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TSL3108 TEACHING OF GRAMMAR IN THE PRIMARY CLASSROOM

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TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR


1.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 1 provides input on the teaching of grammar in the Primary School. It also
discusses the different meanings and definitions of grammar. In addition, it willo
compare and contrast between fluency and accuracy, grammar for young
learners and the place of grammar in the primary classroom.


1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:

Demonstrate an understanding of the meanings and definition of grammar.
Demonstrate an understanding of an overview of Teaching of Grammar in the
Primary School



1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS







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CONTENT

SESSION ONE (3 Hours)

1.3 Introduction to grammar

Grammar is central to the teaching and learning of languages. It is also one of the
more difficult aspects of language to teach as well. Grammar is partly the study of
what forms (or structures) are possible in a language, All language in use can be
analysed at each of the four levels; sound, word, sentence and text. These rules tell
the speakers
how to pronounce syllables (phonology),
how to form words (morphology),
how to structure sentences (syntax) and
what style of language to use in a given context (pragmatics).
These are the forms that language takes. The study of grammar consists, in part, of
looking at the way these forms are arranged and patterned. Thus a grammar is a
description of the rules that govern how a languages sentences are formed.

1.3.1 Meanings and definition of grammar

Grammar according to Rutheford (1987) is a necessary component of any language
teaching programme (p.9), and thus plays an important role in language teaching.
However, the focus on grammar in language teaching was challenged with the
emergence of teaching methodologies based on different learning theories, Such a
challenge influenced not only the content and the curriculum in language teaching,
but also the implication for teaching grammar. Thus, a fresh look at grammar was
necessary causing linguists and language educators to rethink the status of grammar
in language teaching and learning. This led to a constant debate among language
educators and linguists regarding the nature and type of grammar instruction, which
affected the understanding of how second languages should be taught or learned.

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There are various definitions of grammar. Among them are;

Grammar can be defined as a description of the structure of a language and
the ways in which units such as words and phrases are combined to produce
sentences in the language
(Dictionary of Applied Linguistics)
Grammar is roughly defined as the way a language manipulates and
combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning.
( Ur, 1994)

Grammar is generally thought to be a set of rules specifying the correct
ordering of words at the sentence level.
(Nunan, 2003)

Grammar is the system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and
relationship of words in a sentence.
(Brown, 2007)

Grammar is a description of the rules that govern how a languages sentences
are formed.
(Thornbury, 2008)

From the various definitions of grammar we can deduce that grammar is partly the
study of what forms are possible. Basically, a language consists words and sounds
(when spoken). This can be analyzed at each of the four levels; text, sentence, word
and sound. These are the forms that they take. A study of grammar looks at the
way these forms are arranged and patterned. Look at the following example:

This is 0153456789. We are not at home right now. Please leave
a message after the beep.

If you change the order of the sentences you no longer have a well-formed answer
phone message. For example:
Please leave a message after the beep. This is 0153456789.
We are not home right now.

Likewise at the sentence level, there is a fairly fixed order of words that form a
sentence.
Beep after a leave the please message.
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At the word level;
beep
Grammar explains why the following sentences are acceptable:
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An accuracy-oriented activity such as pattern drills is usually used in the teaching
of a new target item; A fluency-oriented activity such as extensive reading and
information gap aims to develop the students' spontaneous communications skills in
using what they have already learned.
Accuracy activities:
Purpose: the primary purpose is to help students achieve accurate perception
and production of a target item which can be a sound, a word, or a sentence
structure.
Material: the texts are usually composed of separate items; the target items
are usually practised out of context or situation;
Activities: students' attention is focused on a particular target item; their
output is usually predictable; their performance is assessed on how few
language mistakes are made; students' errors are corrected; tasks do not
usually simulate real-life situations.
ISSUE: do you teach accuracy or fluency first?

Accuracy
To achieve accuracy
Advantage: produce students who can reproduce accurately sentences learnt
Disadvantage: May not be effective in communicating the language in real life
situations.

Purpose: the primary purpose is to help students practice language in
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing activities to so develop fluency in
using the language in spontaneous communication.
Material: the texts are usually whole pieces of discourses: conversation,
stories, etc.; texts are usually authentic and used as they would be in real life.
Activities: students' attention is focused on communicating information and
expressing ideas; their output may not always be predictable; their
performance is assessed on how well ideas are expressed or understood;
students' errors are not corrected unless it interferes with communication;
tasks often simulate real-life situations.


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1.3.3 Grammar for Young Learners

The age of our students is a major factor in our decisions about how and what to
teach. People of different ages have different needs, competences and cognitive
skills (Harmer, 2005). Harmer (2005) further explains that young learners learn
differently from older children, adolescents and adults among others in the following
ways;
They respond to meaning even if they do not understand individual words.
They often learn indirectly rather than directly taking every information
around them rather than focusing on the precise topic being taught
Their understanding comes from explanation as well as from what they see
and hear and interact with.
They find abstract concepts such as grammar rules difficult to grasp
They have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging,
they can get easily bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so.
In relation to the teaching of grammar for young learners, explicit grammar teaching
is more effective at the intermediate to advanced levels than beginning levels
(Brown, 2007). This is because incidental focus on form is valuable as it treats
errors that occur while learners are engaged in meaningful communication. This
corrective feedback can facilitate acquisition if it involves a mixture of implicit and
explicit feedback.

1.3.4 The place of grammar in the Primary classroom

(a) The KBSR syllabus

As stipulated in the curriculum specifications for the primary school, the English
Language lesson aims to equip pupils with skills and provide a basic understanding
of the English language so that they are able to communicate, both orally and in
writing, in and out of school.

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Objectives of the KBSR Syllabus
i) listen to and understand simple spoken English to be able to function in
common everyday situations;
ii) speak and respond clearly and appropriately in common everyday
situations using simple language;
iii) to read and understand different kinds of texts (from print and
electronic sources) for enjoyment and information;
iv) write (including e-mail) for different purposes using simple language;
and
v) show an awareness and appreciation of moral values and love towards
the nation.

(b) The KSSR Syllabus
Under the KSSR syllabus, primary education is divided into two stages, Stage One
referring to Years 1, 2 and 3 and Stage Two, Year 4, 5 and 6. In Year 1 and 2, the
English language curriculum emphasises on the pupils development of basic
language skills in building the proficiency in the language. Grammar is only
introduced from Year 3 onwards.


KSSR ENGLISH

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KSSR States that:
By the end of Year 6, pupils should be able to:
use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and writing.

The following diagram shows the conceptual framework of the curriculum model.

THE MODULAR CONFIGURATION

Objectives Of the KSSR

By the end of Year 6, pupils should be able to:
i) communicate with peers and adults confidently and appropriately in formal
and informal situations;
ii) read and comprehend a range of English texts for information and
enjoyment;
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iii) write a range of texts using appropriate language, style and
form through a variety of media;
iv) appreciate and demonstrate understanding of English language
literary or creative works for enjoyment; and
v) use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and
writing




CURRICULUM ORGANISATION

The Standard-Based English Language Curriculum for Malaysian National Primary
Schools (SK) is designed to provide pupils with a strong foundation in the English
language. It is stipulated in the KSSR syllabus that teachers should use Standard
British English as a reference and model for teaching the language. It should be
used as a reference for spelling and grammar as well as pronunciation for
standardisation.






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TOPIC 2 APPROACHES IN THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR

2.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 2 highlights some of the approaches in the teaching of grammar. Some of the
approaches discussed are descriptive and prescriptive grammar, covert and overt approaches,
teaching of grammar in isolation and in context, Meaning, Use, Form (MUF) framework and the
integration of grammar with the other language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing.
In addition, issues pertaining to the teaching of grammer are also discussed.

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:

demonstrate an understanding of the approaches in the teaching of grammar
discuss issues in the teaching of grammar

2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS








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CONTENT

SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

2.3 Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar

2.3.1 Descriptive grammar
Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by
speakers and writers. Descriptive grammars describe how people use spoken and
written language, and the knowledge that they use to decide whether something is
grammatically correct.

2.3.2 Prescriptive grammar
Prescriptive grammar is a set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and
word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that
language. It refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be
used. Prescriptive grammars prescribe the rules of a language.

Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways.
Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that
underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers)
layout rules about what they believe to be the correct or incorrect use of
language.

Exercise 1
What do you think of prescriptive and descriptive grammar? Give your
comments.

2.4 Covert and Overt Approaches

Harmer (1988) puts forward two approaches to the teaching of grammar; covert and
overt grammar teaching.




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2.4.1 Covert Approach

In this approach, the teacher uses the structure without drawing attention to
grammatical rules. The focus is on the activity and not the grammar rules. Errors
should be tolerated during the course of the activity but should be noted and dealt
with at a later session.

2.4.2 Overt Approach

In the overt approach, teacher explicitly explains the rules when presenting the new
language. There are two options available to the teacher; the deductive approach
and the inductive approach.
Deductive approach the teacher presents the rules/patterns/generalizations
and then goes on to provide practice in the application of these rules.

Inductive approach - also known as discovery method. The students are first
given a number of sample sentences containing the target forms and then the
teacher guides the students into deriving the rule for themselves.
The two approaches should not be seen as separate but rather as complementary.

A grammar rule presented covertly via communicative activity can be supported by
an explicit explanation so that students understand the rules. A grammar rule
presented overtly or explicitly should be supported by activities which encourage
students to use the structures for communicative purposes.

2.5 Grammar in Isolation vs Grammar in Context

2.5.1 Grammar in Isolation

Teaching of grammar in isolation involves learning grammar which is presented out
of context. In this approach of teaching grammar, learners are given isolated
sentences, which they are expected to internalize through exercises involving
repetition, manipulation, and grammatical transformation. These exercises are
designed to provide learners with formal, declarative mastery of the language in
which they are able to explain rules of using the form of the language.

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2.5.2 Grammar in Context

Teaching of grammar in context involves teaching grammar in relations to the
context of the situation the utterances are usually used. When learners are given the
opportunities to explore grammar in context, it will make it easy for them to see how
and why alternative forms exist to express different communicative meanings. For
instance, getting learners to read a set of sentences in the active voice, and then
transform these into passives following a model, is a standard way of introducing the
passive voice. Nevertheless, this needs to be supplemented by tasks which give
learners opportunities to explore when it is communicatively appropriate to use the
passive rather that the active voice (Nunan, 2000). Grammar is therefore
contextualized in meaningful language use.
There are many views on the benefits of teaching grammar in context. As
teachers, we need to help learners see that effective communication involves
achieving harmony between functional interpretation and formal appropriacy
(Halliday 1985) by giving them tasks that shows the relationship between
grammatical items and the context in which they occur. This is because in genuine
communication beyond the classroom, grammar and context are often closely
related that appropriate grammatical choices can only be made with reference to the
context and the purpose of the communication. Furthermore, Celce-Murcia and
Olshtain (1998) stressed that only a handful of grammatical rules are free from
discoursal constraints.
According to Weaver (1996), grammar need not be taught, since it is acquired
sub-consciously when the students learn the other language skills. Weaver further
postulates that students can learn and apply many grammatical concepts without
learning to analyse and label the parts of speech and various other grammatical
constructions. For example, we come to understand that acquiring the terminology
that a have auxilliary is always followed by a past participle (They have taken the
chair) and a be auxilliary is always followed by a present participle (They will be
taking the chair).





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2.6 Meaning, Use, Form (MUF) framework

2.6.1 MEANING:

What meaning does the vocabulary, functional expression or grammar structure
have in the (specific) context? In other words what does the unit of language mean?
There are two aspects of meaning.
First, what is literal or essential meaning of the word, phrase,
functional expression or grammar structure?
Second, what does it mean in the context its being used in?
For example: Shes wearing a red skirt. The literal or essential meaning of the word
has to do with naming a particular colour.
Shes red from sitting in the sun. Her skin has turned a particular shade of pink
indicating sunburn.
He was a well-known red. Red indicates the persons political beliefs and affiliation.

2.6.2 FORM:

How is the vocabulary unit, functional expression, or grammar structure formed?
Form refers to the visible and audible parts of vocabulary, functional expressions
and grammar units: the spelling, phonemes, syllable stress, words in a phrase,
prefixes or suffixes, syntax (word order), choice of noun or verb, etc for a particular
place in a sentence, and/or punctuation. For example: the present perfect is formed
with have been plus the past participle of the main verb; tired of is followed by
Ving/gerund not an to V/infinitive, in my opinion and not on my opinion; the word is
spelled c-o-n-t-e-n-t and the second syllable is stressed

2.6.3 USE:

When or why is the vocabulary, functional expression or grammar structure used?
The words, functional expressions, grammar structures we choose to use are
determined by the situation we are in and/or what we want to communicate to our
listener(s). Use is interconnected with meaning.
For example: Please note: Mail will not be delivered on Thursdays until further
notice. The passive voice is used appropriately here because it is more formal and
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objective; because listeners know generally that postmen deliver the mail and that
this decision was made by a nameless government or postal official; and because
the what is crucial to communicate is the fact that there will be no postal delivery on
the specified day for the foreseeable future.
For example: Good morning! is a greeting we use with friends, family, our boss, etc.
when we see them before noon. If we say Good morning! to a family as s/he gets up
in the afternoon (because they were out late the night before), we are being ironic
and perhaps indicating disapproval. We would probably not say this to our boss
when s/he came in late.



Figure 1: Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freemans Form/Meaning/Use

2.7 Integration with the teaching of Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
skills.

Grammar is the basis of all written and verbal communication. We cannot listen,
speak, read or write without grammar. It is always present in any form of
communication. This is how grammar is acquired in the L1 situation without being
taught. This is because they are totally immersed in the L1 environment.
However, the situation is different in the ESL and EFL context. In the ESL
and EFL context, learning of grammar does not occur by pure chance.
In the Malaysian ESL context, the KBSR states that;
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The principle of integration requires that the four language skills, grammar
items/sentence patterns, the sound system and vocabulary be integrated and
taught as a whole, wherever possible

There are at least three ways in which grammar can be integrated with the other
language skills like, listening, speaking, reading and writing;
i. by a systematized mapping of the grammar syllabus within a thematically
conceived series of units. How this is done is explained in detail below.
ii. by a unit-by-unit mapping of grammar. In this system, mapping of grammar
that comes after the texts and situations for the four language skills have been
determined. The grammar element is then built in to support the skills-based
activities. The activities in turn, provide the grammar lesson with models from
which to derive grammar rules. This way of working out the grammar makes
grammar-learning appear more interesting to the students as the need for
grammar arises out of the immediate context.
iii. through the specific ways in which grammar supports and is supported by
each language skill.

(Source: Chitravelu et al., 2005)


For more detailed description on the integration of grammar with each
of the language skills, refer to Chitravelu et al. 2005. ELT Methodology
Principles and Practice. Kuala Lumpur. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.



2.8 Issues in grammar teaching

There are several issues pertaining to the teaching of grammar in the primary
classroom. Among them are:

2.8.1 To teach of not to teach grammar

There is an issue on whether to teach or not to teach grammar and if so, how to
teach it. The issue on whether to teach or not to teach grammar depends on
various variables (Brown, 2007) such as:
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age
proficiency level
educational background
language skills
style (register)
need and goals

2.8.2 Should grammar be presented inductively or deductively

The issue here is whether learners benefit from an inductive approach where
various language forms are practiced but in which the learners are left to discover or
induce rules and generalizations on their own? Or is it better if rule/generalization
are given by the teacher or textbook and then allowed to practice arious instances
of language to which the rule applies?
Sometimes a deductive approach, an inductive approach or even a blend
between the two is effective. In practice, the distinction is not always apparent.

2.8.3 Should grammar be taught in context or in isolation

Research on the effectiveness of grammatical instruction indicates the advisability
of embedding grammatical techniques into general language courses, rather than
teaching it in isolation, and treating it in a separate course.
Grammar, whether learned consciously or subconciously is regarded as an
enabling system that helps students to pursue relevant language goals. In other
words, grammar serves as a contributor towards achieving such goals.
In some curricula, certain class hours are set aside for grammar instruction.
Under certain conditions, however, they can provide a useful function, especially
for the high intermediate to advanced learners (Ellis 2006).

2.8.4 Should teachers correct grammatical errors

Many of the students errors in speech and writing performance are grammatical.
Research evidence shows that overt grammatical correction by teachers in the
classroom is seldom seen of any consequence in improving learners language.
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However, there are evidence showing that various other forms of attention to and
treatment of grammatical errors have an impact on learners.
In speaking we have to adhere to the principles of maintaining communicative
flow, of maximizing student self-correction and of sensitively considering the
affective and linguistic place the learner is in. However, in the process writing
approach, overt attention to local grammatical and rhetorical errors is normally
delayed until learners have completed one or two drafts of a paper. Nevertheless,
global errors has to be treated earlier in the process. Studies have shown that
certain attention to errors make a difference in final written products ( Brown, 2007).



Find other issues related to the teaching of grammar in the Primary
ESL classroom and write a critical review on the issues stated. .






























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TOPIC 3 GRAMMAR IN THE MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM

3.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 3 provides input on grammar in the Malaysian Primary School English
language Curriculum. It looks at the KBSR/KSSR syllabus and the language content
therein. We will also look at developing relevant activities to teach selected grammar
items.

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of the KBSR/KSSR Curriculum Specifications
2. explain the role of grammar in the KBSR/KSSR
3. identify grammar items and develop relevant activities


3.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS





Curriculum
Specifications
Objectives
Activities

From discourse
to grammar

Guided noticing
activities

Structuring
activities

Proceduralising
activities
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CONTENT

SESSION THREE (3 Hours)

3.0 The Ministry of Education has set out the Curriculum Specifications (Huraian
Sukatan Pelajaran) for each year of KSSR/KBSR. The document specifies what is
to be taught from Year 1 to Year 6. It comprises the four language skills of listening,
speaking, reading and writing as well as the language contents. The language
contents are the sound system, grammar and vocabulary.

3.1 CURRICULUM SPECIFICATIONS

Curriculum specifications for the English language syllabus have been prepared as
separate documents for each year of the primary school and these are known as
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran. Each document serves as a guide to teachers with
regard to the skills to be acquired by learners, the content or topic that is to be dealt
with, and the vocabulary and grammar items that pupils must know in order for them
to use the language.
Grammar forms part of the language contents in the Curriculum Specifications
for Malaysian Primary Schools. Grammar items and sentence patterns have been
selected from the list provided in the English Language syllabus to help pupils
master the structures of English. Two sections of the KBSR English Syllabus deal
with grammar. One section categorizes grammar under specific grammar labels and
provides sentence patterns to be covered under each label. In the other section,
sentence patterns are placed under functions and topics.
Grammar is taught every year under the KBSR syllabus. However, with the
KSSR syllabus, it is only introduced from Year 3 onwards.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
The syllabus sets out the objectives to be met in the teaching of grammar.
The KBSR syllabus sets out its objectives as:
By the end of Year 6, pupils should be able to:
- use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and writing.

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3.3 LANGUAGE CONTENT

Two sections have been listed to assist teachers. For example, the Curriculum
Specifications document for Year 5 has been divided into section 5.0 (a) and 5.0 (b).

In section (a), grammar items to be taught have been specified under the
different grammar categories. To illustrate what is meant by each category and at the
same time to specify the scope and depth of the items to be taught examples are
given. Words underlined highlight significant points of grammar.
In section (b), suggested sentence patterns for teaching are given. These
sentence patterns are set out under some functions and/or areas of interest. In
teaching these patterns, it is important that teachers teach them in context and in a
meaningful way.

Teachers are advised to limit the number of structures used in any one lesson to
ensure that learners master the structures well. Teaching too many structures may
not be advisable for weak learners as these may only serve to confuse them.

3.3.1 KSSR
Primary (exit after Year 6)
The English Language Curriculum for Primary Schools aims to equip pupils with
basic language skills to enable them to communicate effectively in a variety of
contexts thats appropriate to the pupils level of development.

3.3.2 KBSR
Primary (exit after Year 6)
The English language syllabus for primary school aims to equip pupils with skills and
provide a basic understanding of the English language so that they are able to
communicate, both orally and in writing, in and out of school.

Reflection



Compare and contrast the KBSR Curriculum Specifications and the
KSSR Standard Document for Year 3.
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3.4 ACTIVITIES
In this section, we move to practicalities and consider how teachers may
actually go about helping young learners develop their grammatical knowledge in the
foreign language. We begin with seeing how common activities in the young learner
classroom can offer opportunities for grammar learning. We will also look at take
noticing, structuring and proceduralising, and some examples of activities.
Keep in mind that grammar items taught and learnt must be applied both to oral work
and writing exercises.

3.4.1 Working from discourse to grammar
Many types of discourse that occur in young learner classrooms have
grammatical patterns that occur naturally, but that can be exploited for
grammar learning.
It requires teachers to think about their language use from a
grammatical perspective, so that they become aware of opportunities
for grammar that arise every day.
Classroom discourse contexts and routines can serve to introduce new
grammar, with access to meaning supported by action and objects, or
to give further practice in language that has already been introduced in
other ways.
Routines are an ideal context in which chunks can be expanded.
(Cameron 2010:111)

a. The language of classroom management
When children begin learning English, some very simple phrases for classroom
management can be introduced, and as time goes by, these can be expanded.
Some of the phrases originally used by the teacher can be used by pupils when they
in pairs or groups. The language of classroom management can thus act as a
meaningful discourse context within which certain patterns arise regularly and help
with building the internal grammar.
When organizing practical activities, for example, the teacher may ask pupils to:

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give out
the scissors
the books
the paper

The range of verbs to use with the nouns can be gradually increased:
give out
collect
tidy
the scissors
the books
the paper

The noun phrases can be expanded to match or to extend grammar development:
give out
collect
tidy
the small scissors
the green writing books
the paper from the cupboard

b. Talking with children
Conversations with individual children can be very powerful for language
development, because they can pick up on exactly what an individual child needs to
know next to talk about what interests him or her. If a child volunteers something, in
the first language or in what they can manage of the foreign language, the teacher
can respond in the foreign language, offering a more correct way of saying it:
Child: my mummy hospital
Teacher: oh! your mummys in hospital. Why?
This type of corrective feedback can be used for expanding the talk. If a child offers
a comment about a picture, for example, the teacher can respond with fuller
sentences that pick up the childs interest:
Child: bird tree
Teacher: Yes. The birds in the tree. Hes sitting on the
branch. Hes singing.

By becoming grammar aware, it is possible to incorporate a lot of grammar teaching
through this kind of incidental focusing on form that seizes on opportunities and
operates in a childs space for growth.

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Can you think of other classroom routines which can allow
opportunities for practicing grammar items?


3.4.2 Guided noticing activities
Activities in the previous section are those likely to lead to noticing of grammatical
patterns in the language. It is possible to construct activities that make noticing even
more probable, and which fit all or most of the criteria for good noticing activities.

a. Listen and notice
Pupils listen to sentences or to a connected piece of talk, e.g. a story or phone call,
and complete a table or grid using what they hear. In order to complete the grid, they
need to pay attention to the grammar aspect being taught.

b. Presentation of new language with puppets
When introducing a new pattern, the teacher can construct a dialogue with a story-
line, that uses a repetition plus contrast pattern, to be played out by puppets. For
example, a story where a crocodile and a squirrel discuss going swimming; with
dramatic irony added because the children know that the crocodile wants to eat the
squirrel. The pupils listen several times to the story-dialogue:

S: I wish I could swim like you, Croc.
C: Ill teach you to swim.
S: Oh, will you?
C: Lets start next week. Shall we go swimming on Monday?
S: No, sorry. On Mondays, I clean my house.
C: Shall we go swimming on Tuesday?
S: No, sorry. On Tuesdays, I visit my grandmother.
Similar pattern for Wednesdays, Thursdays, Fridays, Saturdays.
C: ((wearily)) What about Sunday?
S: Yes! On Sundays, Im free.
C: ((more excited; licking his lips)) OK. On Sunday well have our first
swimming lesson!
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The teacher can then recap the routine events by pointing to the calendar and saying
the key pattern phrases on their own: On Tuesdays, I visit my grandmother etc. To
help input processing, pupils may be given a blank calendar and be asked to
complete Crocs regular routine from listening, making a distinction between routine
events, On Mondays, I catch fish and, non-routine events On Sunday, Im going to
teach Squirrel to swim.
Reflection


Think of other examples of guided noticing activities.


3.4.3 Language practice activities that offer structuring opportunities
In structuring activities the goal is to help learners internalize the grammatical pattern
so that it becomes part of their internal grammar. The focus is on internal work that
happens as a result of activities that demand accuracy, rather than on fluency in
production.
a. Questionnaires, surveys and quizzes
These are commonly found in young learner course books; after input on favourite
foods, for example, children are asked to interview their friends to find out their
favourite foods. Preparation and rehearsal of the questions is necessary to ensure
accuracy, and the activity must be managed so that the questions are asked in full
each time. Once the information from several people has been collected, group work
on compiling results can offer further opportunities for internalizing or structuring the
grammar patterns. Such structuring requires learners to manipulate the language so
that they produce the form with attention and accurately.

b. Information gap activities
Activities with information gaps are often found in course books to practise oral skills.
Again, with just small adjustments, they can be used with grammar goals rather than
oral fluency goals. For example, children work in pairs; each has a calendar covering
the same month, but with different entries (this is the gap). Without looking, again
perhaps pretending to talk by phone, the children are to find a time when they are
both free, and can then decide what they want to do, e.g. go swimming, go to the
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cinema, go shopping. In finding out when they are both free, they should be
encouraged to use the language form being practiced, e.g. Shall we meet on Friday?
No, sorry. On Fridays, I go to the library.

c. Drills and chants
Drills offer language and involvement support to children when used to practise new
language, because the child can listen to others to pick up bits that she or he is
unsure about, and drills can be lively and fun if the pace is kept up.
Repetition drills,in which the children repeat what the teacher says, can help in
familiarising a new form, but substitution drills are the ones that offer more for
grammar structuring. In a substitution drill, the learners may transform the teachers
line, as here from you want to to lets:

T: You want to play football.
PS: Lets play football.
T: You want to go swimming.
PS: Lets go swimming.
(Doff 1988)

Alternatively, the teacher may use single words or pictures as prompts for pupils to
produce a sentence:
T: Cinema.
PS: Lets go to the cinema.
T: Football.
PS: Lets play football.
(Doff 1988)

In each case, the pupils are doing grammatical work in their minds to produce their
line in the drill, and this may help structuring.




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Reflection


Design an information gap activity to practise the patterns who is
he?/where does he live?/what does he do?/whats he doing right
now?
3.4.4 Proceduralising activities
At this point, we want learners to automatise their use of the grammatical form so
that it is available quickly and effectively for use in communication. Task design must
ensure that grammar is essential for achieving task goals and that some attention to
accuracy is required, but the idea is that attention to accuracy can gradually be
relaxed as it becomes automatic.

a. Dictogloss
The basic idea of dictogloss is that the teacher reads out a text several times, the
pupils listen and make notes between readings, and then reconstruct the text in pairs
or small groups, aiming to be as close as possible to the original and as accurate as
possible. During the collaborative reconstruction, learners will talk to each other
about the language, as well as the content, drawing on making their internal
grammatical knowledge. Through this talk, a pupil may learn from another about
some aspect of grammar.

Summary
The teacher can probably best help to develop childrens grammar in the foreign
language, not by teaching grammar directly, but by being sensitive to opportunities
for grammar learning that arise in the classroom. A grammar-sensitive teacher will
see that language patterns that occur in tasks, stories, songs, rhymes and classroom
talk, and will have a range of techniques to bring these patterns to the childrens
notice, and to organise meaningful practice. To do this well requires considerable
knowledge and teaching skills.

The End good luck with your activities!


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TOPIC 4 TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

4.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 4 provides you with some techniques for teaching grammar and discusses
how the different teaching techniques can be used to encourage the teaching of
grammar.


4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

list features of activities that support grammar learning
demonstrate an understanding of the techniques in the teaching of grammar
create an activity based on one of the techniques.
present and justify your choice.


4.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS






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CONTENT

SESSION FOUR (3 Hours)

4.3 INTRODUCTION

For a good grammar teaching, teachers have to make the lesson meaningful and
interesting in which pupils need to be surrounded by and participate in meaningful
discourse in their ESL classroom. Teachers should take the language learning
forwards and bring in grammatical features of stories, dialogues, songs, etc. to the
attention of their pupils in order to attract the pupils attention.

On the other hand, the teachers lack of ability to apply the appropriate
techniques and plan suitable activities for the pupils can often destroy the pupils
motivation in learning grammar. Thus, according to Chitravelu (2005), there are
several features that a teacher has to consider when planning suitable techniques in
his/her grammar classes.

a) Be meaningful : relate to students own needs, interests, likes and dislikes.
b) Be purposeful : provide challenge, get them involve and utilize the new
language.
c) Have a social function : provide opportunities for interaction.
d) Provide plenty of practice : using similar language in different ways.
e) Use a multimedia approach : use of all the five senses
f) Provide variety : practise new structures using all four skills
g) Encourage active participation

Reflection



Do you agree with the above features of activities that support grammar
learning?
Consider your own grammar lessons in justifying your reasons.





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4.4 TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

In this section, we move to practicalities and consider six techniques how teachers
may actually go about helping pupils develop their grammatical knowledge.

4.4.1 SONGS AND CHANTS

(a) Songs
Songs is a very good tool to motivate the pupils' learning process, it works
also as a break for the routine.
Songs could be an essential part of English teaching. It makes the pupils
more sensitive to the sounds and the classes becomes more interesting and
powerful. Be careful with your students level.
You should choose a song according to their level and try to see if the song is
suitable for them. There are lots of songs which are unsuitable for the
language teaching, these songs have a bad pronunciation or better the words
are pronounced wrongly.

There are many reasons to use songs in the classroom :

Songs are authentic texts
Songs can be linked to societal issues which might be interesting to students
Songs provide good context for grammar.
Songs can trigger emotional and affective connections to the target language
and culture.
Learning through songs involve different skills.
Songs are a good way to teach in an "Edutainment" way because they
incorporate all the language skills:
(1) Listening (to the song) - Following the song to determine words.
(2) Reading (following the lyrics to determine the words)
(3) Writing (filling in the blanks)
(4) Speaking (singing the song)
Kind of songs:
- Special songs
- Children's songs
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- Action songs
- Teaching structure songs
- Telling stories songs
- Pop Songs

How to use songs?

(i) Classic gap-fill:
Pupils listen to a song and as they listen they have the lyrics with gaps in for
them to fill in as they listen. This activity is not as simple as it sounds and
before making one yourself think about why you are taking out certain words.
It may be better to take out all the words in one group, such as prepositions or
verbs, and tell the pupils what they should be listening out for.
Another option is to take out rhyming words. Dont be tempted to take out too
many words, eight or ten is normally enough. To make the task easier you
could provide the missing words in a box at the side for the pupils to select, or
you could number the gaps and provide clues for each number.

(ii) Spot the mistakes:
Change some of the words in the lyrics and as pupils listen, they have to spot
and correct the mistakes. As with the gap-fill limit the mistakes to a maximum
of eight or ten and if possible choose a word set.
Another example of this for higher levels is to show the students the real
lyrics and you correct the English and make it proper! E.g. gonna change to
going to we was change to we were etc. This is a good way to focus on
song language.


(iii) Comic strip:
Songs that tell stories are great for pupils to make comic strips out of. You
have to choose your song carefully and spend time looking at the lyrics with
the pupils and making sure they have understood the main ideas.
Lower levels may need guidance as to how to divide up the song into suitable
chucks that can be represented pictorially.

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(iv) Order the verses:
With low levels this is a very simple activity. Chop up the lyrics of the song by
verse and give a small group of pupils the jumbled verses. As they listen they
put them in order.

(v) Discussion:
Certain songs lend themselves to discussions and you can use the song as a
nice lead in to the topic and a way to pre-teach some of the vocabulary. For
example: Where is the love? by the Black Eyed Peas to lead in to a
discussion about war.

(vi) Translation:
Although some teachers oppose all use of the mother tongue in the language
classroom, some pupils really enjoy translating lyrics into their own language.
If you do ask your pupils to do this ensure the lyrics are worth translating!

(b) Chants
Grammar chants can be a lot of fun to use in classes. They are especially
effective when used to help pupils learn problematic forms. Grammar chants
use repetition to engage the right side of the brain's 'musical' intelligence. The
use of multiple intelligences can go a long way to helping pupils speak English
'automatically'.
Using a chant is pretty straight-forward. The teacher (or leader) stands up in
front of the class and 'chants' the lines. It's important to be as rhythmical as
possible because these rhythms help the brain during its learning process.
Remember that through the use of repetition and having fun together (be as
crazy as you like) pupils will improve their 'automatic' use of the language.






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Example of a chant on prepositions. Lets practice.

Teacher/Leader: At, on
Class/Group: At, on
Teacher/Leader: at - with time
Class/Group: at - with time
Teacher/Leader: on - with days
Class/Group: on - with days
Teacher/Leader: We eat at eight.
Class/Group: We eat at eight.
Teacher/Leader: We meet on Mondays.
Class/Group: We meet on Mondays.
Teacher/Leader: She leaves at five.
Class/Group: She leaves at five.
Teacher/Leader: They play on Saturdays.
Class/Group: They play on Saturdays.
Teacher/Leader: At, on
Class/Group: At, on
Teacher/Leader: at - with time
Class/Group: at - with time
Teacher/Leader: on - with days
Class/Group: on - with days

(Source: www.chants.net.com )

Reflection

What do you think are the challenges of using songs and chants in
classroom?

4.4.2 STORIES
Using ESL stories for teaching English is a very good way of helping students
learn language more deeply and naturally. Just as salespeople and politicians
attract people to their products and ideas using stories - if they are wise - so too,
can English teachers attract students, particularly young learners, by using
stories.
Stories are motivating and fun; they create a deep interest and a desire to
continue learning. Listening to stories is a shared social experience; it provokes a
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shared response of laughter, sadness, excitement and anticipation. Stories
exercise the imagination; children can become personally involved in a story as
they identify with the characters and try to interpret the narrative and illustrations.
According to Chitravelu (2005), stories are excellent resources for grammar
teaching for several reasons:
1. Children, adolescent and adults all love stories & this generate positive
attitude
2. to the lesson for which the story acts as a framework.
2. Stories provide a context for several grammatical structures.
3. A story can provide contexts for real use of English (variety of emotions
and
issues).

Below are some activities and approaches to using ESL stories in the classroom.
(Source: http://www.tesolzone.com/esl-stories.html)

(i) Circle Story
A very simple technique which focuses on accuracy of language. The class create
stories word by word. You can begin by saying: "One Monday morning I was" or
whatever beginning you like. Then go round the class in a circle [not randomly]. The
first pupil must repeat "One Monday morning I was" and then add a single word that
makes sense and fits in grammatically. The second pupil repeats all the first pupil
has said, adding one more word. The third pupil repeats all and adds a word, and so
on, until a story develops around the class.
This technique can be fun, requires no preparation and focuses on the
accurate use of language. It can make a good warmer. With a small class it's
possible to go round the class twice. The teacher can choose whether the
story is to be told in present tense [if they are beginners] or used to practice
the simple past tense, or with no restrictions on the language used.

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(ii) Question Story
Write 4 or 5 questions on the board. For a very low level class these might be:
"What's his/her name?" "Where is he/she?" "What's he/she doing?" "What
does he/she say?" Run through a few possible answers orally with the class.
Then give a piece of paper to every pupil. Tell them you want them to write an
answer to the first question only. Encourage them to be creative.

They then fold back their paper, so the answer they have written is folded
away from the page and not visible when the paper is flat on the desk. All
pupils then pass their paper to the pupil on the left. They all then write the
answer to the second question, fold the paper again, then pass to the next
pupil on the left, and so on, until all the questions have been answered. The
pupils can then unfold the papers, correct where possible, and then read
aloud the slightly crazy stories to the class.
(iii) Retelling Stories
a) Another way of using stories which requires minimal preparation, yet is a
very powerful learning tool, is to have the pupils retell stories. The best
stories to begin with are interesting anecdotes from your life, or interesting
or unusual news stories. Once this activity is familiar, the pupils can then
contribute with their own stories. This activity works well as a warmer and
as practice or review of the simple past tense.

b) Choose a short story that can be told in several sentences. Write a title on
the board as an introduction. Then write the appropriate verb (in the
present tense) for each sentence of the story. Do not write out the story.
Adding pictures helps, as long as the pictures can be drawn in a few
seconds. Then tell the story, sentence by sentence, pointing to the verbs
and eliciting the correct past tense from the students. The pupils then retell
the story. This can be done by asking individual pupils to retell separate
parts. The pupils can also retell the story to each other in pairs. When the
pupils are familiar with this method of using stories, have some of them
prepare a short story for homework. They can retell it to the other pupils
the following class.

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4.4.3 NURSERY RHYMES AND POEMS

Nursery Rhymes and poems like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson
effectively. Since poetry is often spoken, repeated, dealt with, and considered, it acts
as an effective tool for practicing a specific grammatical structure. Through repeating
and considering the poem, the grammatical structures become more deeply
internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides a rewarding resource for structured
practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for review.

In the selection of a poem, the teacher should first consider the grammatical
structure to be presented, practiced, or reviewed, then the level and the age of the
students, next the theme and the length of the poem and its appropriateness to the
classroom objectives. Poems, which reflect cultural themes, universal features,
humanistic values, or emotional aspects, will be more relevant to the foreign
language learners. Finally, through taking the classroom objectives into
consideration, a teacher should effectively benefit from poems as teaching aids.

If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages the
eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us;
this polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many
students. Some of its potential is illustrated as the followings:













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Example 1: To practice adjectives

The following poem is about hippos. Use the structure of this poem and
write a poem of your own about anything, e.g. people, trees, shoes.

Hippos

Hippos swim.
Hippos snort.
Hippo legs
are rather short.

Hippos ears
are pink and tiny.
Hippo hide
is very shiny.

Hippo tails
are stout and stubby.
Hippo hips
are kind of chubby.

Hippos stay
rather quiet.
Hippos never
like to diet.

(Source: http://www.charlesghigna.com/poems.html)







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Example 2: To teach the imperative

Chivvy
Grown-ups say things like:
Speak up
Don't talk with your mouth full
Don't stare
Don't point
Don't pick your nose

Sit up
Say please
Less noise
Shut the door behind you
Don't drag your feet
Haven't you got a hankie?
Take your hands out of your pockets

Pull your socks up
Stand up straight
Say thank you
Don't interrupt
No one thinks you're funny
Take your elbows off the table

Can't you make up your own mind about anything?
By Michael Rosen





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Example 3: To practice verbs


Take a grape and eat it slowly. Then read this poem. Then eat a
mango and write a poem like this about it.

How to eat a grape

squash, squish
crunch
chew, chew
trickle
twang, bang
spit
swallow
choose
squash, squish
crunch
chew, chew
trickle
twang, bang
spit
swallow
choke
cough, cough

Anonymous




4.4.4 GAMES

Teaching Grammar through games is another way to help pupils not only
gain knowledge but be able to apply and use that learning in an interesting
way.
According to Arif Saricoban and Esen Metin, authors of "Songs, Verse and
Games for Teaching Grammar" , they say that
1. Games and problem-solving activities...have a purpose beyond the
production of correct speech, and are examples of the most preferable
communicative activities.
2. Grammar games help children not only gain knowledge but be able to
apply and use that learning.
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3. Games allow the students to "practice and internalize vocabulary,
grammar and structures extensively." How?
i) They can do this through repeated exposure to the target grammar and
because students are often more motivated to play games than they are to
do deskwork.
ii) Plus, during the game, the students are focused on the activity and end
up absorbing the grammar subconsciously.
Similarly, Aydan Ersoz, author of "Six Games for the ESL/EFL Classroom"
also explained more reasons why games do work for teaching grammar.
Learning a language requires constant effort and that can be tiring, but Ersoz
outlines two good reasons why games should be included in the classroom:
- Games that are amusing and challenging are highly motivating.
- Games allow meaningful use of the language in context.
(Source:http://www.teachingenglishgames.com/Articles/Teaching_Grammar_with_G
ames_in_the_ESL_Classroom.htm)


In short, we can conclude that there are many advantages of using games in
the classroom (Lee, 1995):
1. Games are a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class.
2. They are motivating and challenging.
3. Learning a language requires a great deal of effort. Games help students to
make and sustain the effort of learning.
4. Games provide language practice in the various skills- speaking, writing,
listening and reading.
5. They encourage students to interact and communicate.
6. They create a meaningful context for language use.'


What kinds of games work best?
When you are looking for games to use in your classroom, don't just pick
something to be a "time filler" that does not have any linguistic purpose.
Lin Hong, author of "Using Games in Teaching English to Young Learners",
explains that not all games are going to work to teach the students language
skills.
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You should consider these questions posed by Hong:
- Which skills do the games practice?
- What type of game is it and what is its purpose?
- Does the difficulty level of the game match with the students' ability level?
- Does the game require maximum involvement by the students?
- Do the students like it? Do you like it?
- What specific vocabulary or grammar are you introducing or practising with
this game?
- Can you keep control of your class and play this game?
- What materials do you need for the game and can you obtain these
easily?
- What controls, if any are needed, will you have in place to ensure the
children are on track?

When to Use Games?
'Games are often used as short warm-up activities or when there is some time
left at the end of a lesson.
However, a game "should not be regarded as a marginal activity filling in odd
moments when the teacher and class have nothing better to do" Lee (1979:3).
Games ought to be at the heart of teaching foreign languages. Rixon
suggests that games be used at all stages of the lesson, provided that they
are suitable and carefully chosen.
'Games also lend themselves well to revision exercises helping learners recall
material in a pleasant, entertaining way.

Therefore, it is agreed that even if games resulted only in noise and entertained
students, they are still worth paying attention to and implementing in the classroom
since they motivate learners, promote communicative competence, and generate
fluency.'




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Tips for Using Grammar Games in Class Successfully
(Adapted from http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/grammar-games.html)

1. ORGANIZATION
Figure out how to organize your class i.e. the time spent.
For the younger students you'll want to change your activities every five to ten
minutes because they have shorter attention spans. If you don't change your
activities, they'll soon start losing interest.
As you get towards the higher elementary grades, you can expand the time
you spend per activity.
Additionally, try to have everything ready to go before the students enter the
classroom. That way you can go from activity to activity with minimal
downtime. This is essential as you can lose control of the class if you do not
keep them occupied.

2. EXPECTATIONS
If you notice that your class is getting noisy or rambunctious, it's time to
change activities. Pupils of this age like to be active; in order to balance out
the energy levels in the classroom, alternate between active activities and
quiet activities.

3. VARIATION
You want to make sure your activities appeal to all sorts learning styles, so
even when you are using games to teach grammar you'll want to vary the
types of things you expect your students to do.
For Level One pupils, stick to games that use talking, listening, looking and
moving. For Level Two pupils, you can continue to use games that use
talking, listening, looking and moving and add in some games that use writing
and reading.

4. RESPECT
To make games work for you and your class, be sure to operate your class
with the utmost respect - both to and from students. This includes teaching
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your students from the very start that you expect respect at all times. This
includes giving encouragement and following the rules.

5. ROUTINE
Establishing a routine will help the class go smoothly. If pupils know what to
expect next, they will be more able to participate in what's going on now.
Set up a schedule for the type of activities you'll be doing at any given time
throughout the class whether it is a game, story or song or whatever you want
to do. Then, when you are planning your class, plug in the appropriate
activities to each section of time.
You should also leave a little time at the end of the class period to allow the
pupils to clean up and gather their things as well as time for you to recap the
class, praise the pupils and tell them good-bye.

EXAMPLES OF GAMES

By incorporating games into your lesson plan, your students will not only stop
dreading grammar lessons, but theyll actually look forward to them.

Board games, such as Go to Press! A Grammar Game, are sure to be a big
hit with young students, and will have them giggling too. In this unique game,
pupils try to create a complete newspaper by moving from department to
department (such as entertainment, sports, weather, etc.) finding and
correcting errors in the headlines. The goal is to be the first player to return to
the bosss office and say, Go to press!
If you dont have access to board games, there are still a number of activities
you can have pupils participate in. Create a crossword puzzle and use the
clues to get pupils to practice critical thinking skills about the grammar lesson
of your choice.
Or, try playing a game of hangman to get pupils focused on adjectives.

CONCLUSION

Using games to teach grammar can be both fun and rewarding for you and your
pupils. Just remember to keep them engaged and make sure that your games are
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truly teaching the skill at hand and you'll soon have a class full of pupils who get
excited about learning grammar!


4.4.5 PUPPETS

What is a puppet?
- A puppet is an inanimate figure moved by a puppeteer to convey emotion,
character and story.

Some examples of puppets:
1. shadow puppets
2. hand puppets
3. marionette puppets
4. water puppets
5. finger puppets
6. stick puppets
7. robotic puppets



Main types of Puppets
Hand or glove puppet: these are puppets controlled by one hand which
occupies the interior of the puppet.

Sock puppet: they are particularly simple type of hand puppet made from a
sock and they operated by inserting ones hand inside the sock. One then
moves his hand up and down to give the impersonation of speaking.

Rod puppet: it is constructed around a central rod secured to the head. A
large glove covers the rod and is attached to the neck of the puppet. A rod
puppet is controlled by the puppeteer moving the metal rods attached to the
hands of the puppet and by turning the central rod secured to the head.

Human-arm puppet: it is also called a two-man puppet or a Live-hand
puppet; it is similar to a hand puppet but is larger and requires two
puppeteers. One puppeteer places a hand inside the puppets head and
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operates its head and mouth, while the other puppeteer wears gloves and
special sleeves attached to the puppet in order to become the puppets arms,
so that the puppet can perform arbitrary hand gestures. This is a form of glove
or hand puppetry and rod puppetry.

The marionette is a particular type of puppet. It is suspended and controlled
by a number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar
held from above by the puppeteer. The control bar can be either a horizontal
or vertical one.
This form of puppetry is complex and sophisticated to operate, requiring
greater manipulative control than a finger, glove or rod puppet.
The most famous marionette is Pinocchio, invented by Carlo Collodi.


Why and how should teachers use puppets in their class?

Teachers use puppets for the same reason a fisherman puts bait on his hook;
to catch the attention of children. Children love puppets. Puppets are much
more than a cute toy. Puppets are powerful communication tools. Puppets
are tools you should add to your tool box along with the paper and pencils.
use a puppet (or a set of puppets) to act out various grammar concepts. This
can be especially useful for learning verb tenses and prepositions for
instance.


4.4.6 DIALOGUES AND PLAYS

Dialogues are popular activities in ESL textbooks for a number of linguistic as
well as cultural reasons.
According to Rivers (1981), there are two broad categories of dialogues:
1. Conversation-facilitation
- Provide students with useful phrases with which they can begin to
communicate. These dialogues are often short and therefore students
are encouraged to memorize them.
2. Grammar-demonstration dialogues.
- The dialogues are longer and contain certain grammatical structures that
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are to be studied. They provide contextualized examples from which
students will deduce generalizations about a particular grammatical
structure.
Teachers can use or adapt dialogues to:
demonstrate grammar in context
facilitate conversationThis may parallel grammar instruction, but also gives
specific language practice
provide recreation such as a skitThese dialogues are bridging activities
that provide spontaneous use of learner knowledge.

(b) Plays
Apart from memorization, widely used in the audio-lingual era, dialogues can
be exploited for plays through which students can practice language more
freely.
Larsen-Freeman (2000) has pointed out, plays give pupils the chance of
interacting and practicing communication acts in different contexts and
because of this, they are of primary importance in language teaching.
The play scripts encourage students to read aloud, swap roles, repeat and
understand grammar in context, and make the sentences come alive.
Pupils in pairs or small groups can also be given the task of writing a play
script.
After they have learned rules and done some practice, they can undertake the
work of creating a play using the newly learned structure.

Some points to keep in mind when writing or adapting dialogues for pupils to
practice
Use natural language as much as possible (include exclamations and
expressions where appropriate; avoid a strict question-answer-question
sequence).
Keep the dialogue short enough so that students can easily remember it.
Apply current sociolinguistic norms. For example, an informal introduction is
Hi, nice to meet you, rather than How do you do?
Depict situations in the dialogue that are relevant and useful to the learner.
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Retain truth value in the dialogue.
Create characters who are realistic in that they have some personality and
relate to the learners experience in some way.
(based on Slager 1976 cited in Omaggio 1984 and Graham 1992).



Refer to online websites.
Compile articles related to the importance of using different
techniques for teaching grammar.



The end of this sessiongood luck with your activities!































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TOPIC 5 DEVELOPING ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES FOR
THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
5.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 5 exposes you the various types of English Language Teaching (ELT)
activities and resources for the teaching of grammar. Activities and resources are
very important to English language teachers. If selected and used effectively, they
can help our pupils to understand what we are teaching them more easily. In this
topic, you will be exposed to the various types of activities and resources for
teaching grammar. Then we will look at how to select suitable activities and finally
how to exploit the resources so that teaching and learning will be more enjoyable
and effective.

5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

1. identify principles of selecting activities and resources
2. identify types of ELT activities and resources
3. select appropriate activities and resources for use in the grammar classes
4. demonstrate an understanding of the activities and resources in the teaching
of grammar.
5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

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SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)

5.3 ACTIVITIES

One of the goals of language teaching is to develop fluency in language use.
Compared to the traditional lesson formats where the focus was on mastery of
different items of grammar and practice through controlled activities such as
memorization of dialogues and drills, and the current trend has moved toward the
use of pair work activities, role plays, group work activities and project work.

5.3.1 ROLE OF ACTIVITIES
Good classroom activities will create fluency in which students can negotiate
meaning, use communication strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to
avoid communication breakdowns. These activities can also organised to meet
accuracy which focuses on creating correct examples of language use. Differences
between activities that focus on fluency and those that focus on accuracy can be
summarized as follows:

Activities focusing on fluency
Reflect natural use of language
Focus on achieving communication
Require meaningful use of language
Require the use of communication strategies
Produce language that may not be predictable
Seek to link language use to context

Activities focusing on accuracy
Reflect classroom use of language
Focus on the formation of correct examples of language
Practice language out of context
Practice small samples of language
Do not require meaningful communication
Control choice of language
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5.3.2 PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
The activities to support grammar teaching and learning should follow the features
below:
a) Be meaningful
The activities must relate to students own needs and therefore make them
involve. As a teacher, you should consider your pupils age, sex and
background. Preferably getting to know your pupils interests, likes and
dislikes will make the learning more meaningful. Primary school pupils
normally love stories, wild life, nature, songs and rhymes and popular
personalities.

b) Be purposeful
Good learning activities should make pupils utilize the language, provide them
challenge and grab their attention and interest. This is because the pupils
learn better if the lesson or activities require personal and emotional
involvement.

c) Have a social function
Good learning activities too have opportunities for interaction with other
people. By having social function, pupils can get a sense of the usefulness of
the language, check and test whether they have used the language correctly
and learn from their classmates in a less threatening way.

d) Provide plenty of practice
Provide sufficient opportunities for each pupil to use similar language in
different ways (listen, speak, read and write) and contexts (poems, stories,
songs, games, jokes) so that the target structures become part of the
automatic response.

e) Use multimedia approach
Language learning should be supported using all the five senses because the
variety of input is important as an aid to memory.

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f) Provide variety
To keep pupils attention, teachers need to have a variety of activity types in
the teaching of grammar. Children, especially the lower primary level, have
short attention span.

g) Encourage active participation
Teachers should ensure that activities design for grammar teaching should
encourage them move around and interact with each other. Pupils will enjoy
all these movement and hence enhance their learning process.

5.3.3 DEVELOPING GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES

Classroom activities need to reflect the grammar point that is being introduced or
reviewed. By contrast, when a course curriculum follows a topic sequence, grammar
points can be addressed as they come up. In both cases, teachers can use the
Larsen-Freeman pie chart (below) as a guide for developing activities.


Figure 1: Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freemans Form/Meaning /Use pie chart

According to Diane Larsen Freeman (1997), to know a grammatical item, a student
needs to understand its form- how to make the structure, its meaning and its use.
Each segment is inter-related, so that altering one segment will automatically
produce change in other segments. Hence, language teachers must ensure that their
students master all three segments; how to construct the grammatical item (form),
what it means (meaning) and how to use it (use).


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TYPES OF ACTIVITIES
Activities that are commonly carried out in grammar lessons are:
a) Drills
A drill is a type of highly controlled oral practice in which the students respond
to a given cue. The response varies according to the type of drill.
Drills are used usually at the controlled practice stage of language learning so
that students have the opportunity to accurately try out what they have
learned.
Drills help students to develop quick, automatic responses using a specific
formulaic expression or structure, such as a tag ending, verb form, or
transformation.
There are six common forms of drills:
Type of Drill Example Cue words
1 Simple repetition T: Rizal calls Mat.
S: Rizal calls Mat.
2 Simple substitution T: Rizal calls Mat. Govind
S: Rizal calls Govind.
3 Multiple substitution T: Rizal calls Mat. George Uma
S: George calls Uma..
4 Simple correlation T: Rizal calls Mat. Janet and Aini
S: Janet and Aini call Mat.
5 Multiple correlations T: Rizal hurt himself. We
S: We hurt ourselves.
6 Transformation T: Rizal calls Mat. Question
S: Does Rizal call Mat?

Drills can be made interesting by changing the tone, loudness etc. with each
item is said.
Mode of drilling also can be changed from individual drill to chorus drill.
For more ideas on drills, see Stevick (1987).







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b) Substitution tables

Substitution tables are usually used by teachers to practise more than one
form. For example the table below is constructed to practise two question forms.


How do I go to
the post office?
the railway station?
the secondary school?
the supermarket? Where is


c) Jazz Chants
Another way in which drills can be made more engaging is through jazz
chants. This technique involves using an element of rhythm. Jazz chants is simply a
way of learning to speak and understand with special attention to the sound system
of the language (Carolyn Graham, 1978). An example of a jazz chants:

I saw a lion
I saw a lion
What did you see?

I saw a lion
So did we

She saw a hippo
He saw an elephant
They saw a buffalo too
Nobody saw a rhino.
Nobody saw a rhino.

Where are all the rhinos?
Where did they go?
Where are all the rhinos?
I dont know.
(Source: http://jazzchants.net/some-favorites/84-jazz-baby-in-africa)
For more examples and information on grammar activities see Chitravelu et al.
pp213-228


Choose one activity for teaching grammar.
List down the strengths and weaknesses of the selected activity.
Share the findings during tutorial.

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5.4 MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

For English language teachers choosing resources for teaching is easy as we live in
a world of teaching resources. Resources can come from the internet, the
newspaper, the school itself, the environment and our own homes. These massive
choice of resources can be obtained and modified for classroom teaching. Although
getting resources seems easy, as English language teachers, we do need to get
some information about teaching resources because
it will help us make decisions about how many areas of content we can
realistically address within the time frame of our teaching.
It will help us make decisions about the kinds of materials we choose or
develop.

5.4.1 TYPES OF MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

Are these teaching aids familiar to you?










Well, can you think of some other materials or resources that you can use in
your grammar lessons?






Videos newspaper radio pictures puppets
brochures games charts
computers Internet
LCD projectors CD-ROMs real objects
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Print, Non-Print and Electronic
ELT materials and resources can generally be grouped into three categories:


5.4.2 ROLE OF MATERIALS

Can you recall your own learning experience when you were in school? How did it
feel to attend a class which was carried out without any teaching aid? Of course, the
lesson would be dull and bored if you were asked to just sit and listen for a long
period of time. This is where the teaching aids play a role. They contribute to the
learning process in the following ways:
source of motivation
making learning interesting
decrease the anxiety of learner
concrete base for abstract learning
develop confidence (individually, group work)
develop creativity
flexible and friendly environment
provides students an approach towards learning
capture the attention and involve the students in learning situation
5.4.3 PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL SELECTION
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Materials development refers to anything which is done by writers, teachers or
learners to provide sources of language input and to exploit those sources in ways
which maximize the likelihood of intake: the supplying of information about and/or
experience of the language in ways designed to promote language learning.
However, in developing resources or materials for teaching, teachers should
consider the following criteria:

(a) Interest Value
Materials selected should contain some illustrations to attract the learners
attention and avoid boredom. Teachers should bear in mind that boys and
girls have different interests.

(b) Learners Level of Proficiency
It is necessary to check the difficulty of language used in materials, especially
authentic ones such as newspaper articles, before deciding to use them in
your class.

(c) Learners Maturity
The content of the materials should be suited to the maturity level of the
learners. Young learners will comprehend something familiar to them such as
on family and favourite past times. Adolescent learners, on the other hand,
will appreciate current issues.

(d) Learners Prior Knowledge
Learners prior knowledge, in other words, should serve as a take-off point in
your teaching and also their learning. If the prior knowledge is not taken into
consideration, learners will feel frustrated and demotivated.

(e) Suitability of Cultural Content
Teachers need to be sensitive to the students cultural background and values
as this would arouse conflicts in them. This includes the assurance that
children and students will not be exposed to offensive materials. Although
teachers are not intentionally teaching the wrong values, sometimes good
intentions are misunderstood.
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(f) Practicality
The criterion of practicality should be very much the concern of the teachers
when selecting the materials. They need to consider whether the learners
have ample time to complete the materials.

(g) Availability and Cost
Some teaching aids such as software programmes and electronic aids can be
rather costly and not easily accessible. Thus, teachers should make the
necessary arrangements if they plan to use them. Electronic aids such as the
LCD projector, radio, television or charts need to be booked from the resource
room in school. to save cost. Besides that, there are a lot of materials
available on the internet in which teachers can search for when they have
free time, and store them for future classes.

5.4.4 DEVELOPING RESOURCES
Realia or real objects are not always suitable for our lessons. Sometimes teachers
have to make their own teaching aids to suit their activities. Therefore, in this section,
we will look at how to produce some simple teaching materials that are very useful to
the primary school teachers.

(a) Flashcards
Flashcards are easy to make as all you need to do is to stick a picture
or word (or phrase), or both, on a piece of manila card.
Pictures can be drawn or taken from magazines or internet.
Can be used for revision or remedial work.
Make sure the cards are big enough to be seen by the whole class.
Sample of flashcards to teach prepositions:
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Content: above, across from, behind, below, between, in, in front of, into, near,
next to, on, out of, over, under

(Source: http://www.eslflashcards.com)
(b) Exploiting materials from the newspapers
The newspaper is a wonderful resource for teaching. It contains a variety of
both pictorial and non-pictorial texts that teachers can use in lessons.
Teachers can utilise the pictures, articles, advertisements, comic strips, TV
programmes etc. These materials can be used to generate many classroom
activities for all levels of proficiency.
In addition, the newspaper is also cheap, easily available and it exposes
learners to real-life language.
Here are some examples of activities:

(i) Scavenger Hunt
Pupils work in groups and are given a list of items to look for in the
newspaper. They can either cut out whole pictures, words or phrases and
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paste them on a piece of paper. It is a lot of fun as students compete in
their groups and locate the items stated in the scavenger hunt list.

(ii) Guided Writing
Teacher can cut out an advertisement and pupils will complete blanks/
dialogues with information from the advertisement.

(iii) Shopping list
Pupils will be told that they are going shopping for birthday presents for
themselves and their family members. Look through the newspaper and
cut out the presents that they would buy if they have lots of money. Ask
them to explain their choices either in written or verbal form.

***For more ideas and hands-on experience on using newspaper in education
(NIE), look out for the annual NIE workshops organised by The Star and
News Straits Times in major cities in Malaysia.

(c) Internet resources

The internet is another good resource for teaching. There are many
educational websites, pictures, exercises, stories, poems, ideas an other
kinds of materials that you can use for your grammar lessons. Multimedia
presentations can also be downloaded and shown during lessons to make
learning and understanding easier. Besides, the animation, colour and hi-tech
presentations often motivate and capture students attention.

Teachers can either download the materials and print them for the students or
allow them to access the internet to do the exercises. However, the availability
of computer and internet facilities, the constraints of time and computer skills
of the students will play a very important role in ensuring the smooth flow of
the lesson.


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Here are some useful websites for teachers to obtain interesting materials for
lessons.

Website Description
http://www.eslcafe.com Ideas for teaching & learning ESL,
games, exercises
http://www.englishclub,com Games, quizzes, exercises, worksheet
generator
http://www.englishlearner.com Resources for teaching, interactive
tests & exercises
http://www.longman.com Resources for teaching English
http://www.english-to-go.com Lesson plans, interactive activities,
resources



Refer to internet sources and compile different samples
of activities and resources for the teaching of grammar.


Summary and Conclusion

Activities and materials that are appropriate for a particular class need to have an
underlying instructional philosophy, approach, method and technique which suit the
students and their needs. They should have correct, natural, current and standard
English. Teachers need to choose appropriate activities and look for good materials,
both commercial and non-commercial, all the time to ensure teaching and learning
take place effectively.


The end of this sessiongood luck with your
activities!







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TOPIC 6 ASSESSING GRAMMAR

6.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 6 provides input on how to assess grammar. We are going to look at how to
test the students knowledge of grammar. We will also look at a number of types of
test items.

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of types of tests
2. explain the rules for writing tests
3. design items to test students knowledge of grammar

6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
















Types of
Tests
Rules of
writing tests
Developing
test items
Multiple choice Fill-ins Sentence
completion
activities
Transformations
Sentence
writing
Sentence
reordering
Parallel writing
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CONTENT

SESSION SIX (3 Hours)

3.0 You have taught the grammar. You have practised it. You have corrected it.
But how do you know if the process has worked? How do you test it?

3.1 TYPES OF TEST
We can test the students ability to speak or write. We can test students
reading or listening comprehension skills. Many tests include all these elements,
especially public exams like SPM and MUET.
Public exams test how good a students overall command of English is. In this
chapter, however, we will look at tests which are given in schools and classes to find
out how well students have done. These are often called achievement tests and are
given after a semester or years work. The aim of such tests is to see if students
have learnt and acquired the language they have been studying or have been
exposed to.

3.1.1 WRITING ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Writing a test is an important job that demands skill and patience. Good tests
show both teacher and students how well they are all doing. They do not fail
students unnecessarily and they give everyone a chance to show how much they
have learnt.
Tests can often go wrong, not just because of the students lack of
knowledge, but also because of problems in the writing of the tests themselves.
When writing tests teachers should bear in mind the following rules.

a. Dont test what you havent taught.
The purpose of an achievement test is to find out how well students have achieved
what they have been studying. In such a test, then, it is not fair to test things that
they havent been exposed to.



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b. Dont test general knowledge
Test writers should remember that they are testing the students knowledge of
English, not their knowledge of the world. For example, a test item like this would not
be acceptable.
Picasso was a famous _______________.

The problem is that if students get this item wrong, you dont know if it is because
they dont know about Picasso or because they dont know the word painter (or
artist).

c. Dont introduce new techniques in tests
One thing that confuses students in tests, is the presence of item types and
techniques that they have never seen before. In other words, if students are given a
set of jumbled words and asked to reorder them to make a sentence, we would
expect them to have seen this type of activity before in class. If the sentence-
ordering activity is completely new to them, they may have difficulties understanding
how to do the question which have nothing to do with their knowledge of English (or
lack of it).

d. Dont forget to test the test.
It is extremely unwise to write a test and give it straight to the students. Often
unforseen problems arise. Perhaps you forgot to write clear instructions. Perhaps
there are some mistakes. Perhaps the test is far too difficult or far too easy. But
especially if the test is important for students (and most tests are) you must try to
ensure that it works.
You should show it to your colleagues who can help to spot problems or misprints. If
possible try out the test with a class similar to your own. This is done to spot any
obvious mistakes or problems.

TEST ITEMS
Grammar is typically tested by means of what are called discrete-item tests. That
is, individual components of the learners knowledge (for example, irregular past
tense verb forms such as went, saw, did etc.) are tested using tasks such as gap-
fills:
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Let us now look at a number of items that test a students knowledge of grammar.
We will start by looking at more discrete items and end by looking at testing
techniques that are slightly more integrative.

(i) Multiple choice
In multiple choice items, students have to choose the correct answer from a
number of alternatives. At the most simple level, multiple choice can be used to test
the students grammatical knowledge, for example:
Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D.
1. Charles ____________ to work yesterday.
A. doesnt go B. hasnt gone C. didnt go D. Isnt going

Multiple choice items can be made a greater test of all-round comprehension
if they are part of a passage or dialogue, for example:
Hilary : Where are you (on, in, off, out) to?
Jane: Im just going to the shops.
Hilary: Could you (post, take, bring, buy) this letter with you?
Jane: Yes, of course.
Hilary: And youd better (take, to take, taking, took) an umbrella.
Jane: Why?
Hilary: Because its going to rain.

Multiple choice items like this have the great advantage of being easy to
mark. But it is difficult to write distractors (the three wrong answers), which arent
either absurd or possible as well as the correct answer. Special care should be
taken to make sure that there is only one correct answer.
Multiple choice items like this test students recognition of grammatical items.
They are not tests of the students productive ability.

(ii) Fill-ins
Fill-ins are those items where students have to fill a blank with a word or
words. In the traditional fill-in, students often see five or more separate sentences
and have to fill in a word for each. However, a more meaningful test would be to give
the pupils a passage with some selected words removed. For example:
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Look at Jennys postcard to Joanne. There are some missing words. Write
one word for each space.

Dear Joanne,

Rome ____ a beautiful city! The people ____ very nice. Susan ______ not like
the city very much, but ____ likes the meals. (She loves shaghetti!) Susan has
two friends in Rome ____ Parlo and Kurt. ____ live ____ the north-west of
Rome. Kurt is an artist. _____ pictures are very good. Parlo is Italian and Kurt is
German. He is ____ Hamburg. I ____ speak Italian or German, but Parlo and
Kurt can speak English very well.

See you soon,
Love,
Jenny

In this example the students have to understand the whole text at the same time and
then write the words in the spaces. This is a good test of students comprehension
as well as of their knowledge of individual grammatical items (such as personal
pronouns, prepositions, and the verb to be, etc).
Fill-in items are easy to write, although it is sometimes difficult to ensure that
students can put in only one answer! It is possible for students to to come up with
more than one word to put in the blank which could be correct.

(iii) Sentence completion
Fill-in items usually ask for only one word. But they can be extended to test more of
the students knowledge and use of English. Students have to fill in a blank and/or
complete a sentence with more than one word. Test items like this are usually called
sentence completions. For example:

Complete the sentences below so that they make sense.
1. A: Are you sure youll be all right?
B: Dont worry Im _________ looking after myself.
2. Both teams were exhausted. They __________ for three hours.
3. The old lady, who __________, suddenly sat up and asked for some tea.
4. He was born between 1940 and 1942, so he must be in ______________.

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Students who complete this task successfully show that they have a lot of
grammatical knowledge and that they are able to use the right vocabulary and
grammar to complete the task. Obviously the writers of this test do not have only one
correct answer in mind, but deciding what to accept makes the test markers task
quite complex.

(iv) Sentence reordering
If students are used to this activity, then part of a test might look like this:
Put the words in order to make correct sentences.
1. he lives / John is / and / in London. / a student
________________________________________________________
2. a housewife and / is / His sister / she is / secretary. / a
________________________________________________________
3. at home now, / isnt / in Canada. / His sister / she is
_________________________________________________________
This type of test item explores the students knowledge of syntax and is a useful
addition to a test.

(v) Transformations
A test of the students knowledge of syntax and structure is sentence
transformation. Here students have to rewrite sentences so that they have the same
meaning but different grammatical structures. For example:

Complete the sentences so that they mean the same as the original sentence.
Start with the words given.
1. John is taller than Mary.
Mary isnt ________________________________________________.
2. I havent seen her for years, he said.
He said that _____________________________________________.
3. I wont come unless you ring.
Ill come ________________________________________________.

Once again, students should have practised transforming sentences before they
come across this exercise. But the ability to transform sentences correctly certainly
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implies quite a lot grammatical knowledge although it may take a certain kind of
intelligence to be very good at it.

(vi) Sentence writing
Students can practise their sentence writing by describing a picture.
This activity certainly tests the students ability to write correct sentences and their
ability to use there with is and are correctly.

There
Is
Are

(vii) Parallel writing
One way of providing a fairly controlled integrative test type is through parallel
writing. Here you ask the students to use their knowledge of grammar and
vocabulary to imitate a piece they have read (and understood).
In order to complete this successfully, students need to understand a paragraph, its
form and its grammar. Once again, the teacher should be sure that pupils have
previously used this technique in class since it might otherwise cause confusion.

Summary
In this chapter we have looked at a number of exercises which test grammar,
together with some rules or hints about test design. We have looked at the need for
test exercises which encourages the students written production as well as terms
which concentrate as accuracy.








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TASKS:
1. Write some multiple choice items to test the students knowledge of the
difference between simple and continuous verb.
2. Write a five item sentence-completion exercise for a final test at upper primary
level. Try to make all the items refer to the same context.
3. Choose a specific language point and write a fill-in exercise to practise it.
4. Write a short test for beginner students to use as a parallel writing activity.
5. Decide which type of written practice you prefer and say why.





The end of this sessiongood luck with your activities!

























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TOPIC 7 ENRICHMENT AND REMEDIAL GRAMMAR
ACTIVITIES

7.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 7 exposes you the various types of enrichment and remedial grammar
activities.

7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

5. differentiate between enrichment and remedial activities
6. select appropriate activities for use in the grammar classes

7.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS













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7.2.1 WHAT IS ENRICHMENT?
(Source:http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/education)

Enrichment has been defined in a number of ways. One such is that of Teare (1997),
who described it as
A higher quality of work than the norm for the age group
Work covered in more depth
A broadening of the learning experience
Promoting a higher level of thinking
The inclusion of additional subject areas and/or activities
The use of supplementary materials beyond the normal range of resources.

Enrichment might be said to involve:
staying with a theme, subject or skill and developing it in depth
rounding out the basic curriculum subjects with a wider context;
relating learning to new areas;
and/or providing pupils with experiences outside the regular curriculum
(breadth).

Enrichment is sometimes seen in terms of the development of certain qualities of
mind. These include problem solving, creative thinking, initiative and self-direction,
discovery, higher order thinking skills, profound personal interests, self-acceptance,
and the courage to be different. Opportunities for these kinds of enrichment should
be created throughout the curriculum, as well as beyond lesson time and both in
school and outside it. An important feature of enrichment is that it must enhance the
curriculum and the students general learning experience. This applies both to work
done in the classroom and to activities outside school.




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There is now a copious amount of material available in books and online to support
many kinds of enrichment activity, both in and out of the classroom. The common
ground will be that the activities should include:
Challenge
Enjoyment
exposure to new knowledge and ideas
thinking in different or unusual ways
risk taking.

7.2.2 EXAMPLES OF ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Examples of possible enrichment activities which have been suggested
include
the following:

In class
In the course of a literacy or an ICT lesson, where students are working on a
news story, the teacher can email certain students with a controversial
newsflash to which they have to respond quickly with an article, mimicking the
pressures of a busy newsroom.
Enrichment offers able pupils a chance to enhance their metacognitive skills,
i.e. to become aware of, and discuss, their own learning. They can, for
example, keep logs in which they reflect upon their learning, and create
questionnaires and surveys to evaluate the learning experiences of their
fellow students.
Able pupils can be helped to develop the ability to assess the complexity of a
task and complete it in a prescribed time. Real time simulations offer an
enjoyable challenge and a sense of fulfilment.
Challenge Boxes containing enjoyable and demanding activities can be kept
in every classroom for students to use when they have finished their work.
The challenges can be developed for different subjects and topics and can be
exchanged between teachers to provide a continuing supply of activities.
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A regular feature of a lesson might be a thinking slot, or, in the words of
Coates and Wilson (2003), a Bright ideas time. Students are thus stimulated
to think outside the box, a process for which, in fact, there is a website:
http://www.thinkingoutofabox.co.uk, offering a thinking activity for each day of
the school year. Other examples are brainteasers, cognitive cartoon activities
and PMI challenges (Plus, Minus, Interesting).

There are numerous ways in which enrichment activities can be evaluated,
including the following:
Feedback from students, and their engagement in evaluative research.
Training in research methods can itself form part of an enrichment activity.
Questionnaires to parents before and after the provision of enrichment.
This is time consuming but can reveal some interesting perspectives on
the way the students perceived the activity.
Questionnaires to teachers, to gauge the success of the enrichment and
suggest areas where further learning might take place, including in the
ordinary classroom.
Independent observations from those involved in devising or supervising
the activity, including professional providers, teachers, or educational
officers.
Whole school, department and/or auditors.

Lets take a break and discuss these:


Define the terms enrichment in the context of grammar
activities.
Discuss the purpose of using enrichment grammar activities






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7.3 WHAT IS REMEDIAL TEACHING?

If a student appears to be significantly behind the expected level for a class, a
teacher may require him or her to take a remedial class. These classes act as a
"safety valve" for struggling students, allowing them to work at a more appropriate
level, rather than failing because they are not at the same level as the rest of the
class. Remedial classes can be a positive environment for students suffering from
low self-esteem, as they encourage students to ask as many questions as necessary
to understand a subject, rather than feeling pressured to learn everything
immediately.
A remedial activity is one that is meant to improve a learning skill or rectify a
problem area. Remedial instruction involves using individualized teaching of students
who are experiencing difficulties in specific subject areas.

A. Identification:
a) Through academic achievement:
i) Class interaction: An under-achiever will give wrong answers frequently to
the questions asked. He will appear to be confused. He may probably not
respond to the questions asked in the class at all.
ii) Home assignment: An under-achiever will not do the homework. If
pressurised to complete the work, he may resort to copying, which may be
easily detected.
iii) Unit tests and term tests: He will show poor performance consistently in
tests. He will either not attempt the question(s) at all or, will do cuttings and
overwriting. He may even try to copy the solution to the problems from his
peers.

b) Through behavioural aspect:
i) Attitude towards academic activities: He will be disinterested in such
activities. He will try to refrain himself from such activities. He will try to avoid
discussion about academics with his peers or teachers.
ii) Class escapism: He will try to bunk classes for one reason or another. He
will give excuses for not attending classes.
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iii) Fiddle with notebooks instead of studying: He will be found to fiddle with
notebooks and books instead of studying.

Once the under-achiever has been identified, the next step is the diagnosis of
deficiencies.

B. Diagnosis of deficiencies:
a) Learning of concepts: His concept(s) related to a particular topic or formula is
not clear.
b) Application of knowledge: He may not be able to apply the learned knowledge
in different situations.

Once, the deficiency has been diagnosed, let us explore the possible causes for the
same.

C. Causes:
a) Memory: Individual capacity of memorising facts and figures.
b) Understanding: Lack of comprehension-he does not follow what he reads.
c) Presentation: Finds difficulty in expressing views-vocabulary is not sufficient.
d) Knowledge Gap: Incomplete coverage units in the previous class-long absence.
e) Parental background: Socio-economic status; education
f) Parental attitude: Indifference of parents towards studies; over-expectation.
g) School Based: Lack of suitable equipment and environment in school-
over-crowded class.
h) Medium of instruction: Language problem.
i) Physical factors: Poor eyesight; poor audibility; illness and other problems.
j) Individual factors: Good in oral tests but does not prepare notes and does not
do home work regularly; not sincere in studies; very anxious but is unable to
concentrate on studies; lacks self confidence; inferiority feeling; fear of failure;
wants company of students who avoid classes; emotional instability.
k) Teacher based: Lack of confidence in teacher; lack of time at teachers
disposal; faulty method of teaching; does not encourage student participation in
class; inadequate home assignments and problems for practice; improper way of
correction of homework and of guidance to students at appropriate time and
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stage.; knowledge of the subject is not thorough; unable to clarify difficult
concept; lacks in expression; unable to provide secure and affectionate climate
in classroom and lack of understanding and acceptance for each individual.

The causes having known let us now discuss about the possible cures and
remedies.

D. Cures and Remedies:
a) Category wise remedial-not more than 5 to 10 students in each class.
b) Personal and individual attention by teacher.
c) No humiliation.

Therefore, the primary responsibility of the teacher in remedial teaching involves:
i) Diagnosis of the specific difficulty of the student by conducting a
suitable diagnostic test.
ii) Providing suitable remedial measures
iii) Providing ways and means for preventing them from re-occurring in
future.


By reviewing and focusing on the basics, students become better prepared to keep
up with advanced classes. Remedial courses can also teach students better study
and learning habits, to help them succeed where they might have otherwise found
difficulty. Specifically for grammar teaching, most remedial classes stress basic
concepts that must be understood before complicated ideas can be applied. In
remedial language classes, for example, teachers might stress grammar, spelling,
and vocabulary.



Identify different definitions of the terms enrichment and remedial.




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The followings are some examples of exercises or activities that teachers can use in
their classrooms.

Example 1 : Grammar Exercise

Find the conjunction in the sentence. Circle the conjunction and underline the words
that it joins.



(Source: http://www.teach-nology.com/worksheets/language_arts/creative/per1.html)




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Example 2: Writing activity

(Source: http://www.teach-nology.com/worksheets/language_arts/creative/per1.html)


Design grammar activity suitable for either enrichment or remedial
purposes. Present it to your peers.


The end of this sessiongood luck with your
activities!


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TOPIC 8 LESSON PLANNING

8.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 8 provides you with some basic information on lesson planning It gives you
some practice in planning the lesson plan via some discussion with peers and
lecturer. It will enable you to focus on the factors to consider in lesson planning, to
analyze and comment on the different stages of a lesson, to select appropriate
activities and resources in line with the syllabus and with the correct objectives in
your lesson plan. In addition lesson planning will help you identify the strengths and
weakness of planning and enable you to improve on it before your micro-teaching

8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

Prepare lesson plan and resources to teach grammar

8.2 FRAMEWORK FOR TOPIC





Checklist for lesson planning. Read through to get a better
understanding of what it takes to plan a good lesson.



LESSON PLANNING
1.IN CONTEXT
2. IN ISOLATION
PLANNING
AND
DRAFTING

ACTIVITIES

RESOURCES
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8.3 PLANNING A LESSON
8.3.1 What is a lesson?
a. A learning event in which all the activities are pre-orchestrated to serve
one central pedagogic aim
a. Have a beginning, a middle and end, though these stages are called by
different names. (pre, while, post)

8.3.2 Why is Lesson planning important?
a. Requires the teacher to keep many things in mind simultaneously
b. Teacher has to do work that can be done before a learning teaching
session begins and work that can be done in the classroom
c. Early planning enables the teacher to get the software and hardware
necessary for implementing his/her plan.
d. Lesson plan act as a record of work done.

8.3.3. Factors to bear in mind when planning a lesson
a. The general and specific objectives it sets out to achieve decide on
what the general aim of the lesson is going to be.
b Student characteristics take note of pupils interest
c Previous knowledge of the pupils
think specifically of concept of previous knowledge to be useful
in planning.
d. Tasks
Devise a task or a set of tasks
Choose a task that would allow students to get practice in all the
relevant skills.
e. Materials
Decide on the types of materials that will be used and how they will
be exploited.
f. Language requirements of task/ activity
Decisions on language need to be made at the stage when a task
is being selected.
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Decisions regarding language also need to be made after the
materials for the tasks have been assembled.
g. Time
When the lesson will take place
How much time is available
Timing of activities
h. Amount and type of pupil-teacher participation
i. Balance in allocation of time
j. Sequence and grading of activities

Find time to do some research on lesson planning.


8.3.4 Possible Procedure for Planning a lesson
a. Deciding on what to teach
Look at the scheme of work for the week and pick the syllabus item(s)
that can be done in the slot allocated for the day
b. Deciding on general aims of your lesson-
If you are taking a skill-based approach, you need to look through the
repertoire of skills specified in the syllabus.
If you are taking a task-based approach, you need to decide which
aims the task you have chosen can help to achieve.
c. Interpreting the chart
d. Deciding on specific aims or levels of achievement teacher needs to
know what sub-skills are generally involved in achieving the broad aim
and then decide which of the several sub-skills should be the focus of his
lesson.
e. Taking stock of circumstances under which learning will take place.
f. Deciding on the staging of the lesson
g. Deciding on activities
h. Checking for balance and variety
i. Making a final copy of the lesson plan
j. Dealing with mixed- ability groups
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Search the Web for more information on lesson planning. Jot
down some notes to keep you refreshed.


8.4 LESSON PLAN

Format for Lesson Plan

Subject :..
Class:.. Level: Enrolment:
Date: Time:.
Teaching Context:.
Topic:.


Specifications:

Decide the level at which your pupils are/ include integration of language skills
Vary the demands and support factor of the task.

Learning Outcomes: By the end of this lesson, pupils in their respective levels
should be able to:
Do what? What of What? How? How many?
Are they behavioural? Measurable ? Tangible ?

Thinking skills:
Previous knowledge: Pupils have learnt ./ have been taught../ are
familiar with..
Moral values :

Teaching materials :


Steps /Phase
time
Content Teaching learning
activities
Remarks
Set induction


Presentation:
Step 1:
(+/- mins)





Focus on what the
Pupils will do

State where
applicable

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Step 2:
(+/- mins)

Practice :
(+/- mins)

Production /
Evaluation
(+/- mins)

Closure:
(+/-mins)


advance/ intermediate / Elementary / Good / Average / weak / Mixed ability


Reflect on your mirco-teaching and focus on issues and actions
carried out during the micro-teaching. Also focus on your
strengths and weakness of your lesson.

Trainees reflection of the lesson:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lecturers comments:

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Refer to the book stated below to enhance your understanding of
planning and implementation of lesson plans and reflection of
your micro-teaching.

Refer to Nesamalar Citravelu (2005) ELT Methodology Principles and
Practice.Pp 196 - 240 for more ideas on teaching grammar and grammar
activities.

Refer to Brown, H.D.(2007) Teaching by Principles : An Interactive Approach
to Language Pedagogy, pp 179 186 for more information.
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8.5 SAMPLE LESSON PLAN


LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR (IN CONTEXT)

Subject: English Language- Grammar
Class: Year 5 Mawar
Level: Average
Enrolment: 25 students
Date:
Time:
Teaching Context : World of Knowledge
Topic: My big family
Learning Specifications:
5.3.1: Personal pronouns
Eg I, you, he, she, we, they
Learning outcomes: By the end of this lesson, pupils should be able to :
1.1 Describe about their family member by using suitable personal pronoun.
1.2 Answer correctly 15 questions on personal pronouns
1.3 Write a post card by using correct personal pronoun
Thinking skills:1. Identifying
2. Information processing
Previous Knowledge: Pupils have learnt the part of speech noun.
Moral Values: Love your family first
Teaching Materials: LCD projector, Laptop, Manila Card, Worksheet, A4 Papers,
Powerpoint presentation.

Stages/Phases contents Teaching learning
Activities
Remarks
Set Induction
(+/- 5 mins)
Introduction of the
topic.
My big
family
The teacher shows
the students the
my family
Members video

Questions:
Teacher introduces the
topic that students will
learn today
(My Big Family)

Teacher shows a video
of my family members
to the students by
using the LCD projector

Predicting skills

To capture
attention
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1. What did you
see in the
video?
2. How many
siblings do you
have?
3. What are their
names?
4. What are their
hobbies?

Teacher asks some
Wh--- questions based
on the video shown
Presentation
(10 mins)
























Teacher centered

Material Microsoft
Powerpoint
Presentation
Slides on a text of
My family

Expected answers:
Mama Syara
Papa Izat

Materials:
Pw presentation
Personal pronoun











Material:
Text of My Family
on the
Manila card
Teacher shows
powerpoint
Presentation slides of
text my family
Teacher reads the text
once to the students
Teacher draws the
students attention to
the words in bold
Next , the teacher
continues by showing
PPT slides on personal
pronouns
Teachers introduces
the definition of
personal pronoun
Teacher explains each
pronoun with the help
of pictures
Teacher provides some
pictures and grid
tables/ make students
understand
Next , the teacher
shows again to the
students written on
manila card.
Teacher asks students
to replace all the nouns
in the bracket by filling
in the blanks with the
personal pronouns
Recap previous
knowledge

















Develop students
understanding
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Practice
(+/- 25 Mins)
Teacher and the
pupils

Pairwork
Activity 1:
Teacher asks the
students to find their
own partner and sit in
pairs
Teacher asks the
students to practice
using the personal
pronoun about their
own big family verbally
Teacher asks the
students to correct their
friends work
During practice

Activity 2:
Teacher called the
students randomly to
come in front of the
class and describe to
the whole class about
their big family by using
the suitable personal
pronoun
Teatheir big family using the suitabl
Co-operation












Develop self-
esteem
Production
(+/- 10 Mins)




Student centered
Material:
Worksheets
Next, teacher
distributes worksheet
on personal pronouns.
The students are
required to answer all
the questions given.
Teacher discuss the
answers with all the
students



Thinking skill
Assess students
understanding
and feedback
Closure
(+/-10 Mins)
Groupwork
Write a post card
Teacher distributes A4
paper to all groups
Teacher asks students
to write a post card to
one of their siblings
who studies overseas
to tell about their
family condition in the
hometown.
Teacher gives
compliments to the
students for their active
involvement and
achievement
Creative thinking

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8.6 LESSON PLAN (GRAMMAR IN ISOLATION)

Subject: English Language- Grammar
Class: Year 5 Mawar
Level: Average
Enrolment: 25 students
Date:
Time:
Teaching Context : World of knowledge
Topic: Mid-position adverbs in present tense
Learning Specifications:
Learning outcomes: By the end of this lesson, pupils should be able to :
1.1 Use mid-position adverbs in statements and questions
1.2 Ask and answer questions based on table/ chart
1.3 Plan a group Chart
Thinking skills:1. Identifying
2. Information processing
Previous Knowledge: Pupils have learnt regular and irregular verbs in present tense
Moral Values: Love your family first
Teaching Materials: charts, pictures, four advertisements














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Stages/Phases Contents Teaching learning
Activities
Remark
s
Induction
(+/_ 5 mins)
Teacher puts up the
table on the whiteboard

Na
m
e
M
on
Tu
es
W
ed
Th
ur
Kri
s
m
ee
lak
sa
ric
e
fru
its
And others
Pupils are encouraged
to ask and answer
questions
Eg of question: What
does Kris buy every
day?
What does Jas buy on
Mon?
What does Neeta buy on
Tues?
Grid table with all the names
and the food that they eat in
the canteen.
Pupils are asked to enter
their names and what they
buy at the canteen each day
of the week
Q n A session



Presentation
(+/- 20 mins)






Practice
(+/- 10 mins)

















Teacher says these
sentences and pupils
listen
Kris buys mee on
Monday.
Neeta always buys Mee
Leon buys rice every
Tuesday



















Pairwork
Pupils repeat after teacher
and then work in pairs





Groupwork
Teacher uses sugarpaper
with blu-tac.
a. Places figurine(cut-
outs from newspaper)
on the sugarpaper
For each person
listed.eg coffee,
cereals,tea,
chocolates, milk etc
b. Pupils practise
structures using the
pictures and cut-outs
c. Pupils practise in
groups then move to
pairs
d. Class discussion


























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Production
(+/- 15mins)











Closure
(+/-10 mins)

Teacher puts up a chart
giving information about
Encik Razak
(chart after the lesson
plan)








Making your own chart



Pupils encouraged to talk
about Encik Razak, using
the info in the table and
using terms like usually,
sometimes,never, always
Pupils write sentences
about En. Razak.
Additional: teacher can also
get students to write parallel
paragraph about another
person
As homework

Groupwork
Get pupils to do a group
chart on majong paper.
(If not enough time , may
continue the presentation of
the chart the next lesson.)




Reflect on your teaching.

Trainees reflection of lesson:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Lecturers comments:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Chart

En.Razak Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
buys cola milk tea tea coffee tea tea
plays tennis badminton tennis hockey tennis tennis golf
eats rice noodles rice rice noodles rice fish


Reread through the following points and apply it in your planning
stage.
8.7 Stages of a Grammar Lesson

Presentation Focused practice Communicative
practice

Purpose To illustrate how the
structure is formed and
what it means, as well
as how it is used
To lead students to use
the structure to talk
about themselves /
things which really
mean something to
them.
To check students
understandings
To build students
confidence in using
the new language
To enable students
to gain control of the
structure within
controlled framework

To give students
opportunities to use
the new language
in freer more
purposeful and
creative ways
Characteristics Clear, interesting,
relevant and appropriate
Includes an element of
personal involvement(on
the part of the students)
Grammatical
explanation if necessary
Controlled to
minimize scope for
errors
Clear, and precise
Student talking
time maximized
Learner
centered
Interaction
activities which
incorporate these
Features:
information gap,
choice and
feedback
Typical -Build up of *drills Communicative
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activities appropriate situational
and linguistic contexts
for new language
-listening to and initial
repetition of new
language
-using new language
to talk about
themselves
*dialogue
*text completion
*problem-solving
*Role-play
activities:
*games
*discussions
Role of teacher informant *conductor
*corrector
*monitor and
organizer
Types of
instructions
*teacher class
*tr individual
students
*tr class/group
Tr -individual
Stu class/gp
Stu----
student(pairs)
student
(groups)
student

Degree of
control
*controlled
*semi-controlled
*very controlled,
Students have
limited choice
*some guidance
*free, students
have choice

Correction Necessary to correct
to ensure students
grasp the correct form
*immediate
correction by
teachers/ peers
* without
correction but
errors- noted
Length and
place in
lesson
*short
*usually at the
beginning
*depends on
students needs
and difficulty of the
structure
*immediately after
presentation
*depends on
proficiency of
students and
types of activity
*after
presentation and
practice
*within or across
lessons
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Some help for you to phrase your learning objectives.


8.8 List of Actions words that can used in constructing and generating SPECIFIC
LEARNING OUTCOMES in the lesson plan.

Competence Action Verbs

Recall Define, describe, detail, specify, list, state, name, outline,
recognize, identify, catalogue ..

Understanding Explain, illustrate, account for, justify, distinguish, defend,
deduce, conclude, exemplify, interpret, infer, predict,
summarise.

Application Apply, use, solve, relate, predict, calculate, produce,
show,estimate, ..

Analysis Classify, categorise, compare, contrast, analyze, select,
distinguish, resolve, investigate..

Evaluation Evaluate, judge, choose, justify, interpret, conclude,
compare, appraise..

Synthesis Compose, create, plan, design,devise, organize, compile,
develop, formulate

Practical Assemble, compose, construct, produce, generate, install,
perform, erect, manufacture, employ, operate, manipulate....

Behavioural Respond, collaborate, co-operate, participate, demonstrate,
relate, act, consider, encourage, promote, acknowledge,
react, perform, contribute......







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TOPIC 9 SIMULATED TEACHING

9.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 9 provides you with some basic information on implementation of lesson
planned with feedback from peers and lecturers. In this topic you also receive
feedback and review of which your reflection will be based on.

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

Assess and evaluate on teaching performance

9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC




9.3 SIMULATED TEACHING
(Micro-teaching)

Implementation:
9.3.1. Planning and discussion
Refer to session 8 on factors to bear in mind when planning a lesson.
Plan and discuss in pairs or small groups but write out your own lesson plan which
need to be handed in for grading. Consult your lecturer if you need help in planning.

9.3.2. Materials and aids
Materials and aids provide the context for presenting new language.They arouse
interest, stimulate interaction and help students see new places, people and events
and bring to life situations that is too abstract for understanding (Nesamalar, 2005)

IMPLEMENTATION

FEEDBACK

REVIEW

REFLECTION
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9.3.3. Drafting , feedback and redrafting
Trainees draft the lesson plan and get feedback from lecturer concerned on areas
that need improvement. Restrategise and redraft lesson plan and choose the lesson
plan that you want to implement in your micro-teaching.

9.3.4. Micro- teaching in either in pairs or in groups of three
Based on the individual lesson plans, trainees can select one lesson plan from within
the group members and do micro-teaching based on that particular improved lesson
plan. Decide who is going to take which stage of the lesson.


9.5 Feedback and review:

Comments from lecturer based on simulated teaching

- Strengths of the trainee / lesson / activities
- Weakness of the lesson / activities/ trainee
- Problem solving
- Suggestions for improvement
Note: Refer to appendix for Evaluation Form for Micro-teaching.

Plan well. Be well prepared and implement your plan into action.

Task for you to further understand.
Task / Groupwork:
Discuss the strengths and weakness of your group members with the
feedback given by the lecturer and ways to solve the problems or conflicts
faced in the class during the micro-teaching.

9.6 Reflection:
Writing of reflection based on:
- Process
- Actual teaching
- Strengths
- Weakness
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94

- Learning points


Plan your visits to the library and do some research on the topics.

Further reading:
Harmer (4 th Edition) : The Practice of English Language Teaching
Pp 364 379.
Evaluation Form
Name marks




Criteria for evaluation:
1. Set Induction well managed, relevant , motivating and captivating
2. Lesson develops smoothly and presented systematically
3. Learner centered activities.
4. All activities are relevant, appropriate and effective.
5. Lesson is well wrapped up in an interesting and creative way.
6. Excellent time management
7. Demonstrates a range of deep understanding of the processes involved in a
teaching and learning situation
8. Able to analyze critically and identify clearly own strengths and weakness

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Factors affecting language learning

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