3d Seismic Interpretation of An Early Miocene Succesion, Offshore Northwestern Venezuela

PETROLEOS DE VENEZUELA
INTEVEP, S.A.

3D SEISMIC INTERPRETATION OF AN
EARLY MIOCENE SUCCESION, OFFSHORE
NORTHWESTERN VENEZUELA

A report prepared for:
The Institut Franais du Petrole School and
Petrleos de Venezuela Exploration Management,
By:
B.S. Carlos Saavedra

August, 2010

INTEVEP, S.A.
2

SUMMARY

INTEVEP, S.A.
3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY 2
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4
1. INTRODUCTION 6
1.1. Objective 6
1.2. Study area 7
1.3. Available data 8
1.4. Geological setting 8
2. METHODS 11
2.1. Reconnaissance study 11
2.2. Seismic to well ties 11
2.3. Horizon and fault interpretation 13
2.4. Seismic facies mapping 19
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 20
3.1. Horizon EO 20
3.2. Horizon IM 26
3.3. Horizon EM 26
3.4. Seismic facies mapping 29
3.4.1. Unit A 29
3.4.2. Unit B 31
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 34
REFERENCE LIST 36

INTEVEP, S.A.
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure 1. Sketch map of offshore northwestern Venezuela showing
the location of the area of the 3D Seismic survey (blue
rectangle), on which this study is based.
7
Figure 2. Geologic tectonic map of the northwestern Venezuela.
Major fold and fault trends and ages of outcropping units are
compiled from Muessig [2] and Macellari [3].
9
Figure 3. Stratigraphic Column of the Urumaco Trough and their
onshore lithostratigraphic equivalent. Note that the
Paleogene succession has not been clearly established in
the area.
10
Figure 4. Well A depth-TWTT relationship with linear depth scale.
Included are the caliper, gamma ray and impedance logs,
reflection coefficients, Traces from the Line 2448, and
synthetic seismogram.
12
Figure 5. Horizon EO interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid.
The polygons in dark red indicate the borders of the blocks
of the Rafael Urdaneta Project.
14
Figure 6. Horizon EO autotracked throughout the entire seismic
survey using the ZAP! tool. This horizon was previously
interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid. The abrupt
amplitude changes highlight trends of the main faults.
15
Figure 7. Results of the Edge attribute calculated from the Horizon
EO showed on Figure 6. The discontinuities in the map
indicate the direction of the main faults.
16
Figure 8. Fault heaves calculated for the Horizon EO interpreted
along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid.
17

INTEVEP, S.A.
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Figure 9. Fault polygons for the Horizon EO. These polygons were
constructed from fault heaves showed on Figure 8.
18
Figure 10. Seismic Trace 4060 with the horizons interpreted in this
study.
21
Figure 11. Seismic Line 2600 with the horizons interpreted in this
study.
22
Figure 12. Arbitrary Line in the direction SW-NE showing the horizons
interpreted in this study.
23
Figure 13. Arbitrary Line in the direction NW-SE showing the horizons
interpreted in this study.
24
Figure 14. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon EO. 25
Figure 15. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon IM. 27
Figure 16. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon EM. 28
Figure 17. a) Seismic facies using the (A-B)/C notation for the
succession between horizons IM and EO. 17b-17e) Seismic
examples of the codes used in a).
30
Figure 18. a) Seismic facies using the (A-B)/C notation for the
succession between horizons EM and EO IM. b-d)
Seismic examples of the codes used in a).

INTEVEP, S.A.
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1. INTRODUCTION

The Gulf of Venezuela is located in northwestern Venezuela (Figure 1), bounded to the
west by the Guajira Peninsula, to the southwest by the Maracaibo Basin, to the south by
the Dabajuro block, to the southeast by the Falcn Basin, to the east by the Paraguan
Peninsula, and opened to the north into the Caribbean Sea (e.g., Coronel,1969). This
physiographic feature covers an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometers.

In 2005, the Venezuelan Energy and Petroleum Ministry announced the beginning of the
Rafael Urdaneta Project. For this major Project, the northwestern offshore area of
Venezuela was divided into 29 operational blocks, of which 18 are in the Gulf of
Venezuela. Pre-auction expectations for oil and gas from previous studies in the Gulf of
Venezuela were estimated at 7 millions of barrels (MMBls) and 22 trillion cubic feet
(TCF), respectively. The immediate goal of the project is to produce natural gas for
Venezuelas domestic market, which has a current deficit of 1.5 million cubic feet per
day.

Within the framework of the Rafael Urdaneta Project, the CARDON IV block, located in
the eastern part of the Gulf of Venezuela, was licensed to two operators who have
successfully drilled 2 exploratory wells in a carbonate reservoir. The discovery could
contain 8-10 TCF of recoverable natural gas reserves and sizable amounts of
condensates.

1.1. Objective

In order to increase our geological knowledge about the recent discovery, this
contribution focuses on the 3D seismic interpretation of the Early Miocene succession
within which the carbonate reservoir was developed.

INTEVEP, S.A.
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1.2. Study area

The study area is located in the western portion of the Cardon IV block. It covered
511,74 square kilometers. This area was imaged by a 3D seismic survey, on which this
work is based (Figure 1).|

Figure 1. Map of northwestern Venezuela showing the geographic and seismic location
of the study area. The light-gray polygons indicate operational blocks for the Rafael
Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
8

1.3. Available data

To carry out this study, it was disposed of a 3D seismic data volume, which was
acquired in 2007 and encompasses 716 square kilometers with 511,74 square
kilometers in the western portion of the Cardon IV Block. This volume consists of
poststack migrated seismic data in 8-bit format. Data from two wells: A and B (Figure 1),
were also available. Wells A and B are renamed because of confidential reasons. Both
seismic and well data were loaded in the Landmark's OpenWorks [1] suite for their
subsequent interpretation.

1.4. Geological setting

The study area is located at the north border of a northwest-trending depression known
as Urumaco Trough (Figure 2). This depression was created as a result of the
extensional subsidence developed in a pull-apart zone during the Paleogene oblique
collision of the Caribbean and South American plates [2, 3]. The continuous
convergence accentuated the subsidence of the Urumaco Trough throughout the
Neogene. Thus, it became a receptacle for a thick pile of post-Eocene sediments that in
its central parts could exceed 27000 feet [4]. Northward Urumaco Trough, seismic data
have showed the presence of several structural highs where the average thickness of
the post-Eocene sediments is of the order of 13000 feet [5].

In general, the sedimentary succession of the eastern Gulf of Venezuela overlies an
allochthonous basement, which was emplaced during the Paleogene compressive
phase. It consists mainly of Late Cretaceous metasediments [6]. Above this basement, it
is believed that a marine succession was deposited during the Early to Middle Eocene.
These deposits were unconformably overlain by Late Eocene to Oligocene sediments,
which were better developed in the central parts of the Urumaco Trough. Towards the
structural highs only a reduced Paleogene section was deposited.

INTEVEP, S.A.
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By correlation with the surrounding onshore areas, it is believed that sedimentation in
the Urumaco Trough during the Early Miocene started with shelf deposits of the Agua
Clara Formation and the subsequent progradation of the Cerro Pelao deltaic complex
which was followed by the transgression of the Querales shales. During the Middle to
Late Miocene a major phase of inversion took place in the onshore Falcon basin,
resulting in the uplift of the Falcon anticlinorium and the subsequent rapid basinward
progradation of the deltaic facies of the Socorro Formation [4]. According to Audemard
[7] this tectonic inversion could be still active. The rest of the stratigraphic column
(including the Urumaco and Codore formations), was accumulated during a continuous
bathymetric decline until reach the current water depth (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of the northwestern Venezuela. Major fold and fault
trends and ages of outcropping units are compiled from Muessig [2] and Macellari [3].
Note that Cardon IV block is located at the north border of the Urumaco Trough.

INTEVEP, S.A.
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Figure 3. Stratigraphic Column of the Urumaco Trough and their onshore
lithostratigraphic equivalent. Note that the Paleogene succession has not been clearly
established in the area.

INTEVEP, S.A.
11

2. METHODS

The method used to analyze the Early Miocene succession in this study involved the
following stages:

2.1. Reconnaissance study

This stage consisted of an initial scrolling through the seismic volume. The data was
examined line to line, trace to trace, and from top to bottom at large steps. The objective
of this initial scrolling was to assess the overall structural and stratigraphic styles in the
target succession.

2.2. Seismic to well tie

Once the stratigraphic objectives have been identified in the initial reconnaissance
stage, the following step was to tie target seismic reflectors to well data via synthetic
seismograms, which were constructed in the SynTool application of OpenWorks [8]. For
each well, an impedance log and reflection coefficients were generated from the sonic
and density profiles. The acoustic impedance log as a function of depth was then
converted into a log as a function of two-way travel time (TWTT) using the time - depth
relation derived from the check shot survey of each well. The reflection coefficients
calculated from the impedance log were convolved with a seismic wavelet to produce a
synthetic seismic trace, which was then compared with the real seismic at the well site
looking for a good visual match. In order to choose the appropriate wavelet, I used three
methods: autocorrelation, Ricker and SeisWell [1], selecting that that best match the
actual seismic. Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between the impedance log,
reflection coefficients, seismic traces, and synthetic trace for the well A.

INTEVEP, S.A.
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INTEVEP, S.A.
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2.3. Horizon and fault interpretation

Following the calibration of the wells to the seismic data, the horizon interpretations
were carried out, starting with a line close to a well calibrated. The horizon picking was
preferably made by signal consistent automatic extraction of minimum, maximum or zero
crossing surfaces (autotracking), whenever was possible, especially in those areas of
good lateral continuity and well-defined seismic character. Otherwise, the manual
picking was necessary, especially in those areas where stratigraphic discontinuities
were detected.

The interpretation involved three horizons (Figure 4), which according to preliminary
biostratigraphic analysis correspond to: the top of the Oligocene-Eocene succession
(horizon EO), the top of the Early Miocene succession (horizon EM), and a third horizon
within the Early Miocene succession corresponding to the top of the carbonate
development (horizon IM). The interpretation of the acoustic basement (horizon AB) was
not made for the purpose of this internship report.

The horizons were interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid (i.e., 250 m x 250 m,
Figure 5), and then autotracked throughout all the seismic survey using the ZAP! tool of
SeisWork (Figure 6). The resulting horizon helped to highlight the main trend of the
discontinuities present in the horizon. These discontinuities were also identified with the
use of edge-detection algorithms which allowed the direct illumination of faults (Figure
7). The identification of the main trend of faults was useful in determining the direction of
their interpretation, which has to be perpendicular to strike of the structures.

The faults were interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid. Their identification was
helped by the use of time slices coming from a coherence (similarity or dissimilarity)
cube built in the PostStack/PAL application of OpenWorks [9]. The faults were then
interpolated using the Triangulate tool of SeisWork [1]. Once the faults were

INTEVEP, S.A.
14

triangulated, the fault heaves were obtained (Figure 8) and the fault polygons
constructed (Figure 9).

Figure 5. Horizon EO interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid. The polygons in
dark red indicate the borders of the blocks of the Rafael Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
15

Figure 6. Horizon EO autotracked throughout the entire seismic survey using the ZAP!
tool. This horizon was previously interpreted along a 20 x 20 line/crossline grid. The
abrupt amplitude changes highlight trends of the main faults. The polygons in dark red
indicate the borders of the blocks of the Rafael Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
16

Figure 7. Results of the Edge attribute calculated from the Horizon EO showed on
Figure 6. The discontinuities in the map indicate the direction of the main faults. The
polygons in dark red show the borders of the blocks of the Rafael Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
17

Figure 8. Fault heaves calculated for the Horizon EO interpreted along a 20 x 20
line/crossline grid. The polygons in dark red indicate the borders of the blocks of the
Rafael Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
18

Figure 9. Fault polygons for the Horizon EO. These polygons were constructed from
fault heaves showed on Figure 8. The lines in dark red indicate the borders of the blocks
of the Rafael Urdaneta Project.

INTEVEP, S.A.
19

Finally, the fault polygons were superimposed to the interpreted horizons to generate
the structural maps in TWTT for each horizon. In this stage, the abrupt amplitude
changes were in great part corroborated to correspond to the presence of faults.
However, those areas with amplitude contrasts but without faults were reinterpreted to
verify the possible presence of faults initially unrecognized.

2.4. Seismic facies mapping

In order to map the distribution of the seismic characteristics of the seismic stratigraphic
units (sensu Zampetti et al. [10]) recognized in this work, I used the A-B/C mapping
approach proposed by Ramsayer [11]. The basic elements of the technique include
observations of the geometric relations of the upper boundary (A), the geometric
relations of the lower boundary (B) and the internal reflection character (C) of a seismic
sequence, which are abbreviated and plotted on a map as (A-B)/C. This technique
allows interpreters to make inferences about the character of the reflection termination
patterns and their meaning within the depositional framework of a determined area.

INTEVEP, S.A.
20

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Three seismic horizons were selected to analyze the Early Miocene succession in the
study area. They correspond, from base to top, to: 1) the top of the Oligocene Eocene
succession, which is identified as EO and colored in orange on the seismic data; 2) the
top of the carbonate reservoir, which is identified as IM and colored in magenta on the
seismic data; and 3) a horizon near the transition Early Miocene Middle Miocene,
which is identified as EM and colored in dark green on the seismic data. These horizons
define two the seismic stratigraphic units: Unit A (between horizons EO and IM) and Unit
B (between horizons EM and EO/IM). Figures 10 to 13 show different sections across
the seismic volume, with the horizons interpreted in this contribution.

3.1. Horizon EO

This horizon is represented by a reflector of good continuity and moderate to high
amplitude. It shows a strong contrast of acoustic impedance caused by the lithologic
changes between the overlying Miocene rocks and the underlying clastic and
metamorphic rocks. In general, the interpretation of this event is facilitated by their good
continuity, except towards the borders of the seismic volume, where the quality of
seismic data is poor. Figure 14 shows the structural map in TWTT of this horizon.

The main structural feature interpreted for this event is a structural high elongated in a
NW-SE direction, which occupies the central part of the study area. This high shows a
steeper dip in the southwestern flank and gentler dip in the northeastern flank. A series
of normal faults is affecting this reflector, many of which extend down into the Paleogene
succession. These normal faults can be grouped into two main families according to
their orientation: one with a dominant NW strike direction and a preferential dip to the
SW, and other with a dominant NNW strike direction and a preferential dip to the W.

INTEVEP, S.A.
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INTEVEP, S.A.
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INTEVEP, S.A.
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INTEVEP, S.A.
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Figure 14. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon EO.

INTEVEP, S.A.
26

3.2. Horizon IM

This horizon is represented by a reflector of good continuity and moderate amplitude. In
great part of the interpreted area, this horizon is characterized by a strong lithologic
contrast between the underlying carbonates and the overlying clastic rocks. However,
towards southwest the interpretation required more effort due to the weak contrast of
acoustic impedance and the poor seismic image present there. The interpretation of this
event was also facilitated by the baselap terminations observed against the reflector
(Figures 10 to 13). Figure 15 shows the structural map in TWTT of this horizon.

Towards north and northeast the horizon IM pinches out against the horizon EO,
following the trend outlined by the NW-SE elongated structural high of the horizon EO
(Figure 14). Towards southwest the horizon IM shows a steep dip. Many normal faults
affecting this horizon show a NW direction akin to that of the underlying horizon EO.

3.3. Horizon EM

Seismically, this reflector presents truncation in certain areas of the survey, which helps
in their interpretation (Figures 11 to 13). However, there are parts of the seismic volume
where upper terminations are conformable. In general, the contrast of acoustic
impedance is moderate and the continuity is regular. It is probably as a result of
lithologic changes more subtle than in the preceding seismic reflectors. Figure 16 shows
the structural map in TWTT of this horizon.

The horizon EM shows a gentle dip towards the south. It is curt by a series of normal
faults, many of which show a dominant NW-SE strike direction and a preferential dip to
the SW, while others show a NNW strike direction. They are both similar to the
orientations of the older horizons. Faults with a NW orientation, as evidenced by the
cross-cut relationships, are shown to be younger than the faults with NNW orientation.

INTEVEP, S.A.
27

Figure 15. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon IM.

INTEVEP, S.A.
28

Figure 16. Structural map in TWTT (ms) of the horizon EM.

INTEVEP, S.A.
29

3.4. Seismic facies mapping

For purpose of this contribution, two seismic stratigraphic units were recognized: Unit A
(between horizons EO and IM) and Unit B (between horizons EM and EO/IM). These
units were analyzed by the A-B-C mapping approach [11]. Due to limitations imposed
by the seismic data, it was not possible to construct individual maps at the scale of
depositional systems tracts, thus the facies map of the units A and B represent major
depositional trends.

3.4.1. Unit A

The Figure 17 shows the seismic facies interpreted for the Unit A (carbonate
succession). It is noted that this Unit is partially imaged by the 3D seismic volume. This
succession is mainly represented by concordant and parallel internal reflectors, which
vary from straight to slightly wavy and are characterized by moderate amplitude and
moderate to good continuity. The Unit thins towards the north-northeast margins, where
sigmoidal facies become evident and the reflectors baselapping against the horizon EO
(Figures 10-12). Towards the southwest the Unit shows a steep dip accompanied by the
presence of divergent and chaotic facies.

In terms of stratigraphic interpretation, particularly in the determination of the
depositional environments, the dominant parallel patterns at the topographic high
suggest a relatively uniform rate of sedimentation in platform interior positions. The
sigmoidal geometry and baselap terminations suggest progradation at the platform
margins. The divergent and chaotic configurations in areas of low topography indicate a
basinward deposition with an increase in muddier fabrics.

INTEVEP, S.A.
30

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INTEVEP, S.A.
31

In general, the Unit A reveals the development of an isolated carbonate platform with a
dome-shaped external geometry, which nucleated in a faulted structural high. Smaller
thicknesses variations along normal faults confirm their control during carbonate
deposition (Figures 17b, 18d). The continuous character of internal reflectors of Unit A
suggests that this buildup could be composed of laterally extensive stratiforms
sequences. However, it is premature to further establish the geometry of internal
subunits without available core samples that allow the determination of the
paleobiological communities that built the succession. This is due to the fact that many
ancient fauna are extinct today and there is few knowledge of the architecture of their
depositional environments.

Onlapping (Figures 10-12) against the top of Unit A is consistent with a regional flooding
event associated with the continuation of the subsidence of the Paleogene extension [3].
This relative rise of sea level was probably the cause of the demise of the platform.
Seismic evidence of exposure was not found at this stage of the study, which suggest
that exposure events were either absent or too short to produce seismically
recognizable signatures.

Since the point of view of the exploration for hydrocarbon, the interpretation of Unit A
extends the platform southward Cardon IV Block, which open the possibility to
investigate the Urumaco I block looking for a better definition the southern end of this
buildup.

3.4.2. Unit B

The Figure 18 shows the seismic facies interpreted for the Unit B. This succession is
mainly represented by divergent seismic facies, which baselapping against the horizon
EO or the top of Unit A. There is a west-east trending area, where the internal

INTEVEP, S.A.
32

configuration of the seismic unit becomes oblique progradational, showing areas with

INTEVEP, S.A.
33

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INTEVEP, S.A.
34

clear truncation or toplap terminations, and baselap at the lower boundary. In general,
reflections in this units show a moderate to good continuity and strong to weak
amplitudes. The unit thinning above and against the structural highs, becoming thicker
toward the Paleogene depressions (Figures 10-12).

The possible origin of the erosional truncation at the top of this unit could be related to
the early stages of deformation and inversion at the end of the Early Miocene inferred in
the surrounding Falcon Basin [12].

INTEVEP, S.A.
35

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Detailed seismic analysis of a 3D data set from an Early Miocene succession offshore
western Venezuela has shown a well defined carbonate build-up, which was developed
in a faulted structural high elongated in a NW-SE direction. This carbonate platform is
mainly characterized by parallel internal reflectors at the platform interior with prograding
facies at the margins. It was recognized the possibility of the platform extension
southward of the study area.

The seismic terminations patterns recognized are shown to be in concordance with the
regional geologic framework known for the area. Thus, the onlapping against horizons
EO and IM is associated with continuation of the subsidence of the Early Eocene
extension; while the erosional truncation at the transition of the Early Miocene Middle
Miocene is thought to reflect the first pulses of the Middle Miocene Inversion recorded in
the surrounding onshore Falcn basin. However, given the little geologic knowledge of
the offshore area, eustatic effects could not be discarded.

Two main systems of normal faults were identified: one with a N-S (older) and other with
a NW-SE (younger) striking direction. Many of these faults extend down into the
basement and terminate upward at Quaternary levels, affecting the development of the
section under study, as evidenced by the thickness variations along these faults.

Contingent upon the availability of 3D seismic volume at 16 or 32 bits and information of
core sedimentological analysis (currently in progress), It would be highly valuable to
propose a detailed model for the evolution of the studied platform to better constrain
geological processes affecting, controlling and modifying the growth and demise of the
platform.

INTEVEP, S.A.
36

Clearly, this study will be object of a deeper analysis, which will involve the interpretation
of other key horizons, the time to depth conversion, and the facies seismic analysis of
the entire sedimentary succession.

INTEVEP, S.A.
37

REFERENCE LIST

[1] Landmark graphics Corporation, SeisWorks/3D User Guide. Houston, TX, USA,
2004.

[2] Muessig, K. W., Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcn basin,
Venezuela, and adjacent areas, in W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves, and R.
Shagam, (eds.), The Caribbean-South American plate boundary and regional
tectonics: GSA Memoir 162, 1984, p. 217-230.

[3] Macellari, C., Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics of the southwestern
Caribbean pull-apart basin, Venezuela and Colombia, in A. Tankard, S. Suarez,
and H. Welsink, (eds.), Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62,
1995, p. 757780.

[4] Quiroz, L., and Jaramillo, C., Stratigraphy and sedimentary environments of
Miocene shallow to marginal marine deposits in the Urumaco Trough, Falcon
Basin, western Venezuela, in Sanchez-Villagra, M., Aguilera, O., and Carlini, A.
A., (eds.), Urumaco and Venezuelan Palaeontology, the Fossil Record of the
Northern Neotropics: Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 2010, 296 p.

[5] Coronel, G. R., A geological outline of the Gulf of Venezuela: 7th World
Petroleum Cong., Mexico, Proc., 1967, v. 2, p. 799-812.

[6] Audemard, F.E., Tectonics of Western Venezuela. Ph.D. Thesis. Rice University,
Houston, TX, USA, 1991, 245 pp.

INTEVEP, S.A.
38

[7] Audemard, F. A., Bousquet, J-C., and Rodrguez, J. A., Neotectonic and
Paleoseismicity studies on the Urumaco fault, northern Falcn basin,
northwestern Venezuela. Tectonophysics, 308, 1999, p. 23-35.

[8] Landmark graphics Corporation, SynTool User Guide. Houston, TX, USA, 2004.

[9] Landmark graphics Corporation, PostStack Family User Guide. Houston, TX,
USA, 2004.

[10] Zampetti, V., Schlager, W., Konijnenburg, J-H. and Everts A-J., Architecture and
growth history of a Miocene carbonate platform from 3D seismic reflection data;
Luconia province, offshore Sarawak, Malaysia. Marine and Petroleum Geology
21, 2004, p. 517534.

[11] Ramsayer, G. R., Seismic Stratigraphy, A Fundamental Exploration Tool:
Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings, Vol. 3, 1979, p. 18591867.

[12] Gorney, D., Escalona, A., Mann, P., The Bolivar Group, 2007. Chronology of
Cenozoic tectonic events in western Venezuela and the Leeward Antilles based
on integration of offshore seismic reflection data and on-land geology. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 91, 2007, p. 653684.

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