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2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
8
A Topical Approach to
Intelligence
J ohn W. Santrock
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Intelligence
The Concept of Intelligence
Controversies and Group Comparisons
The Development of Intelligence
The Extremes of Intelligence
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The Concept of Intelligence
What Is Intelligence?
Similar to thinking and memory skills
Cannot be directly measured
Ability to solve problems; adapt to and learn
from everyday experiences
Individual differences are stable, consistent
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The Concept of Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
The Binet Tests
Mental age (MA) individuals level of
mental development relative to others
Intelligence quotient (IQ) individuals
mental age divided by chronological age,
multiplied by 100
Normal distribution symmetrical
distribution of scores around a mean
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The Concept of Intelligence
The Normal Curve and
Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
Fig. 8.1
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The Concept of Intelligence
The Wechsler Scales
Overall IQ
Verbal IQ
Six verbal subscales
Performance IQ
Five performance subscales
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The Concept of Intelligence
Group Tests
Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests are
individually administered
Requires extensive information outside
testing situation
More convenient and economical than
individual tests, but examiner cannot
Establish rapport
Determine level of anxiety
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The Concept of Intelligence
The Use and Misuse of
Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests:
substantially correlated with school performance
moderately correlated with work performance;
correlation decreases as experience increases
IQ tests can easily lead to false expectations
and generalizations about individuals
Other factors also affect success
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The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Controversy over breaking intelligence down
into multiple abilities
Spearmans two-factor theory: factor analysis
correlates test scores into clusters or factors
Thurstones multiple-factor theory; seven abilities
Gardners theory of multiple intelligences; certain
cognitive abilities can survive brain damage
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The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Two-factor
theory
Spearmans theory that individuals
have both general intelligence and
specific intelligences
Multiple-
factor
theory
Intelligence is seven primary mental
abilities: verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number ability, spatial
visualization, associative memory,
reasoning, perceptual speed
Gardners
Theory
Eight types of intelligence: verbal,
math, spatial, interpersonal, bodily-
kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal,
and naturalist skills
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The Concept of Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences in
the Classroom
Allow students to discover and explore
domains in which they have natural
curiosity and talent
Attention given to understanding
oneself and others
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The Concept of Intelligence
Sternbergs Triarchic Theory
Three main types of intelligence
Analytic
Creative
Practical
Assessing Sternberg Triarchic
Ability Theory (STAT)
Effective in predicting college GPA
More research needed
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The Concept of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory in the Classroom
Analytic ability favored in conventional
schools
Creative students may be reprimanded or
marked down for nonconformist answers
Practical students may do better outside
school
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The Concept of Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
Perceive and express emotions
accurately and adaptively
Four aspects
Perceiving emotions
Understanding emotions
Facilitating thought
Managing emotions
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The Concept of Intelligence
Comparing the Intelligences
Fig. 8.3
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The Concept of Intelligence
Do People Have One or Many
Intelligences?
Many argue research base to support
theories not yet developed
Some say Gardners classification
seems arbitrary
Some experts who argue for general
intelligence believe individuals also
have specific intellectual abilities
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The Concept of Intelligence
The Influence of Heredity and
Environment
Genetic Influences
J ensen argued heredity; studies of twins
Adoption studies: educational levels of
biological parents better predictor of IQ
Heritability: fraction of variance in IQ in a
population that is attributed to genetics
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The Concept of Intelligence
The Influence of Heredity and
Environment
Environmental Influences
Modifications in environment can change
IQ scores considerably
Parent communication
Schooling
Intelligence test scores increase each
year around the world
Flynn effect
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The Concept of Intelligence
Group Comparisons and Issues
Cross-cultural comparisons problematic
Different cultures define intelligence differently
Practical and academic intelligence can
develop independently
Cultural bias in testing
Culture-fair tests: intelligence tests intended
not to be culturally biased
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Ethnic Comparisons
The Bell Curve
African Americans students average lower
intelligence test scores than White students
Individual scores vary considerably
SES may have more effect than ethnicity;
gap narrows in college
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Ethnic and Gender Comparisons
Stereotype threat fear of confirming
negative stereotypes raises anxiety in testing
Some studies confirm existence
Others believe stereotype threat is exaggerated
to explain gap
Gender differences in intellectual abilities
Males more likely to have extremely high or low
scores
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The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
Gesell
Distinguishes normal from abnormal infants
Four categories of behavior
Motor
Language
Adaptive
Personal-social
Combined overall score is developmental
quotient (DQ)
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The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
Three components
Mental scale
Motor scale
Infant behavior profile
Diagnoses developmental delays
Overall scores do not correlate highly with
IQ scores obtained later in childhood
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The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
Increasingly being used
Focuses on infants ability to process
information
Obtains similar results cross-culturally
Correlated with measures of intelligence
in older children
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The Development of Intelligence
Stability and Change in Intelligence
through Adolescence
Group scores remain stable
Strong relation between IQ scores obtained at
ages 6, 8, and 9 and IQ scores obtained at 10
Correlation between IQ in preadolescent years
and 18 still statistically significant
Individual scores vary more
As much as 40 points in one study
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The Development of Intelligence
Intelligence in Adulthood
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Accumulated information and verbal skills,
which increase with age
Fluid intelligence
Ability to reason abstractly, which steadily
declines from middle adulthood on
Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort testing
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The Development of Intelligence
Fluid and Crystallized Intellectual
Development Across the Life Span
Fig. 8.7
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The Development of Intelligence
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
Spatial orientation
Inductive reasoning
Perceptual speed
Since 1956, studied
Vocabulary
Verbal memory
Number computations
Criticism: intellectual abilities more likely
to decline in cross-sectional rather than
longitudinal assessments
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The Development of Intelligence
Longitudinal Changes in Six
Intellectual Abilities
Fig. 8.8
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The Development of Intelligence
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
Comparisons of Intellectual Change
Fig. 8.9
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The Development of Intelligence
Cognitive Mechanics
Hardware of the mind
Speed and accuracy of processes
involved in sensory input, attention,
memory, organizing, and discrimination
Strong influence of biology and heredity
Decline with age
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The Development of Intelligence
Cognitive Pragmatics
Culture-based software of the mind
Skills include
Reading and writing
Language comprehension
Educational qualifications
Professional skills
Knowledge about self and life skills
Can improve with aging
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The Development of Intelligence
Wisdom
Expert knowledge on practical aspects of
life permitting excellent judgment about
important matters
High levels of wisdom are rare
Emerges late adolescence and early adulthood
Factors other than age are critical
Personality-related factors better predictors of
wisdom
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Mental Retardation
Condition of limited mental ability
Low IQ on traditional test of intelligence
Difficulty adapting to everyday life
Onset of characteristics by age 18
Some causes include
Organic retardation
Cultural-familial retardation
Brain damage due to accident
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Classification of Mental Retardation
based on IQ
Fig. 8.11
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Giftedness
Above-average intelligence; IQ averaged
150 on Stanford-Binet
Precocity
March to their own drummer
Passion to master
Intelligence and creativity not same thing;
most creative people are quite intelligent
but reverse not necessarily true
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Creative Thinking
Divergent
thinking
Convergent
thinking
Creativity
Produces many answers to the
same question and is characteristic
of creativity
Gives one correct answer; is
characteristic of thinking tested
by standardized intelligence tests
Ability to think in novel and unusual
ways and come up with unique
solutions to problems
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Steps in the Creative Process
Preparation
Incubation
Insight
Evaluation
Elaboration
Not all creative people follow in linear
sequence
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Characteristics of Creative Thinkers
Flexibility and playful thinking
Inner motivation
Willingness to risk
Objective evaluation of work
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Changes in Adulthood
Individuals most creative products
were generated in their thirties
80% of most important creative
contributions completed by age 50
Researchers found creativity often
peaks in forties before declining
Age of decline varies by domain
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Living a More Creative Life
Try to be surprised by something every day
Try to surprise at least one person every day
Write down each day what surprised you and
how you surprised others
When something sparks your interest, follow it
Wake up in the morning with a specific goal
Take charge of your schedule
Spend time in stimulating settings
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8
The End