Madeleine Leininger

Known for her degree in Anthropology, Leininger observed recurrent behavioural differences
among the patients and concluded that these differences had a cultural base. She has been instrumental
in the development of transcultural nursing course with field experiences in different institutions. She
developed her theory of Transcultural Nursing on the fact that people of each culture can not only know
and define the ways in which they see their nursing care world, but also can compare these to general
health beliefs and practices. She presented her assumptions which support her claim that different
cultures perceive, know, and practice care in different ways, yet there are some commonalities about
care among cultures of the world.
Human beings are best explained in her assumptions. She believes that humans have endured
with cultures and through place and time because they have been able to care for infants, children, and
the elderly in a variety of ways and in many different environments. In terms of environment, Leininger
speaks about worldview, social structure, and environmental context. However, environment, if viewed
as being signified in culture, is a major principle of Leiningers theory. Although she does not use the
specific terms of society or environment, the concept of culture is closely related to
society/environment, and is a central matter of her theory. She drew upon anthropology for culture
component and upon nursing for care component.
Imogene King
One of the founding members of King International Nursing Group, which is established to
facilitate the spread and use of her interacting systems framework, Theory of Goal Attainment, and
related theories, concluded a systematic representation of nursing is required ultimately for developing
a science to accompany a century or more of art in the everyday world of nursing. She has contributed
to the development of instruments to measure the power of a nursing group within an organization and
patient satisfaction with professional nursing care. On the other hand, Kings model is composed of
three interacting systems, which are personal, interpersonal, and social communication. These are used
to establish a nurse-client relationship and utilized by the nurse to form a strong foundation for a
dynamic and interactive environment. The theory focuses on creating a positive behaviour that can be
adapted both by the nurse and client to achieve goals established by the client with the help of the
nurse.
Kings theory has been said to have limited application for the nursing practice. It was stated
that the interaction between the nurse and the client also comprises non-verbal communication that
cannot be clearly defined and evaluated. This has been the issue of the communication barriers that
exist between the nurse-patient relationships. King addresses this critique through concepts of other
theorist that cannot also be tested completely.

Dorothea Orem
One of Americas foremost nursing theorists with various nursing experiences like operating
room nursing, private duty nursing, and biological science teaching. From 1958 to 1960, she worked on a
project to upgrade practical nurse training that stimulated a need to address the question: What is the
subject matter of nursing? As a result, Guides for Developing Curricula for the Education of Practical
Nurses was developed.
Orems theory, Self-Care Deficit Theory, addresses clients self-care needs. It is defined as goal-
oriented activities that are set towards generating interest in the part of the client to maintain life and
health development. The theory is aimed towards making the clients perform self-care activities in order
to live independently. The Self-Care Deficit Theory is a systematic synthesis of knowledge about the
theoretical entities such as self-care, self-care agency, therapeutic self-care demand, the relational
entity self-care deficit and nursing agency. Her theory differentiates nursing from other disciplines in
terms of focus. Although other disciplines use the instruments developed from her theory, the theory of
nursing systems in terms of focus and emphasis sets the nursing profession apart. The theory gives
direction to nursing-specific outcomes related to identifying and meeting the therapeutic self-care
demands and self-management systems. Orems contribution to the profession extends far beyond than
the formulation of Self-Care Deficit Theory. In her works, she defined nursing as a scientific structure
and as a practical science with on-going development of the nursing knowledge. Shes a visionary when
she saw how far the profession could go in it development and maturity.

Martha Rogers
Rogers is a widely recognized scholar who is honoured for her contributions and leadership in
nursing. Butcher noted, Rogers, like Nightingale, was extremely independent, a determined,
perfectionist individual who trusted her vision despite scepticism. Colleagues consider her one of the
most original thinkers in nursing as she synthesized and resynthesized knowledge into an entirely new
system of thought. Today, she is thought of as ahead of her time, in ad out of this world.
In 1970, Rogers conceptual model of nursing rested on a set of basic assumptions that
described the life process in human beings. Wholeness, openness, unidirectionality, pattern and
organization, sentience, and thought characterized the life process. Roger postulates that human beings
are dynamic energy fields integral with environmental fields. Both human and environmental fields are
identified by pattern and characterized by a universe of open systems. The Rogerian model emerged
from a broad historical base and has moved to the forefront as scientific knowledge has evolved.
Emerging from a strong educational base, this model provides a challenging framework from which to
provide nursing care. The abstract ideas expounded in the Rogerian model and their congruence with
modern scientific knowledge spur new and challenging theories that further the understanding of the
unitary human being.