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Computer programming involves designing, writing, testing, and maintaining source code to create programs that allow computers to perform tasks. Programmers write source code in programming languages, requiring expertise in software development processes, algorithms, and application domains. The discipline of programming is generally self-governed, though some areas require licensing as a professional software engineer.
Computer programming involves designing, writing, testing, and maintaining source code to create programs that allow computers to perform tasks. Programmers write source code in programming languages, requiring expertise in software development processes, algorithms, and application domains. The discipline of programming is generally self-governed, though some areas require licensing as a professional software engineer.
Computer programming involves designing, writing, testing, and maintaining source code to create programs that allow computers to perform tasks. Programmers write source code in programming languages, requiring expertise in software development processes, algorithms, and application domains. The discipline of programming is generally self-governed, though some areas require licensing as a professional software engineer.
writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source
code of computer programs. This source code is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to create a set of instructions that computers use to perform specific operations or to exhibit desired behaviors. The process of writing source code often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal logic. Within software engineering, programming is regarded as one phase in a software development process. There is an ongoing debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art form, a craft, or an engineering discipline. n general, good programming is considered to be the measured application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution. The discipline differs from many other technical professions in that programmers, in general, do not need to be licensed or pass any standardized certification tests in order to call themselves !programmers! or even !software engineers.! "ecause the discipline covers many areas, which may or may not include critical applications, it is debatable whether licensing is required for the profession as a whole. n most cases, the discipline is self#governed by the entities which require the programming, and sometimes very strict environments are defined. $owever, representing oneself as a !%rofessional &oftware 'ngineer! without a license from an accredited institution is illegal in many parts of the world. Computer programming (often shortened to programming) is the comprehensive process that leads from an original formulation of a computing problem to executable programs. t involves activities such as analysis, understanding, and generically solving such problems resulting in an algorithm, verification of requirements of the algorithm including its correctness and its resource consumption, implementation (or coding) of the algorithm in a target programming language, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code, implementation of the build system and management of derived artefacts such as machine code ofcomputer programs. The algorithm is often only represented in human#parseable form and reasoned about using logic. &ource code is written in one or moreprogramming languages (such as *+ +, *,, -ava, %ython, &malltalk, etc.). The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate performing a specific task or solve a given probelm. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal logic. Within software engineering, programming (the implementation) is regarded as one phase in a software development process. There is an ongoing debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art form, a craft, or an engineering discipline. ./0 n general, good programming is considered to be the measured application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution (the criteria for !efficient! and !evolvable! vary considerably). The discipline differs from many other technical professions in that programmers, in general, do not need to be licensed or pass any standardized (or governmentally regulated) certification tests in order to call themselves !programmers! or even !software engineers.! "ecause the discipline covers many areas, which may or may not include critical applications, it is debatable whether licensing is required for the profession as a whole. n most cases, the discipline is self#governed by the entities which require the programming, and sometimes very strict environments are defined (e.g. 1nited &tates 2ir 3orce use of2da*ore and security clearance). $owever, representing oneself as a !%rofessional &oftware 'ngineer! without a license from an accredited institution is illegal in many parts of the world. 2nother ongoing debate is the extent to which the programming language used in writing computer programs affects the form that the final program takes. This debate is analogous to that surrounding the &apir4 Whorf hypothesis .50 in linguistics and cognitive science, which postulates that a particular spoken language6s nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers. 7ifferent language patterns yield different patterns of thought. This idea challenges the possibility of representing the world perfectly with language, because it acknowledges that the mechanisms of any language condition the thoughts of its speaker community. Quality requirements Whatever the approach to software development may be, the final program must satisfy some fundamental properties. The following properties are among the most relevant8 Reliability8 how often the results of a program are correct. This depends on conceptual correctness of algorithms, and minimization of programming mistakes, such as mistakes in resource management (e.g., buffer overflows and race conditions) and logic errors (such as division by zero or off#by#one errors). Robustness8 how well a program anticipates problems not due to programmer error. This includes situations such as incorrect, inappropriate or corrupt data, unavailability of needed resources such as memory, operating system services and network connections, and user error. Usability8 the ergonomics of a program8 the ease with which a person can use the program for its intended purpose, or in some cases even unanticipated purposes. &uch issues can make or break its success even regardless of other issues. This involves a wide range of textual, graphical and sometimes hardware elements that improve the clarity, intuitiveness, cohesiveness and completeness of a program6s user interface. Portability8 the range of computer hardware and operating system platforms on which the source code of a program can be compiled9interpreted and run. This depends on differences in the programming facilities provided by the different platforms, including hardware and operating system resources, expected behaviour of the hardware and operating system, and availability of platform specific compilers (and sometimes libraries) for the language of the source code. Maintainability8 the ease with which a program can be modified by its present or future developers in order to make improvements or customizations, fix bugs and security holes, or adapt it to new environments. :ood practices during initial development make the difference in this regard. This quality may not be directly apparent to the end user but it can significantly affect the fate of a program over the long term. Efficiency9performance8 the amount of system resources a program consumes (processor time, memory space, slow devices such as disks, network bandwidth and to some extent even user interaction)8 the less, the better. This also includes correct disposal of some resources, such as cleaning up temporary files and lack of memory leaks. Readability of source code n computer programming, readability refers to the ease with which a human reader can comprehend the purpose, control flow, and operation of source code. t affects the aspects of quality above, including portability, usability and most importantly maintainability. ;eadability is important because programmers spend the majority of their time reading, trying to understand and modifying existing source code, rather than writing new source code. 1nreadable code often leads to bugs, inefficiencies, and duplicated code. 2 study ./<0 found that a few simple readability transformations made code shorter and drastically reduced the time to understand it. 3ollowing a consistent programming style often helps readability. $owever, readability is more than just programming style. =any factors, having little or nothing to do with the ability of the computer to efficiently compile and execute the code, contribute to readability. ./>0 &ome of these factors include8 7ifferent indentation styles (whitespace) *omments 7ecomposition ?aming conventions for objects (such as variables, classes, procedures, etc.) @arious visual programming languages have also been developed with the intent to resolve readability concerns by adopting non#traditional approaches to code structure and display. 7ebugging 7ebugging, is a very important task in the software development process since having defects in a program can have significant consequences for its users. &ome languages are more prone to some kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to perform as much checking as other languages. 1se of astatic code analysis tool can help detect some possible problems. 7ebugging is often done with 7's like 'clipse, Adevelop, ?et"eans, *ode88"lock s, and @isual &tudio. &tandalone debuggers like gdb are also used, and these often provide less of a visual environment, usually using a command line. Programming languages 7ifferent programming languages support different styles of programming (called programming paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations, such as company policy, suitability to task, availability of third#party packages, or individual preference. deally, the programming language best suited for the task at hand will be selected. Trade#offs from this ideal involve finding enough programmers who know the language to build a team, the availability ofcompilers for that language, and the efficiency with which programs written in a given language execute. Banguages form an approximate spectrum from !low# level! to !high#level!C !low#level! languages are typically more machine#oriented and faster to execute, whereas !high#level! languages are more abstract and easier to use but execute less quickly. t is usually easier to code in !high#level! languages than in !low#level! ones. 2llen 7owney, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes8 The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about every language8 input8 :ather data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device. output8 7isplay data on the screen or send data to a file or other device. arithmetic8 %erform basic arithmetical operations like addition and multiplication. conditional execution8 *heck for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence of statements. repetition8 %erform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation. =any computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by libraries such as in a .so. %rovided the functions in a library follow the appropriate run time conventions (e.g., method of passingarguments), then these functions may be written in any other language. 2 programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. %rogramming languages can be used to createprograms that control the behavior of a machine and9or to express algorithms precisely. The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as -acquard looms and player pianos. .citation needed0 Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many being created every year. =ost programming languages describe computation in an imperative style, i.e., as a sequence of commands, although some languages, such as those that support functional programming or logic programming, use alternative forms of description. The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). &ome languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the * programming language is specified by an &D &tandard), while other languages, such as %erl > and earlier, have a dominantimplementation that is used as a reference. Programming language 2 programming language is a computer language programmers use to develop applications, scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to execute. "elow is a listing of several different programming languages and scripting languages currently listed in our database. 3D;T;2? 3ox%ro $7=B $T=B -ava -ava&cript -*B B&% Bive &cript BD:D %ascal %erl %$% %ick %ython %rolog ;uby &:=B &malltalk &EB Tcl True "2&* @$7B @isual "asic @isual 3ox%ro W=B W$T=B F=B 1sers who are new to computer programming may find the above list confusing and may not be sure where to start. Where to start really depends on the computer programming you wish to do. "elow is a listing of some of the different fields of programming as well as what language you should consider for each of these fields. Note: There are several programming languages listed above that may not be listed in a category below that they are capable of doing. nstead of listing every language under every category below, we have just listed some of the more popular choices for each category. 2pplication and %rogram development 2rtificial ntelligence development 7atabase development :ame development *omputer drivers or other hardware interface development nternet and web page development &cript development pplications and Program de!elopment 2pplication and program development involves programs you work on a daily bases. 3or example, the nternet browser you are using to view this web page is considered a program. f you are interested in writing your own programs you should consider the below languages. * *, *++ 7 -ava Tcl @isual "asic rtificial "ntelligence de!elopment 2rtificial ntelligence or related fields could involve anything from creating the character interactions in computer games, portions of programs that make the decisions in programs, chatbots, or any other related programs. f you6re interested in writing your own 2 you should consider the below languages. 2=B * *, *++ %rolog #atabase de!elopment 7atabase developers create and maintain databases. f you6re interested in creating your own database or maintaining other databases you should consider any of the below languages. 7"2&' 3ox%ro =y&EB &EB @isual 3ox%ro $ame de!elopment :ame development involves the development of computer games or other entertainment software. f you6re interested in writing your own games you should consider the below languages. * *, *++ 7ark"2&* -ava Computer dri!ers or other hard%are interface de!elopment *omputer drivers and programming hardware interface support is a necessity for computers to operate with the hardwareC without it your computer wouldn6t work. f you6re interested in writing your own drivers or software interfaces for hardware devices you should consider the below languages. 2ssembly * "nternet and %eb page de!elopment The nternet and web page development is the essence of the nternet, without developers we would have no nternet. f you6re interested in creating your own web pages, developing nternet applications, or nternet related tasks, you should consider the below languages. $7=B $T=B -ava -ava&cript %erl %$% %ython F=B &cript de!elopment 2lthough not likely to be a career, knowing how to create and develop scripts to increase your productivity or your company6s can save you countless hours. f you6re interested in developing your own scripts you should consider the below languages. 2utohotkey awk bash "atchfile %erl %ython Tcl Programming 'anguage Categories There are literally thousands of programming languages in the world and each has its own strengths and weakness. =any are simply for teaching or language research. These languages do not interest or concern me. They are frequently limited and almost useless. There is a certain set of programming fields9categories that believe are currently distinct enough to have an independent programming language to represent them. 'ach is however, narrow enough that there is no need for more than one language. Banguage ;ole "est *andidate &cripting %rogrammer6s scripting "etter &cheme (+DD) 2pplication 7evelopment
Bow#level *9*++ %ure 3unctional *omplete *ore &cripting The most basic need of for scripting languages is one which is simple to use because it will be used by those with a minimum of programming knowledge or in situations where cranking out code which does the job is all the matters. 2n example of where this language might be used by people with more of a programming background is in web scripting. 'xamples of languages that might fall into this category are %$%, -ava&cript, %erl, and %ython. @" could also be considered in this family but it is too frequently used for application development today. There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category. When one is chosen believe it should bare resemblance to the 2pplication development language but with more bells and whistles to let one crank things out and make it easier. Programmer(s scripting ;eal programmers also often have a need for scripting capabilities. $owever, they need a language which is simple and complete. t must never stand in there way as is all to often the case with standard scripting languages. t must be able to easily integrate into other languages. "etter &cheme is an excellent language for use in %rogrammer6s &cripting. t is simple, complete, powerful and concise. n addition many programmers are exposed to &cheme or Bisp during their education and so are already familiar with it. Dne thing which will most likely be needed is a good extension to "etter &cheme which provides solid support for object oriented programming because "etter &cheme scripts will frequently need to interact with objects created in other languages. pplication #e!elopment To develop applications a language is needed which is complete and powerful but very safe. The complexity of large application mandates a compile time safe language. t should also be fairly high level and object oriented. The only languages which believe comes close to this today are 'iffel and -ava. There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category. 'o%)le!el 3or the purpose of operating systems and other low level code we need a language that operates fast and just above the machine level. Df course there will always be occasion to slip into assembly but that is by its nature machine specific and so not considered here. "oth * and *++ can be used for this. They provide the low level power needed while giving a reasonable level of safety and abstraction. Pure *unctional *ertain tasks can best be done working in a purely function environment. 2nd these languages while not as widely used today are in many ways so distinct from others that it is important to keep there legacy alive in the hopes that they may positively influence more common languages. The only real example of this today is $askell since languages like =B are not purely functional. There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category. Complete Core This language may never be used for real programming but still think it would be important to have in mind. t would be a core language which the application, scripting and pure functional languages could build on and modify. t would have everything truly necessary and little more. Dne might think that the lambda calculus would be a minimal example of this. $owever, it makes no provision for mutability which is clearly a key concept to many languages. n addition the lambda calculus has no concept of types, another important feature of modern languages. The are no examples of a complete core language today. Lesson 2: Understanding Databasee Terminology A computer cannot process data unless it is organized in special ways; into characters, fields, records, files and databases. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: Define the key terms needed to understand what a database is and how it is used. Identify the purpose and role of characters in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of fields in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of records in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of database files in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of databases in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of data management systems in data processing. Identify the purpose and role of keys in data processing. Character A character is the most basic element of data that can be observed and manipulated. ehind it are the invisible data elements we call bits and bytes, referring to physical storage elements used by the computer hardware. A character is a single symbol such as a digit, letter, or other special character !e.g., ", #, and $%. Field A field contains an item of data; that is, a character, or group of characters that are related. &or instance, a grouping of related te't characters such as ()ohn *mith( makes up a name in the name field. +et,s look at another e'ample. *uppose a political action group advocating gun control in -ennsylvania is compiling the names and addresses of potential supporters for their new mailing list. &or each person, they must identify the name, address, city, state, zip code and telephone number. A field would be established for each type of information in the list. .he name field would contain all of the letters of the first and last name. .he zip code field would hold all of the digits of a person,s zip code, and so on. In summary, a field may contain an attribute !e.g., employee salary% or the name of an entity !e.g., person, place, or event%. Record A record is composed of a group of related fields. As another way of saying it, a record contains a collection of attributes related to an entity such as a person or product. +ooking at the list of potential gun control supporters, the name, address, zip code and telephone number of a single individual would constitute a record. A payroll record would contain the name, address, social security number, and title of each employee. Database File As we move up the ladder, a database file is defined as a collection of related records. A database file is sometimes called a table. A file may be composed of a complete list of individuals on a mailing list, including their addresses and telephone numbers. &iles are fre/uently categorized by the purpose or application for which they are intended. *ome common e'amples include mailing lists, /uality control files, inventory files, or document files. &iles may also be classified by the degree of permanence they have. .ransition files are only temporary, while master files are much more long0lived. Database 1rganizations and individuals use databases to bring independent sources of data together and store them electronically. .hus, a database is composed of related files that are consolidated, organized and stored together. 1ne collection of related files might pertain to employee information. Another collection of related files might contain sports statistics. 1rganizations and individuals may have and use many different databases, depending on the nature of the work involved. &or e'ample, a library database might consist of several related, but separate, databases including book titles and author names, book description, books on order, books checked out, and similar sets of information. 2ost organizations have product information databases, customer databases, and human resource databases that contain information about employees, salaries, home address, stock purchase plans, and ta' deduction information. In each case, the data stored in a database is independent from the application programs which use and process the data. Data Management System Data management systems are used to access and manipulate data in a database. A database management system is a software package that enables users to edit, link, and update files as needs dictate. Database management systems will be discussed in greater detail in another lesson. Key In order to track and analyze data effectively, each record re/uires a uni/ue identifier or what is called a key. .he key must be completely uni/ue to a particular record 3ust as each individual has a uni/ue social security number assigned to them. In fact, social security numbers are often used as keys in large databases. 4ou might think that the name field would be a good choice for a key in a mailing list. 5owever, this would not be a good choice because some people might have the same name. A key must be identified or assigned to each record for computerized information processing to function correctly. An e'isting field may be used if the entries are entirely uni/ue, such as a social security or telephone number. In most cases, a new field will be developed to hold a key, such as a customer number or product number. 'esson +: n "ntrduction to #atabase Management &ystems 2 database is a collection of related files that are usually integrated, linked or cross#referenced to one another. The advantage of a database is that data and records contained in different files can be easily organized and retrieved using specialized database management software called a database management system (7"=&) or database manager. #,M& *undamentals 2 database management system is a set of software programs that allows users to create, edit and update data in database files, and store and retrieve data from those database files. 7ata in a database can be added, deleted, changed, sorted or searched all using a 7"=&. f you were an employee in a large organization, the information about you would likely be stored in different files that are linked together. Dne file about you would pertain to your skills and abilities, another file to your income tax status, another to your home and office address and telephone number, and another to your annual performance ratings. "y cross#referencing these files, someone could change a person6s address in one file and it would automatically be reflected in all the other files. 7"=&s are commonly used to manage8 =embership and subscription mailing lists 2ccounting and bookkeeping information The data obtained from scientific research *ustomer information nventory information %ersonal records Bibrary information #,M&s and *ile Management &ystems *omputerized file management systems (sometimes called file managers) are not considered true database management systems because files cannot be easily linked to each other. $owever, they can serve as useful data management functions by providing a system for storing information in files. 3or example, a file management system might be used to store a mailing list or a personal address book. When files need to be linked, a relational database should be created using database application software such as Dracle, =icrosoft 2ccess, "= 7"5, or 3ile=aker %ro. -he d!antages of a #,M& mproved availability8 Dne of the principle advantages of a 7"=& is that the same information can be made available to different users. =inimized redundancy8 The data in a 7"=& is more concise because, as a general rule, the information in it appears just once. This reduces data redundancy, or in other words, the need to repeat the same data over and over again. =inimizing redundancy can therefore significantly reduce the cost of storing information on hard drives and other storage devices. n contrast, data fields are commonly repeated in multiple files when a file management system is used. 2ccuracy8 2ccurate, consistent, and up#to#date data is a sign of data integrity. 7"=&s foster data integrity because updates and changes to the data only have to be made in one place. The chances of making a mistake are higher if you are required to change the same data in several different places than if you only have to make the change in one place. %rogram and file consistency8 1sing a database management system, file formats and system programs are standardized. This makes the data files easier to maintain because the same rules and guidelines apply across all types of data. The level of consistency across files and programs also makes it easier to manage data when multiple programmers are involved. 1ser#friendly8 7ata is easier to access and manipulate with a 7"=& than without it. n most cases, 7"=&s also reduce the reliance of individual users on computer specialists to meet their data needs. mproved security8 2s stated earlier, 7"=&s allow multiple users to access the same data resources. This capability is generally viewed as a benefit, but there are potential risks for the organization. &ome sources of information should be protected or secured and only viewed by select individuals. Through the use of passwords, database management systems can be used to restrict data access to only those who should see it. -he #isad!antages of a #,M& There are basically two major downsides to using 7"=&s. Dne of these is cost, and the other the threat to data security. *ost8 mplementing a 7"=& system can be expensive and time#consuming, especially in large organizations. Training requirements alone can be quite costly. &ecurity8 'ven with safeguards in place, it may be possible for some unauthorized users to access the database. n general, database access is an all or nothing proposition. Dnce an unauthorized user gets into the database, they have access to all the files, not just a few. 7epending on the nature of the data involved, these breaches in security can also pose a threat to individual privacy. &teps should also be taken to regularly make backup copies of the database files and store them because of the possibility of fires and earthquakes that might destroy the system. 'esson .: -ypes of #atabase Management &ystems 7"=&s come in many shapes and sizes. 3or a few hundred dollars, you can purchase a 7"=& for your desktop computer. 3or larger computer systems, much more expensive 7"=&s are required. =any mainframe# based 7"=&s are leased by organizations. 7"=&s of this scale are highly sophisticated and would be extremely expensive to develop from scratch. Therefore, it is cheaper for an organization to lease such a 7"=& program than to develop it. &ince there are a variety of 7"=&s available, you should know some of the basic features, as well as strengths and weaknesses, of the major types. -ypes of #,M&: /ierarchical #atabases There are four structural types of database management systems8 hierarchical, network, relational, and object# oriented. $ierarchical 7atabases (7"=&), commonly used on mainframe computers, have been around for a long time. t is one of the oldest methods of organizing and storing data, and it is still used by some organizations for making travel reservations. 2 hierarchical database is organized in pyramid fashion, like the branches of a tree extending downwards. ;elated fields or records are grouped together so that there are higher#level records and lower#level records, just like the parents in a family tree sit above the subordinated children. "ased on this analogy, the parent record at the top of the pyramid is called the root record. 2 child record always has only one parent record to which it is linked, just like in a normal family tree. n contrast, a parent record may have more than one child record linked to it. $ierarchical databases work by moving from the top down. 2 record search is conducted by starting at the top of the pyramid and working down through the tree from parent to child until the appropriate child record is found. 3urthermore, each child can also be a parent with children underneath it. The advantage of hierarchical databases is that they can be accessed and updated rapidly because the tree#like structure and the relationships between records are defined in advance. $owever, this feature is a two#edged sword. The disadvantage of this type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have only one parent, and relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if they make sense from a logical standpoint. $ierarchical databases are so rigid in their design that adding a new field or record requires that the entire database be redefined. -ypes of #,M&: Net%or0 #atabases ?etwork databases are similar to hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical structure. There are a few key differences, however. nstead of looking like an upside#down tree, a network database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network of records. n network databases, children are called membersand parents are called owners. The most important difference is that each child or member can have more than one parent (or owner). Bike hierarchical databases, network databases are principally used on mainframe computers. &ince more connections can be made between different types of data, network databases are considered more flexible. $owever, two limitations must be considered when using this kind of database. &imilar to hierarchical databases, network databases must be defined in advance. There is also a limit to the number of connections that can be made between records. -ypes of #,M&: Relational #atabases n relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational, not hierarchical. $ierarchical and network databases require the user to pass down through a hierarchy in order to access needed data. ;elational databases connect data in different files by using common data elements or a key field. 7ata in relational databases is stored in different tables, each having a key field that uniquely identifies each row. ;elational databases are more flexible than either the hierarchical or network database structures. n relational databases, tables or files filled with data are called relations, tuples designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as attributes or fields. ;elational databases work on the principle that each table has a key field that uniquely identifies each row, and that these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another. Thus, one table might have a row consisting of a customer account number as the key field along with address and telephone number. The customer account number in this table could be linked to another table of data that also includes customer account number (a key field), but in this case, contains information about product returns, including an item number (another key field). This key field can be linked to another table that contains item numbers and other product information such as production location, color, quality control person, and other data. Therefore, using this database, customer information can be linked to specific product information. The relational database has become quite popular for two major reasons. 3irst, relational databases can be used with little or no training. &econd, database entries can be modified without redefining the entire structure. The downside of using a relational database is that searching for data can take more time than if other methods are used. -ypes of #,M&: 1b2ect)oriented #atabases 311#,M&4 2ble to handle many new data types, including graphics, photographs, audio, and video, object#oriented databases represent a significant advance over their other database cousins. $ierarchical and network databases are all designed to handle structured dataC that is, data that fits nicely into fields, rows, and columns. They are useful for handling small snippets of information such as names, addresses, zip codes, product numbers, and any kind of statistic or number you can think of. Dn the other hand, an object#oriented database can be used to store data from a variety of media sources, such as photographs and text, and produce work, as output, in a multimedia format. Dbject#oriented databases use small, reusable chunks of software called objects. The objects themselves are stored in the object#oriented database. 'ach object consists of two elements8 /) a piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics), and 5) the instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data. %art two of this definition requires a little more explanation. The instructions contained within the object are used to do something with the data in the object. 3or example, test scores would be within the object as would the instructions for calculating average test score. Dbject#oriented databases have two disadvantages. 3irst, they are more costly to develop. &econd, most organizations are reluctant to abandon or convert from those databases that they have already invested money in developing and implementing. $owever, the benefits to object#oriented databases are compelling. The ability to mix and match reusable objects provides incredible multimedia capability. $ealthcare organizations, for example, can store, track, and recall *2T scans, F#rays, electrocardiograms and many other forms of crucial data. Dne of the most influential and widely spread open source database applications that manipulates large databases and can be accessed over the Web is =y&EB database server. =y&EB runs as a service providing multiple user access to several databases. =y&EB is popular for web applications and operates with the database elements for the platforms (Binux9"&79=ac9Windows). =y&EB popularity for use with web applications is closely associated to the popularity of %$% programming language which is often used along with =y&EB. =any high#traffic web sites use =y&EB as the backend for its data warehouse. =y&EB is very popular with startup companies, small or medium businesses and projects because it can be easy to use at a low cost. n case when high speed reads are applied for web, gaming and medium or small data storages =y&EB surpasses all the other database management systems. =icrosoft &EB &erver designed to create web, enterprise, and desktop database systems. t is used with various goals and at different levels. =& &EB &erver allows you to store large amount of data which handles components like video, photographs, numbers, text, and much more. =icrosoft &EB &erver is developed to manage terra bytes of data in comparison with =icrosoft 2ccess that can handle only / gigabyte of data. =icrosoft Dffice 2ccess combines software development tools and the relational =icrosoft -et 7atabase 'ngine with easy#to#use :1. =& 2ccess is an ideal solution for start level users as they have the ability to create database structures and relations. =& 2ccess can be used by small businesses, within branches of large corporations, and by pastime programmers to design special customized desktop systems for manipulating the creation and management of data. =icrosoft 2ccess databases have certainly become very popular due to its key advantage to build a software system to manage a range of services very quickly. =icrosoft @isual 3ox%ro, generally abbreviated as @3%, is closely integrated with its own relational database engine, which broadens 3ox%ro6s x"ase capabilities to maintain &EB inquiry and data manipulation. 1nlike most 7"=&s, @isual 3ox%ro is a full#function, dynamic programming language that does not demand the use of an additional universal programming environment. t can be used to write not just conventional !thick client! applications, but also web application programs and middleware. &ince 5GGH =icrosoft renounced updating 3ox%ro therefore recently data is usually converted in one#way direction from 3ox%ro into the other 7"=&s. %ostgre&EB is a relational 7"=& that many web application developers prefer as the back#end data management component. t6s principally used by many distinguished organizations applying it for mission critical or wide#ranging applications. The .info and .org domain name registries use it as their primary data store, so do many financial institutions and large companies. 2lthough %ostgre&EB is not the right choice for every project but its advanced feature set and key advantages such as open source community support, very low deployment cost, and easy administration make it the great choice for those who use it for database driven website development. &EBite is a small * library that performs a standalone, embeddable, zero#configuration &EB database engine. This database engine provides a rapid and easy method to work with flat file databases. The &EBite engine is not a self#contained process with which the program connects. 1nlike server database management systems, the &EBite is an integral part of the program. &EBite is an ideal solution in situations where implementation, maintenance, and simplicity of administration are more significant than the innumerable complex features that enterprise database engines provide. &EBite database is an alternative solution instead of fopen() to write F=B or some proprietary format into disk files used by your application. &EBite is a right choice as the database for small and mid#sized websites. 1sage of &EBite as the database engine in =%I players, cellphones, %72s, and other electronic gadgets is also a reasonable decision. &EBite is often used as a substitute for an enterprise ;7"=& for displaying purposes or for testing. 3irebird is a fully featured and powerful ;7"=& despite of its installer size. t can manipulate databases from only a few kilobytes to many gigabytes with good execution and almost free support. t6s equally suitable both for commercial and open source applications. 3irebird6s ability to run completely automated without any administrative necessity makes it ideal for distributing databases and applications. t offers practically every common feature accessible in high#performance databases without any significant influence on accomplishment and able to operate well with such open#source tools as %$% and %erl. Dracle is one of the leading commercial &EB relational database management systems. t is available in a variety of configurations from small personal versions to fail#safe, enterprise#class versions. Dracle offers lots of feature and functionality for solving complicated problems that6s why it excels in 3ortune /GG, medium and large enterprise business applications and warehouses. This powerful system requires lots of deep knowledge and skill to handle large environments.
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