling method 11
Form for concrete lining 53,54
Full face tunneling 36
H
Head frame in shafts 43
Heading and benching 36
Hydraulic jacks for shield 23
70
INDEX
I
Invert lining and mould 53
J
Jumbos, for drills 40
L
Labour in compressed air 27,32
Liner plate method 19,20
Lining of tunnels 48
-Cast iron or primary 23
-Concrete lining 52
-Masonry -48
Rules for design of thickness49
Timber 49,50,51
Lock (see air lock)
M
Man lock and material lock 26
Methods of tunneling (soft
soils) 10
Mucking 37,42
N
Needle beam method of
tunneling 13
p
Pattern for drill holes 38
Pilot tunnel method 34
Plenum process (see compressed
air tunneling) 24
Predraining 32
Primary lining 23
Pyramidal cut 38
R
Raising shafts
Respirator use of
44
64
Rib stiffening 19
Rock tunneling methods 33
s
Safety precautions 111
tunneling 40
Shaft sinking in rock 42
- in soft ground 45
- raising 44
-Shaft supports design of 46
Shield
-construction 22
-steering 24
Size and shape of tunnels 8
Soft ground tunneling 8 to 1 7
Spiles use of in fore poling 11 , 12
Steel liner plates 19
Steel forms for lining 55,56
Surveying tunnel 5
T
Telescoping form
Timber lining
Top heading
Tunneling methods
-soft ground
Trimsfering centre line
v
Vacuum hood
Ventilation of tunnel
w
56
49
34
14
33,34
7
64
63
Water removal (see
Drainage)
Wet drilling 64
26 Well point drainage
I
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