Running Head: AGE EFFECTS & LIFE SATISFACTION 1

Age Effects of Life Satisfaction in Older Adults

Chuk Yan E. Wong
University of Groningen
Student Number: S2432765
Mentor Group number: 28
Mentor Names: Dr. C. Borg and B. Reichrath
Date: 29-05-2014


Author Note
Chuk Yan E. Wong, Psychology Bachelor, University of Groningen.
I am grateful to my Academic Skill mentors, Dr. Charmaine Borg and Benedict
Reichrath, for always willing to aid and support me in any manner with my attempt to obtain
improved skills in formal academic writing. I would also like to thank them along with my
Academic Skills group for nurturing an intellectually stimulating environment for this to take
place. Particularly, I am to my fellow course mates Marcel Clarke and Lisa Pohl for objectively
and critically evaluating my work with my best interests in mind.
Email: c.y.e.wong@student.rug.nl
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 2


Abstract
Older adults are populating the world at an increasingly fast pace. They have shaped the world
around them and now experience a new phase of life. Studies concluding that life satisfaction
ultimately declines by aging and fatigue of the body are met with resistance, focusing on the
contributing factors of life satisfaction. While these studies each cannot be completely
disregarded, the likelihood of declining life satisfaction is accepted thus far. However,
possibilities surface through the use of discovered contributing factors of life satisfaction that
may allow increasingly older adults to live the rest of their lives with contentment.

Keywords: age effects, older adults, life satisfaction, factors

OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 3

The Effect of Health on Life Satisfaction of Older Adults:
Context
Due to the fruitful actions in the 20
th
century, virtually all countries are facing an
explosive aging progression growing much more rapidly than its younger counterparts. It is of
utmost importance to provide for the very people who have contributed to our upbringing by
observing their health and life satisfaction trajectories and to use that knowledge to their
advantage. By informing and influencing public health sectors and policies, well-being and
health can be promoted for those who have nurtured us into who we are today. In this way, the
elderly can enter a new phase of life to live their final years in dignity and happiness.
Previous Research and Thesis
While available literature has been optimistic with regards to inevitable growing life
dissatisfaction with age, this research area has been relatively small in the scientific community.
Literature, such as the 50 great myths of psychology (Lillienfield, 2010), attempt to debunk
prevailing beliefs surrounding increasing age-related dissatisfaction. Lillienfield opposes the
certainty of debility and senility often associated with older adults with his main arguments
involving media discrimination and internalization of negative stereotypes. While a range of
empirical studies have shown support to this perspective, studies have yielded contrary and more
sobering results. Consequently, this literature review will explore how declining health due to
aging does not necessarily result in decreasing life satisfaction by noting various scientific
studies.

OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 4

Overview
This report will explore different scientific papers that have produced results supporting
and opposing the inevitability of declining life satisfaction by age effects of older adults. The
trajectory of health and life satisfaction will first be introduced and provide a basis to build
opposing and supporting arguments upon.
Operational Definitions
Many terms and concepts regarding this topic can easily be nebulously and loosely
interpreted by readers. Thus, the operationalization of various keywords referred and repeated
throughout this review is necessary for clarity and understanding. As the main focus of this
report lies in effects of aging on life satisfaction in older adults, the following terms are
elaborated upon:
Older Adults: This report will concede to the United Nations concordance that at age 60
and above, old age is considered. By encompassing a large age range, the change in life
satisfaction can be more easily related to age effects.
Life Satisfaction: Life satisfaction is constituted by the cognition of an individuals
subjective holistic evaluation of their lives (Alaphilippe, Bailly, Herv, Gana, Joulain, Saada &
Trouillet, 2013).
Health: Two types of individual health are referred to: physical and subjective health.
Physical health refers to an individuals objective physical well-being. It can be classified by the
presence of illness and longevity. Conversely, subjective health regards the overall subjective
impression of their physical well-being. (Alaphilippe et al., 2013)
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 5

Trajectory Observations of Health at Old Age
Emphasized as the central elements of successful aging and quality of life, Gerstorf,
Infurna, Morack, and Ram (2013) explore the changes in both subjective and objective health
across the life span. Their findings suggest the decline of physical health throughout adulthood
with increasingly steeper decrements at old age. This may be a result of the simultaneous aging
of the various body systems and organs toiled for the entire life period. Previous studies upon
related physical health trajectories corroborates with these findings.
Physical health has shown no strong direct effect on life satisfaction in older adults.
However, physical health affects the subjective health of an individual via the functional health
of the body. (Gwozdz & Sousa-Poza, 2009) Subjective health has a more direct and greater
effect on life satisfaction than physical health. For example, in the Berlin Study, 500 individuals
70 years and older, were tested to analyze the relation between health status and life satisfaction.
The study yielded results where perceived health was a much more effective predictor of life
satisfaction than physical health. (Gwozdz & Sousa-Poza, 2009) (Brose, Lindenberger, Lovdn,
Schmiedek, Tesch-Rmer, & Wolff, 2012).
Perceptions of mental and subjective health remain relatively stable across the ages with
significant decreases towards the very end of life as regulatory structures break down. The
relative stability of perceived health can be attributed to the role of adaptation and increasing
perspective at old age. This will further be explained in later sections of this paper.
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 6

Supporting Arguments
Downward Comparisons with Negative Stereotypes
With the myriad and commonly known negative stereotypes of the elderly, a study by
Pinquart (2002) indicates that negative stereotypes can serve as a baseline for downward
comparison by older adults. Self perceptions became more positive after confronting negative
age related stereotypes while perceptions of their peers worsened. Pinquart suggests that the
comparison of oneself with these stereotypes allows individuals to become aware of their
positive circumstances. Thus, negative stereotypes become a source of positive self-perception.
Such attitudes ultimately contribute to improved feelings directed towards positive subjective
health leading to increased and maintained life satisfaction.
Adaptation
Growing older often leads to the immediate and rapid prospect of the loss of activity and
independence. Jopp and Rotts findings (2006) emphasize the importance of adaptation in
improving and sustaining life satisfaction in older adults. Their study deduces that self-reference
beliefs and attitudes towards life satisfaction levels were greater than any other resources (i.e.
social relations, extraversion, and job training). According to Jopp and Rott (2006) older adults
possessing optimistic attitudes were able to relinquish control to accept necessary life changes
and adapt suitably to their growing age. This acceptance resulted in higher life satisfaction
compared to other participants.
Adaptation has been said to be useful among older adults as it balances the expectations
held by individuals and the realities faced that contribute to life satisfaction. Thus, across the
transition from young to older adulthood, different factors are given more weight to life
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 7

satisfaction to cope with the inevitable age effects (Berg, Hassing, Mcclearn, & Johansson,
2006). As a result, older adults are able to construct a positive meaning in life even under
suboptimal health conditions.
Cohort Effects
In addition to agentic factors to sustain life satisfaction, among even the most highly
regarded experimental designs, the question of generalizability has been raised. Individuals
belonging to a certain cohort are bonded by time or historical life experiences. The current older
generation has faced many major historical events that may contribute to a resulting increased
dissatisfaction cohort effect observed in studies. These experiences cannot be compared to the
experiences of the current society in their own progressive aging. For example, women in the
1900s encountered numerous restrictions that the current generation does not encounter to an
equal degree. In recent history, the food, diet, and physical activities can even be claimed to be
vastly different from those of today.
However, Gwozds and Sousa-Pozas (2010) study focused on the life satisfaction among
the oldest of old German citizens and cohort effects were controlled. Yet, relatively constant
levels of life satisfaction across the life span were still observed. This observation provides some
support to the degree of generalization of experiments regarding life satisfaction despite using
different cohorts.
Opposing Arguments
Internalization and Identification with Negative Stereotypes
On a related note, Hertzog, Blanchard-Fields, and Stein (2002) conducted a study where
outcomes are in contrast with Pinquarts (2002) results. While Pinquart focused on older adults
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 8

reactions of distinction away from negative stereotypes, they explore the reactions in an
opposing direction where stereotypes serve as a baseline for self-fulfilling prophecies even when
subliminally exposed.
Hetzog et al. (2002) randomly assigned participants into 3 groups. Each group was
exposed to either a positive, negative, or neutral subliminal age stereotype. The participants took
part in a memory task before and after the priming took place. Results showed that memory
performance was undermined when exposed to negative primes. However, priming a positive
age stereotype did not show a significant increase in older adults memory performance. This can
lead to implications where older adults are more susceptible to identifying themselves with
negative stereotypes regarding impotence and senility. Older adults may become easily subjected
to these stereotypes that can have an immediate effect on physical and mental competencies.
Aspects related to life satisfaction such as self-perspective, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, can
easily be diminished by the internalization of these stereotypes.
Yet, such evidence does not completely contradict what was theorized by Pinquart.
Pinquart was indeed open to such a conclusion by accounting for the possibility of self-
consistency effects. Older adults originally viewing themselves in a negative light are more
salient to information consistent with self-views. This ultimately allows rumination and
reflection upon the negative valence of stereotypes. As a result, personality and ones
susceptibility to transient self-views contributes to the suppleness of life satisfaction in old age.
The Limits of Adaptation
The role of adaptation in successful and satisfactory aging has already been discussed as
essential to the adjustment of expectations and thus, fulfillment of older adults. Nonetheless,
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 9

even this has its limitations in time depending on appropriate body functioning. The functionality
of regulatory and resiliency resources responsible for such adaptation also becomes aged along
the years. As a result, this elucidates the trajectory observation where adults around the age of 70
are often observed to experience a significant decline in life satisfaction (Gerstorf et al., 2013).
Cognitive resources, namely adaptive resources, approach lower limits of functionality and have
a direct impact on life satisfaction.
Limitations of Supporting Studies
The aforementioned and related studies in this review, while giving substantial light to the
maintenance of life satisfaction, possess common factors in the experimental designs that give
rise to limitations of the arrived conclusions. One of which, concerns the cultural bias regarding
the majority of the studies in old age. As mentioned before, the study of old age covers a small
range in the scientific world of research and the study of life satisfaction in old age covers an
even smaller area. Many studies that have been published and used in this literature review take
place in the Western World and often cease to account for cultural differences. Hence, it is
suggestible that the conclusions deduced from these studies have a possibility to solely apply in
their respective cultures and not embody older adults in the entirety of the world.
Moreover, a common observation based on the studies used in the literature review revealed
the commonly prevailing number of women trumping over the number of men in the sample of
participants. Berg et al. (2006) have remarked on the possibility of a gender difference in their
sample between the patterns of variables associated with life satisfaction. This may support a
fundamental difference in genders that points to a slight, yet different, trajectory in life
satisfaction worth inspecting.
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 10

On another note, in many scenarios, the participants were also filtered by physical and
cognitive capacities to be eligible to participate in the experiments. This again brings challenges
to the generalizability of experiments with the arising issue of self-selection. Omitting and
selecting participants may seem to be most effective in the practicalities of conducting a study in
older adults, yet it conjures a breach in understanding the subject as a whole and arouses
skepticism towards conclusions based on current-day findings.
Discussion
The major points that have been discussed support the decline of life satisfaction
accompanied by the decline of subjective and functional health, especially in the face of
internalized negative stereotypes. The effect of such is revealed to be strongest when entering
very old age. While this seems to be a common result in most studies in life satisfaction, there
have also been studies conducted that have explored elements that can possibly stifle such steep
declines. By focusing on the maintenance and improvement of subjective health, life satisfaction
seems to have potential to be maintained even in the face of failing physical health. Whether it is
done by explorative elements promoting adaptation or prospects of intervention improving self-
esteem; further research should be conducted to investigate such possibilities. However, such
investigations face many challenges with regards to generalizibility of findings.
By encountering the final years of life, older adults are confronted with the inevitability
of death. In itself, such a frightening event with its prospect of finality can easily lead to the
dismissal of the positive elements of events that bind life together, including those that give self-
respect. While difficult, research can make it possible to contribute to not only our loved ones,
but our own final years in the future. With this, we can accompany those who have helped us in
our lives through the lasts steps of the journey with contentment and dignity.
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 11

References
Berg, A. I., Hassing, L. B., McClearn, G. E., & Johansson, B. (2006). What Matters For Life
Satisfaction In The Oldest-old? Aging & Mental Health, 10(3), 257-264. Retrieved
March 14, 2014, from the PsycInfo database.
Gana, K., Bailly, N., Saada, Y., Joulain, M., Trouillet, R., Herv, C., et al. (2013). Relationship
between life satisfaction and physical health in older adults: A longitudinal test of cross-
lagged and simultaneous effects. Health Psychology, 32(8), 896-904. Retrieved March
14, 2014, from the PsycInfo database.
Gwozdz, W., & Sousa-Poza, A. (2010). Ageing, Health and Life Satisfaction of the Oldest Old:
An Analysis for Germany . Social Indicators Research, 97(3), 397-417. Retrieved
March 14, 2014, from the PsycInfo database.
Jopp, D., & Rott, C. (2006). Adaptation in Very Old Age: Exploring the Role of Resources,
Beliefs, and Attitudes for Centenarians' Happiness. Psychology and Aging, 21(2), 266-
280. Retrieved February 9, 2014, from the PsycInfo database.
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2010). 50 great myths of popular psychology: shattering widespread
misconceptions about human behavior. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Morack, J., Infurna, F. J., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2013). Trajectories and personality correlates
of change in perceptions of physical and mental health across adulthood and old age.
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 37(6), 475-484. Retrieved March 18,
2014, from the PsycInfo database.
Pinquart, M. (2002). Good News About The Effects Of Bad Old-Age Stereotypes. Experimental
Aging Research, 28(3), 317-336. Retrieved February 9, 2014, from the PsycInfo
database.
OLD AGE DISSATISFACTION & SENILITY 12


Stein, R., Blanchard-Fields, F., & Hertzog, C. (2002). The Effects of Age-Stereotype Priming on
the Memory Performance of Older Adults. Experimental Aging Research, 28(2), 169-
181.