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Chapter 8
Career and Understanding Students own self

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the career path and other related terms
Explain the concept of lifestyle based on several theories
Relate lifestyle with career choices;
Clarify the role of interest in future career planning;
Compare and contrast between different types of career interest test;
Explain the role of values in future planning and career
Identify the value of a career in career selection


http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/career-choice-theories.htm

7.0 Introduction

Everyone will encounter different barriers, challenges, and decisions. Career exploration is a
never-ending process. The more a student learn about themselves and the outside world, the
more they will want to re-evaluate their values, skills, and interests. You will learn on how children
build their concept of life style and how it helps them in their career. You need to understand
what lifestyle is, and then look at the relationship between the concept of building a career and a
lifestyle.





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8.1 Common Human Development Models
These include but are not limited to
1. Maslow (1908-1970): Abraham Maslow is best known for his developmental
theory of human motivation. As a humanistic psychologist, Maslow believed that
actualization of ones inherent potential was the driving force of human personality.
One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level
growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be
able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Maslow placed self-
actualization into a hierarchy of motivation or his famous hierarchy of needs. Self-
actualization is identified as the highest drive but before a person can turn to it, he
or she must satisfy other lower motivations like physiological, safety, social and
esteem needs, respectively. For example: A homeless youth client will need
assistance in finding secure housing before being referred to a career decision
making program, in Maslows view.



READ the basics of Motivation theory for a more in-depth look at Maslows
theory of motivation and its relationship to Herzbergs work on job satisfaction.
2. Skinner (1904-1990): B.F. Skinner is recognized as a leader in the field of
behaviourist theory. Very simply put, Skinner believed that changes in
behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. The response or behaviour produces a consequence
and the nature of the consequence either reinforces or weakens the probability
of the behaviour occurring again. So if you wish to alter someones behaviour,
you reinforce the behaviour you want people to do again and ignore or punish
Figure 8.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
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the behaviour you want people to stop doing. Example: Using verbal praise and
other forms of recognition to encourage children and young adults to continue
their job search.
3. Erikson (1902-1994): Erik Erikson developed the psychosocial theory of social
development. The theory describes the eight stages of human development
(infancy to late adulthood), through which every person passes. At each stage
of development the person is confronted with and hopefully resolves a new
psycho-social issue. Each developmental stage builds on the successful
completion of the earlier stages. If the issues of the earlier stages are not
successfully resolved they are expected to reappear as problems in the later
stages. Example: Teenagers working on establishing their own identity may be
struggling with settling on a career path because they dont really know who
they are yet.
4. Frankl (1905-1997); Victor Frankl belongs to the school of existential theory
and was the founder of logo therapy. He regarded the search for meaning and
an authentic life as the primary human motivation. As free individuals we have
a choice on how we will deal with inner conditions and outer circumstances. We
are responsible for our own existence and for finding a purpose or meaning to
our lives. One can discover meaning through purposeful work, creative pursuits
and suffering. Example: It is important for teenager to take responsibility for
making their own career choices and to be encouraged to consider careers that
will be personally meaningful and fulfilling for them.

8.2 BUILDING LIFESTYLE CONCEPT


8.2.1 Career Concepts and Career Development

A career means work that we do throughout the life span (Hoyt, in Sciarra, 2004). Career refers
to a person's overall work experience in a particular job. For example, teaching, medicine,
accounting, engineering, sales and so on. In recent times, we find the importance of guidance
and counselling services in schools and education institutions as a source of information to
career development. In fact, career education is more important and should be an integral part in
the upper primary school curriculum where young children prepare themselves to go to
secondary schools.

8.2.2. Building a lifestyle concept

1. Personal Logic and Individual Lifestyle
According to Alder (1870-1937), private logic here refers to the ideas and beliefs, experiences of
an individual. An individual builds his lifestyle based on his unique perceptions, unique
interpretation which describe the personality and behaviour of himself. This means that
individuals act based on what they believe based on previous experiences. Individuals develop
their self-concept and the concept of life which can provide them guidance and lifestyle patterns.
In short, the behaviour is determined by the perception of which they believe to be true.

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Adler believes that Individual lifestyles are formed by the children at the age of 5 years. He
opined that this lifestyle is a strategy where individuals organize and use them to deal with their
inferiority complex. Individual then can be shaped into being artistic or intellectual, dominate or
bully, malingering as a weapon to get attention and affection, and so on. According to Alder,
personality development is influenced by an individual's position in the family, including family
size and the means of child care by their parents. There are several factors that contribute to
negative self-concept, like physical illness, neglect, lack of extreme love and affection during
childhood.

2. Inferiority Complex with individual Lifestyle
Inferiority complex materialises when ideas and feelings arise in response to an individuals
shortcomings in life. (Adler) The term inferiority complex is widely used to represent the feelings
of worthlessness, including shortcomings that led to disastrous loss of self-esteem or aggressive
behaviour. Individuals who are poor, do not socialise will strive to motivate themselves to gain
self-esteem or superior to compensate for the shortcomings. However if these efforts fail, the
individual then suffer inferiority complex.

3. Interests and Social Values of Individual Lifestyle
Social interest like the value of altruism is lush and nurtured in the family. Children who do not
have a social interest face social and emotional problems, including depression. Many people
who seek counselling services consist of individuals who frequently feel lonely and side-lined by
others.
Mental health is measured by the quantity of social values belonging to an individual. In addition,
the characteristic of mental health is working with others as a member of the community, the
confidence to interact with any group or social situations, and be able to contribute to her
community interaction, including the value of courage. Based on the Adlers terms, courage
include the social activities and interests. Individuals who have social interest are usually
encouraged to act with social interests. So they have dignity and self-confidence because of their
actions are based on social interest and not self-interest. Therefore, individuals with stable
mental health and social interests will see themselves as equal social standing and ready to
make a meaningful contribution to the family.




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8.3 Theories of Career
A theory is an effect a rationalised set of assumptions, or hypothesis that allows you to explain
the past and predict the future. There are two types of career development theories.

Structural Theories focus individual characteristics and occupations tasks. For
example:-
a. Traits and Factors Theory: Process that a choice of occupation depends upon a)
knowledge of self, (b) knowledge of job specifications, and (c) ability to make a
proper match between this two.
b. Vocational Personalities and Environments Theory: Suggests that people can
function and develop best in work environment that can compatible with their
personalities.
c. Socioeconomic Theory : This is also known as the "chance" or "accident" theory
suggesting that many people follow the path of least resistance in their career
development by simply falling into whatever work opportunities came their way.


Developmental Theories focuses on human development a
a. Super's Theory: In super's theory self-concept develops through maturity,
observations of work, general environment and general experience.
b. Decision-Making Theory: Suggest that there are critical points in people's lives
when choices (decisions) are made that greatly influence their career
development, i.e. educational choices, entry-level positions, changing jobs, etc.
c. Cognitive Theory: It is built around how individuals process and react to
information. People's cognitive structures influence how they see themselves,
others and the environment.

We will focus three theories, namely:-
a. Career selection Development Theory: Ginzberg and Super
b. Behavioural Theory of John Krumboltz
c. Structure Theory: John L. Holland

8.3.1 Career selection Development Theory
Ginzbergs Theory prioritise career period in the development and progression, Supers theory
discusses self-concept and its implementation.



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i. Ginzbergs Theory
Ginzberg suggested that career decision making is a process that happens from young age to
early 20s. Ginzberg argued that the process of career decision making is usually irreversible,
once crystallized.Ginzberg noted that the process of selecting one's career includes three stages,
namely fantasy, trial or tentative, and realistic.

The Fantasy (6-11 Years)
According to Ginzberg career development takes place during childhood, from birth to 11
years old. During this stage, children primarily engage in playful acts, simulating
occupations such as firefighter, police officer, teacher, doctor etc. Towards the end of this
stage, children are found transit from playful imitation to work imitation, i.e. from simply
wearing costumes to acting out the specific duties of a job. In early years, a boy would do
career selection based on the nearest adults occupation to him without understanding
the real situation. For example, a boy may imitates his father/mother in being a teacher
and so on.

The Trial / Tentative (11-18 Years)
From 11 to 17 years of age, adolescent children are able to better focus on, and
recognize, work requirements. There are four stages in this period.
a. First, "interest," where children learn likes and dislikes.
b. Second, "capacity," where children learn how much is their abilities align with
their interests.
c. Third stage, "values," sees the child at 15 years old become aware of how work
may fulfil his values.
d. Fourth, "transition, where the individual assumes responsibility for his or her
own actions, becomes independent and exercises their freedom of choice.
Students begin to make a selection based on what they are passionate about. Between
the ages of 15-16 years, they began to relate their existing career interests and values.
Students sitting SPM examinations will start thinking about the selection of either
continuing their education to matriculation, or pursue professional courses to suit their
ambitions.

The Realistic (17-20 Years)
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The realistic stage begins at age 17 and goes into the early 20s. In this stage, a person
establishes alternative paths in working life, or a "backup plan." Throughout this three
stage period, one will develop personal values and begin to zero in on his or her optimal
career choice.
a. The first stage is exploration." The individual choose a career path but
remains open to other opportunities.
b. Second, "crystallization, is when one becomes more engrossed in a
particular career, committing to one direction more than he or she ever
has.
c. Third, "specification," in which one commits or develops a preference for
a specific area of ones occupation.
For example, the Fifth and Sixth form students in secondary school or
diploma students would consult a teacher counsellor for the purpose of
acquiring information that will help them to make choice of careers.

Ginzberg (1972) reviews the theory and found that the process of career development does not
stop at the age of 20 years. Instead, it is lifelong process.


ii. Super Self Theory

Donald Super introduced a life span vocational choice theory that has six life and career
development stages. One of Supers greatest contributions to career development is his
emphasis of the role self-concept development. He recognized that self-concept changes and
develops throughout peoples lives as a result of experience. People successively refine their
self-concept(s) over time and application to the world of work creates adaptation in their career
choice.

Super found three elements in the selection of the career development process. The process
starts from the childhood and continues until the time after retirement. Each element in the
development process of career choice are:

1. Development of Self Concept
The formation of self-concept occurs when a person appreciate the difference between himself
and others, such as identifying people who often visited the house along with their role. This
provides experience to build their self-concept.

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2. Translating the Self Concept of Employment Terms
Identify the role of people nearby and becoming aware of the ability in a job.

3. Realization of Self Concept of Career
As they grow up, they are aware of the needs of the professional training of a selected career.
For example a career in teaching requires one to attend teacher training courses in Teacher
Training Institutes pursue a relevant course at any higher learning institutions in the country.


Development Stages Career Selection
STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Growth
Birth-
To 14 or 15
years old
Physical and psychological development and form attitudes, interests,
and needs, and form a general understanding of the world and
behaviours that shape self-concept.
It is a stage where a child will have fantasy, interests, and curiosity.

Exploratory
15-24
"Try out" through classes, work experience, hobbies.
Collect relevant information.
Tentative choice and related skill development. A stage for crystallizing,
specifying, and implementing.
Establishment
25-44
Creating permanent place in appropriate field of work.
A stage for stabilising, consolidating, frustration, and advancing.
Maintenance
45-64
Continual adjustment process to improve position.
(holding, updating, stagnation, and innovating),
Decline
65+
Declining output, preparing for retirement. (decelerating, retirement
planning, and retirement living)

Super pointed out that the decision of a lifetime career choice relates to factors like economic
changes, technological advancements, social and psychological changes, etc. Other factors are
education, nationality, race, religion, gender, inherited breed intelligence, special talents, interests
and values. Hence the development process does not only involves external factors between
individual and the outside world, but also the internal compromise between the needs of
individuals, parents and cultural influence.

B. John Krumboltz s Behavioural Theory
Krumboltz Career Choice Theory believes that humans pick their careers as a result of
experiences and influences they have had in their life. These experiences and influences may
include a parent, a mentor, a hobby or interest that propels the individual to explore occupations
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associated with those elements in their life. Influences such as where they live or what is taught
to them also play a part, according to the theory.
John D. Krumboltz developed a theory of career development and decision making based on
social learning. Career decisions are the product of an uncountable number of learning
experiences encounters with the people and events in a person's particular environment. In other
words people choose their careers based on what they have learned.
This theory looks at four areas influencing career choice and development including genetic
endowment, environmental conditions, instrumental associative learning experiences, and
developed skills.
a. Genetic ( race, sex, physical appearance, handicaps)
Krumboltz believes that inherited qualities and special abilities from birth, even -- can
make youre more apt to pursue certain careers and limit you from chasing others. This can
include physical or mental abilities that allow the individual to be great at a certain skill or
skill set. For example, in athletics, the arts, music and entertainment where an individual's
genetics may have a significant role in the physical and mental abilities required to have that
job.

b. Environmental
Environment influences and events are the second factor in career choice development.
These include factors like education, career opportunities that are related to geographic
location, political systems and events that have an impact on the individuals upbringing.

c. Learning experiences
Learnings through reaction to consequences too have a very significant influence.
i. Instrumental learning Experience
Positive reinforced learning experience happens when an individual gets positive
feedback for his/her action. If positive, they are more likely to explore the career
options based on that action. However if they are criticised for an action or face
difficulty with a task at hand, they are less likely to associate that action with a
career choice. Recognition and encouragement will more likely strengthen
learning experience to express a preferred career. When negative feedback or
not reinforced for example a student with low grades, ridiculed or unable to find
work in the preferred choice of career is less likely to pursue it.
ii. Associative Learning experience
This involves negative and positive reactions to previously neutral statements.
For example an individual heard that bus drivers are great people. Most likely a
student is going to pick up driving as a career than other occupations.

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d. Task approach skills refers to problem solving skills, reasoning skills, work habits,
emotional response and so on. These skills are often modified as a result of desirable and
undesirable experiences. For example, it is more likely that if a parent reads and writes a
lot, the child or children will be more exposed to those skills and more likely to develop
them. Those children, who have developed these skills, are then more likely to use them
when they grow up and pick a career.
Source : http://www.ehow.com/about_5427029_krumboltz-career-choice-theory.html#ixzz2rUFfm9aa
The outcome of Krumboltzs career development theory is a lifelong process occurring in stages.
Self-concept is shaped throughout ones life experiences.

Counsellors should address the following problems in their students career development process
in school.
Failure to recognize that a remediable problem exists
Failure to exert effort needed to make decisions or solve problems
Eliminated potentially satisfying alternative for inappropriate reasons
Choosing poor alternatives for inappropriate reasons
suffering anguish and anxiety over perceived inability to achieve goals



D. Theory of Structures: Dr. John L. Holland
Holland (1985, 1997) states that career choice must be consistent with the personal
characteristics of the individual. He pointed out that when there is a matching between
personality type and the type of environment, the individual is more likely to be successful and
satisfied with his career. Holland describes a vocational behaviour can be explained by the
interaction of personality with environment (Holland, 1985, 1997). An individual is said to be
trying to find a work environment that is consistent with his personality because the environment
provided the opportunity to use the skills, abilities that are held. All of this being an intrinsic
rewards that reinforce the positive characteristics of a worker. The individual will demonstrate
motivation, satisfaction, performance, productivity and remain longer in employment (Holland,
1985, 1997). Hence, Hollands theory emphasizes matching individuals with jobs.
John L. Holland suggested four assumptions in the theory, namely:
i. All individuals can be categorized into six types of personality, which is realistic,
intellectual, artistic, social, industrial and conventional
ii. There are six types of models of the environment is closely linked to six types of
personalities.
iii. Individuals explore nature that allows them to develop the skills, attitudes, values and
personality.
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iv. Individual behaviour is determined based on the interaction between personality type and
characteristics of the environment.
Holland postulated that vocational interest is an expression of ones personality, and that
vocational interests could be conceptualised into six typologies, which are Realistic (R),
Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C). If a persons
degree of resemblance to the six vocational personality and interest types could be assessed,
then it is possible to generate a three-letter code (e.g., SIA, RIA) to denote and summarise ones
career interest. The first letter of the code is a persons primary interest type, which would likely
play a major role in career choice and satisfaction. The second and third letters are secondary
interest themes, and they would likely play a lesser but still significant role in the career choice
process

There are number of career tests or instruments that can be used as a career assessment profile
in order to obtain a comprehensive planning and selection of a career. These psychological
instruments in the form of inventory, allows an individual to evaluate themselves , including
interests, values, and personality traits in relation to career fields of interest and what to get
involved later.

Self- Directed Search (SDS), which was created in 1971 by Holland based on Vocational
Preference Inventory [ VPI ] , an inventory that assesses personality career . SDS can be
considered as a catalyst to stimulate the person concerned to make active career exploration.
For Holland, SDS has two functions as follows:
a. assessment instruments , and
b. Career interventions, also known as simulated counselling

SDS is a career inventory are self-governance that can be taken online. Based on the scores
obtained, the interpretation will be made by experts for the purpose of preparing a detailed report.
This report is sent to the person concerned for further action.

SDS scores based on six human personal style, also known as career themes, namely:
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Realistic ( R ) ;
Investigative ( I) ;
Artistic ( A) ;
Social ( S ) ;
Initiative ( E ), and
Conventional ( C )


About RIASEC: The Six Types
The six types described by Holland are collectively referred to as RIASEC. Here is a definition of
each one along with a list of compatible occupations.
Themes Explanation Possible occupations include
Realistic
The Do-ers

Realistic people are practical,
athletic, mechanically inclined,
nature lovers and concrete. They
like to do things such as play a
sport, work outdoors, tinker with
machines/vehicles, tend or train
animals, operate tools and
machines or read a blueprint.
They are hands-on types of
people.
A realistic person prefers
concrete tasks. He or she likes
working alone or with other
realistic people.
Farmer, forester, firefighter, police
officer, flight engineer, pilot,
carpenter, electrician, diesel
mechanic, locomotive engineer, truck
driver and locksmith.

Values hold: Tradition, practicality,
common sense
Investigative
The Thinkers

Investigative people are inquisitive,
analytical, logical, curious,
introspective, scholarly and
observant. They like to think
abstractly, do research, perform lab
experiments, work independently
and be challenged.
chemist, mathematician,
meteorologist, biologist, dentist,
physician, veterinarian, pharmacist,
medical technician, architect,
surveyor and electrical technician
Values hold: Independence, curiosity,
learning
Artistic The
Creators
They like to create things, and
usually extroverted.
Artistic people are creative,
imitative, unconventional, sensitive,
emotional and innovative. They like
to write, sketch, draw, paint, work
on crafts, express themselves
Dancer, book editor, art teacher,
clothes designer, graphic designer,
comedian, actor, disk
jockey, composer and musician.

Values hold: Beauty, originality,
independence, imagination
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creatively and attend theatre and art
exhibits.
Social The
Helpers

Social people are friendly, helpful,
outgoing, cooperative, patient,
empathetic and kind. They like to
work in groups, help people with
problems, serve others, mediate
disputes and plan and supervise
activities.
He or she tends to be concerned
with social problems and wants to
help others
Possible occupations include
counsellor, parole officer, social
worker, dental hygienist, nurse,
physical therapist, teacher, librarian
and athletic trainer.

Values hold: Cooperation, generosity,
service to others
Enterprising
The Persuaders
Enterprising people are self-
confident, persuasive, adventurous,
popular, extroverted, talkative and
popular. They like to lead a group,
persuade others, be elected to
office, have power or status and
start their own service or business.
Enterprising people tend to lean
toward leadership roles. They are
willing to take on challenges and are
extroverted. They can be
aggressive as well.
Auctioneer, sales person, travel
agent, recreation leader, judge,
lawyer, city manager, sales manager,
bank president, TV newscaster, camp
director, hotel manager, real estate
agent and school principal.
Values hold: Risk-taking, status,
competition, influence
Conventional
The Organizer

Conventional people are well
organized, conscientious, efficient,
orderly, practical, systematic,
structured and polite. They like to
define procedures, work with
numbers, type or use shorthand and
collect or organize things.

Court clerk, secretary, bookkeeper,
bank teller, post office clerk, mail
carrier, typist, title examiner or
timekeeper.
Values hold: Accuracy, stability,
efficiency

Different peoples personalities may find different environments more to their liking. An individual
may have some interests in and similarities to several of the six groups, they may be attracted
primarily to two or three of the areas. These two or three letters are Holland Code. For example,
with a code of RES you would most resemble the Realistic type, somewhat less resemble the
Enterprising type, and resemble the Social type even less.
The types that are not in your code are the types you resemble least of all. Most people, and
most jobs, are best represented by some combination of two or three of the Holland interest
areas.
Hollands test consists of 48 example task that you will have to rate by how much you would
enjoy performing each task on a scale of 1) dislike, (2) slightly dislike, (3) neither like not dislike,
(4) slightly enjoy and (5) enjoy. The test will take most five to ten minutes to complete.

Self-access learning:
You can access to Hollands Test at, http://www.wiu.edu/advising/docs/Holland_Code.pdf
Test yourself at http://www.hawaii.edu/cte/publications/RIASEC.pdf
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8.4 Inventories

8.4.1 What is an inventory?
An inventory is a psychological test where a client/ student fills out a survey or questionnaire with
or without the help of a counsellor. Inventories help individuals to understand and know more
about themselves in terms of personalities, values, interests and so forth. Most inventories can
be taken or administered within five to 15 minutes, although some, like the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI), can take up to three hours to fully complete. Questionnaires
typically use one of three formats: a Likert scale, true-false, or forced choice. True-false involves
questions that the individual denotes as either being true or false about themselves. Forced-
choice is a pair of statements that require the individual to choose one as being most
representative of themselves.

The most common question asked is this one: "I don't know what I want to do. Is there a
test (refers to an inventory, questionnaire, etc.) or something that can tell me what career
is right for me?"
The answer is no. You can't take a test that will, as if by magic, tell you what to do with the
rest of your life. You can however use a combination of self-assessment tools that will aid
you in your decision. A self-assessment should include a look at your
values, interests, personality and aptitude.
Values: the things that are important to you, like achievement, status and autonomy
Interests: what you enjoy doing, i.e. playing golf, taking long walks and hanging out with
friends
Personality: a person's individual traits, motivational drives, needs and attitudes
Aptitudes: the activities you are good at, such as writing, computer programming and
teaching. An aptitude may be a natural skill or one you acquired

8.4.2 Types of inventories
There are four major categories of career inventories/ tests,
a. Interest Inventories,
b. Motives and Values Inventories,
c. Personality Tests, and
d. Ability Tests.
Each addresses a different part of the puzzle, as discussed below.

a. Personality Inventory
There are many different types of personality inventories developed based on different needs.
Personality inventories can generally be used to identify personality traits that exist in the
individual by measuring whether they have personal trait or a specific feature. Personality
inventories like Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the California Psychological
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Inventory (CPI), the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), the Junior Eysenck Personality
Inventory (JEPI), Colour Personality Inventory (IPW) and Sidek Personality Inventory (IPS) are
commonly used by counsellors to identify client personalities. These self-evaluations also help
assess whether the individual is, for instance, appearance-conscious or unaware, interpersonally
sensitive or insensitive, arrogant or humble, extroverted or introverted. They often evaluate such
work-related characteristics as honesty, anger management, conscientiousness, self-confidence
or sociability.
In Malaysia, Sidek Personality Inventory is commonly used in primary and secondary schools
counsellors.
Sidek Personality Inventory (IPS- INVENTORI PERSONALITI SIDEK) was developed by Dr.
Sidek Mohd Noah in 1987. IPSs response to items identified individual personality traits - traits is
Yes or No" only.

b. Career Interest Inventories
Career interest inventories typically describe or illustrate (many occupations and job tasks) and
ask children/ young adults to rate how much they would enjoy doing each job or task. By rating
their level of interest in a wide range of occupations, these inventories help young people
recognize their predominant interests and preferences.
Every individual has different interests. Interest to a career is one of the most important factors in
determining the success of a person in a chosen career. Generally career interest inventory can
identify individuals potential interest towards any activity on the job. The career interest inventory
that is commonly used is the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), the Self-Directed Search
(SDS), Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII), Sidek Career Interest Inventory , Rothwell-
Miller Interest Form (BMRM) and Kuder Records-Vocational Preference (KPRV).
Measurement instruments such as Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), the Self-Directed
Search (SDS),can be used to identify individual interests, both in realistic (R), investigative (I),
Artistic (A) Social (S), Enterprising (E) or Conventional (C).
Interest Inventories show how closely your job interests match those of people who work
successfully in various professions. Some of the better known include the Strong Interest
Inventory (SII) , the Career Assessment Inventory(CAI) and the Self-Directed Search (Holland).
In the Hollands Self-Directed Search (SDS), the vocational component items are built based on 6
subscales. This section contains 60 items in which each candidate is required to answer either
"Yes" or "No". For the purpose of calculating the score, each "Yes" answer will be given 1 point.
The maximum raw score obtained by each candidate for each construct is 10. Points will be
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arranged according to the three highest scores for the three-point Holland code. The index Value
will be obtained to determine the authenticity of the individual personality.

c. Motives and Values Questionnaires:
These inventories / tests provide insight into how you would like life to be. The instruments
typically ask about the importance of job security, salary, the opportunity to display creativity on
the job, and many other job-related preferences. These tests can help you learn, for instance,
whether you prefer to have contact with more people or less, prefer to be in charge or in a
supporting role, or whether you are more independent than other people in your choose career.
These inventories measure a variety of career values one has like being positive, negative, or
neutral based on their preferences (Nowak, 1986). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, the
Temperament and Values Inventory and the Motives, Values, Preferences Inventory from Hogan
Assessments, Super's Work Values Inventory (WVI), Minnesota Importance Questionnaire
(MIQ) and Inventory of Job Value -Sidek (INPS).
i. Sidek Job Value Inventory for example is built specifically to identify the 21 values of
the six categories of the job (Sidek Mohd. Noah, 1991). The value includes the People,
Data, Things, Assistant, altruism, Leader, autonomy, Intellectual, Creative, Success,
Organization, Profit, promotion, Leisure, Recognition, Support, Security, Culture,
Religion, Diversity and activity.

ii. Myers-Briggs Type Inventory is used to identify individuals personal strengths and
motivations that are important when choosing a major, a career or a work environment.
The MBTI helps individuals to understand their personal preferences, where the focus of
attention and energy should be, how one take in information, make decisions, and relate
to the world around them.

iii. Strong Interest Inventory measures level of interest in occupational areas, activities,
school subjects and work environments. The inventory then compares individual interests
with professionals working in a wide variety of occupations and suggests several
occupations an individual may want to investigate further. While the results of the
inventory will not tell them what career or major they should pursue, it can help the
individuals to understand how their interests relate to different occupations, work
environments and areas of study.


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d. To check problems faced by students

Mooney Problem Check list (Mooney Problems Check List) is developed to help individuals/
students to express their personal problems. Mooney (1950) divides the problems that interfere
with young people at the High School into 11 categories, each category consists of 20 items, as
revealed in the form of delinquency record.

Uses of Mooney Problem Checklist
1. To assist counsellors counselling session with students after seeing the list of problems
and give proper attention to the problems to be discussed.
2. Understand the problems of students and identify students in need of counselling and
career curriculum development purposes.
3. Used as the basis for a career cluster and program orientation
4. To stimulate students to quickly understand and analyse its requirements.
5. To improve understanding of classroom teachers on the problems of pupils in his class.
6. Conduct research in the problems of students in the school.
7. To identify the changes and significant differences in terms of age, gender, social
background, patterns and other interests.
8. To measure the changes resulting from the reduction program implemented pupil
problems

Checklist to implement questionnaire/ inventories in schools
Determine the objectives of the questionnaire
Determine the respondents in the study
Prepare an inventory of tools and questionnaires.
Distribute checklist followed by a presentation on the respondent to answer.
Collect back and do a mental checklist
Provide a report with recommendations to overcome the parties concerned.
Follow-up

8.4.3 Use of inventories
Career tests and assessments can provide information that might take years to get any other
way. Some of them measure interests, others aptitudes, and yet others measure values. They
can deliver an objective message about what part of a persons behaviours or personality might
get in the way into choosing a career or readiness for the future undertakings. These inventory
results may help them be ready for the challenges ahead. These inventories or psychological
tests may also point out strengths they can leverage more deliberately and consistently.
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a. Benefits using inventories them in schools
i. Career assessments are designed to discover the skills, aptitude and talents of students.
ii. Helpful in assessing the areas in which students/children have strengths and where they
are weak.
iii. Useful in helping to choose a career that is in tune with their goals and talents.
iv. Several types of assessments have been proven to introduce more career options,
increase satisfaction in ones career plan and increase the understanding of oneself
(Prince et al., 2003).
v. Enables one to make the best career decision to grow both personally and professionally.
vi. Counsellors can guide students on how to go about planning their career to achieve
professional success.
b. Problems using inventories
i. The results of individual career assessments provide targeted information that may not
address a particular individual's needs.
ii. Counsellors may not have formal training to interpret the results correctly and usefully.
iii. Many of the tests are based on the persons view of himself or herself, who are often not
clearly aware of their own strengths and weaknesses (they may have natural blind
spots).
iv. Students are not always good at accurately describing their own behaviour. They tend to
over or under estimate certain tendencies (especially ones that are viewed as socially
desirable) while underestimating other characteristics. This can have a serious impact on
the accuracy of a personality test.
v. Tests can also be quite long, in some cases taking several hours to complete. Some
students can quickly become bored and frustrated and will often answer questions as
quickly as possible, often without even reading carefully the test items.

8.4.4 Conclusion
The elementary years in primary 1 to 6, are a time when students begin to develop their
academic self-concept and their feelings of competence and confidence as learners. They are
beginning to develop decision-making, communication and life skills, as well as character values.
It is also a time when students develop and acquire attitudes toward school, self, peers, social
groups and family. Comprehensive developmental school counselling programs provide
education, prevention and intervention services, which are integrated into all aspects of childrens
lives. Early identification and intervention of childrens academic and personal/social needs is
essential in removing barriers to learning and in promoting academic achievement. The
knowledge, attitudes and skills that students acquire in the areas of academic, career and
personal/social development during these elementary years serve as the foundation for future
success. By providing education, prevention, early identification and intervention, school
counsellors can help all children achieve academic success.
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Chapter References
Gibson, R.L., & Mitchell. M.H. (1995). Introduction to counselling and guidance (4
th
ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Leong, F.T.L., Hartung, P.J., Goh, D., & Gaylor, M. (2001). Appraising birth order in career
assessment: Linkages to Holland's and Super's models. Journal of Career Assessment,
9(1), 25-39.
Nystul, M.S. (2003). Introduction to counselling: An art and science perspective (2
nd
ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Sciarra, D.T. (2004). School counselling: Foundations and contemporary issues. Belmont, CA:
Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Watkins, C.E., Jr. (1993). Psychodynamic career assessment: An Adlerian perspective. Journal
of Career Assessment, 7(4), 355-374.
Watkins, C.E., Jr. (1984). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: Toward an Adlerian
vocational theory. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 24, 28-47.
Factors affecting career choice at http://www.articlesbase.com/careers-articles/factors-affecting-
career-choices-3053543 ,html#ixzz 16pTM6B72: http://www.ehow.com/list 6685028
factors-affecting-career-choices, html
Godot, D. (20\0).Adlerian career assessment and counselling at http://chicagopsvchology.
Org/adlerian/adlerian-career-assessment-counselling/
Holland, J.L. (1985) Making vocational choices (2
nd
ed.) Odessa, FL.: Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc.

Interest inventory - Vocational test, test, vocational, activities, occupational inventories, and
scales. http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/343/Interest-Inventorv. html#ixzz 16vz4S71D

Lifestyle at http:// www.thefreedictionary.com/lifestvle
Self-Directed Search. At http://www.self-directed-seareh.com/

(http://woman.thenest.com/career-theories-eli-ginzberg-15464.html}

Liptak, John J. (2001). Treatment Planning in Career Counselling. Wadsworth downloaded at
http://voices.yahoo.com/using-ginzberg-theory-occupational-choice-to-438920.html

Krumboltzs Theory, downloaded at : http://www.ehow.com/about_5427029_krumboltz-career-choice-
theory.html#ixzz2rU5sgQgn






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Glossary

Altruism Altruism means an unselfish concern for other people. It means doing things simply
out of a desire to help, not because you feel obligated to out of duty, loyalty, or
religious reasons as opposed to egoism.
Concept of life The value of the question pertaining to the purpose of life may coincide with the
achievement of ultimate reality, or a feeling of oneness, or even a feeling of
sacredness
Existential theory Existentialism is a philosophical outlook that stresses the importance of free will,
freedom of choice, and personal responsibility. It emphasizes the unique experiences
of each individual and the responsibility of each person for their choices and what
they make of themselves.
Hierarchy of needs
It one of the best-known theories of motivation by psychologist Abraham
Maslow. It is displayed as a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom
and more complex needs at the peak. The four lowest-level needs are what
Maslow referred to as D-needs (or deficiency needs). These needs are due
to a lack of something and need to be satisfied in order to avoid unpleasant
feelings and to move on to higher level needs. The uppermost needs in the
hierarchy are referred to B-needs (being needs or growth needs) and involve
the desire to grow as an individual and fulfil ones own potential.

Humanistic
The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately
good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this
natural tendency.
Likert scale A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs
questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey
research, such that the term is often used interchangeably with rating scale, or more
accurately the Likert-type scale. The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for
example, could be, sstrongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree
and strongly agree.
Logo therapy It's an active-directive therapy aimed at helping people living with a healthy sense of
purpose in our normal relationships and activities than by dealing with mental illness
through psychotherapy or psychotropic drugs. Basic assumptions of logo therapy are,
1. Life has meaning under all circumstances. 2. People have a will to meaning. 3.
People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to
find meaning
Malingering One exaggerate or feign illness in order to escape duty or work.
Self-actualization Self-actualization is identified as the highest drive but before a person can turn to it,
he or she must satisfy other lower motivations like physiological, safety, social and
esteem needs, respectively
Self-concept A general term used to refer to how someone thinks about or perceives themselves.
Self-concept is how we think about and evaluate ourselves. To be aware of oneself is
to have a concept of oneself.
Stimuli Something causing or regarded as causing a response.
Vocational
behaviour
It refers to individuals process of psychosocial adaptation and how they cope
with vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and work
traumas. How, why and what individual behaviour makes one fit to work in
chosen field.