Analysis of dynamic aircraft landing loads, and a

proposal for rational design landing load requirements

P R O E F S C H R I F T
TER VERKRI JGI NG VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE
TECHNI SCHE WETENSCHAPPEN AAN DE TECHNI SCHE
HOGESCHOOL TE DELFT OP GEZAG VAN DE RECTOR
MAGNI FI CUS I R. H. R. v. NAUTA L EMKE, HOOGLERAAR
IN DE AFDELI NG DER ELECTROTECHNI EK, VOOR EEN
COMMI SSI E UI T DE SENAAT TE VERDEDI GEN OP
DI NSDAG 27 JUNI 1972 DES NAMI DDAGS TE 4 UUR
DOOR
JACOB I JFF
Vl_l EGTUI GBOUWKUNDI G I NGENI EUR
Dit proefschri ft is goedgekeurd door de pr omot or en
prof. dr . ing, J. Taub
prof. dr . i r . A. van der Neut
Aan de nagedacht eni s van mijn Vader.
De schr i j ver wil getuigen van zijn gr ot e erkent el i j khei d voor de
berei dwi l l i ghei d van de di r ekt i e van de Neder l andse Vliegtuig-
fabri eken " Fokker - VFW" N. V. om de t ot st andkomi ng van dit
proefschri ft mogel i j k t e maken.
Van de vel e medewer ker s van Fokker - VFW die daar t oe hebben
bi j gedragen en waar voor de s chr i j ver zijn gr ot e dank wil ui t -
drukken, moet en in het bi j zonder worden genoemd :
de heer H. J. Dannenburg, die al s wet enschappel i j k pr ogr a m-
meur de r eal i s er i ng van de comput er pr ogr a mma ' s
heeft ver zor gd.
de her en C. J. van Veen en C. G. Br e e ms , di e zowel de ba s i s -
gegevens voor de berekeni ngen, al s de i l l us t r at i es
van dit proefschri ft voor hun rekeni ng hebben genomen.
de dames C. P. Es s el man en A. Bnig, en de heer J. M. A. Boon,
die het t ypewerk en de l ay-out van het manuscr i pt
hebben ver zor gd.
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C o N T E N 1^ S
0. LIST OF SYMBOLS
1 . INTRODUCTION
1 . 1 . General
1 . 2. Physi cal phenomena involved in a landing impact
1 .3. Exi st i ng r equi r ement s for landing impact load cases
1 . 4. The objectives of the present study
2. SURVEY OF EXISTING LITERATURE
3. THEORY OF LANDING IMPACT LOAD ANALYSIS
3 . 1 . Introduction
3. 2. The coordi nat e syst em
3. 3. The equations of motion
3. 4. General i zed landing gear forces
3. 5. Landing gear forces
3 . 5 . 1 . Equations of motion of unsprung mas s
3. 5. 2. For ces and moment s acting on the t i r e
3. 5. 3. Shock absor ber forces
3. 6. General i zed aerodynami c forces
3. 7. The solution of the equations of motion
3. 8. Calculation of loads
4. THE INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR THE LANDING IMPACT PROBLEM
5. DETAILS OF EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
5 . 1 . Choice of r epr esent at i ve ai rcraft
5. 2. Dynamic schemat i zat i on of the F-27
5. 3. Some furt her simplifications
5. 4. The equations of motion for t he F-27 cal cul at i ons
5. 5. The equations for the calculation of wing loads
6. THE INFLUENCE OF CONSTITUTIVE PARAMETERS ON LANDING IMPACT LOADS
6. 1 . Refinements in st r uct ur al schemat i zat i on
6. 2. Landing gear schemat i zat i on
6. 3. Longitudinal drag forces
6. 4. Lat er al drag forces
6. 5. Initial rol l angle
6. 6. Pitch attitude
6. 7. Forward velocity
6. 8. Descent velocity
6. 9. Summary of r esul t s and conclusions
7. COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND MEASURED LANDING IMPACT QUANTITIES
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PROPOSAL FOR RATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PREDICTION OF LANDING
IMPACT DESIGN LOADS
8. 1 . Pr oposal s for rat i onal r equi r ement s
8.1 -1 Introduction
8. 1 -2 Formul at i on of rat i onal r equi r ement s
8. 1 -3 Concluding r emar ks
8.2. Compari son of r esul t s of rat i onal landing imipact load cal cul at i ons and
calculations accordi ng to existing r equi r ement s
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A : United States Feder al Aviation Agency Ai rwort hi ness st andards
for ground loads of t r anspor t cat egory ai r pl anes.
APPENDIX B : Calculation of pr escr i bed wing bending- and t orsi on deformation
modes.
3-
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - work done
Aj^ . - coefficients defining pneumat i c shock absor ber spri ng char act er i s t i cs
Ac - aerodynami c stiffness load due to unit di spl acement of general i sed
^i
c oor di na t e q^
Aj ) . - a e r o d y n a mi c da mpi ng l oad due t o uni t vel oci t y of g e n e r a l i s e d
c oor di na t e q^
B (y) - wi ng bendi ng naoment
C^-j - e l e me nt of g e n e r a l i s e d s t i f f nes s ma t r i x
D - a e r o d y n a mi c d r a g f or c e
E - ki net i c e n e r g y
F (t) - i ndi c i a l f unct i on
F j - f or c e act i ng i n s t a t i on j
Fg - s hock a b s o r b e r f or c e
FTT - s hock a b s o r b e r f or ce due t o hydr a ul i c r e s i s t a n c e
F p - pne uma t i c f or ce i n s hock a b s o r b e r
F p - f r i c t i on f or c e i n s hoc k a b s o r b e r
Ffj - s hock a b s o r b e r n o r ma l f or ce
Ix_ y^ z - mo me n t s of i ne r t i a
I j - i n e r t i a l oad due t o uni t a c c e l e r a t i o n of g e n e r a l i s e d c oor di na t e qj
J - wheel r ot a t i ona l mo me n t of i ne r t i a
Kx. y. z. " t i r e f o r c e s
Kw/ - whe e l axl e f or c e s
Wx. y. z
L - a e r o d y n a mi c lift f or c e
L ( X. y. z. t ) - t ot al l oad act i ng at poi nt x. y. z at t i me t
L Q - l andi ng g e a r l oads
Mj^j - e l e me n t of g e n e r a l i s e d ma s s ma t r i x
Mvv - mo me n t s act i ng at wheel axl e
" x . y. z ^
N(, - c o r n e r i n g powe r
N - s hock a b s o r b e r hydr a ul i c da mpi ng coef f i ci ent
Qi - i t h g e n e r a l i s e d f or c e
R - t i r e r a d i u s
S (y) - wi ng s h e a r f or ce
T (y) - wi ng t o r s i o n a l mo me n t
U - pot e nt i a l e ne r gy
VQ - a i r c r a f t s pe e d p a r a l l e l t o e a r t h s u r f a c e
V , - s ki ddi ng vel oci t y
SK
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stalling speed
vect or components
width of t i re contact region
rigid body degr ees of freedom
wheel excent ri ci t y
X, Y, Z components of wheel axle di spl acement due to unit
value of 5
wing chord
di st ance in Z di rect i on between wing plane and ai r cr af t c. of g.
di st ance in Z di rect i on between wing plane and engine c. of. g.
di st ance in Z di rect i on between wing plane and wheel axle
di st ance in Z di rect i on between wing plane and pylontank c. of g.
pr escr i bed wing bending deformation mode
pr escr i bed wing t orsi on deformation mode
length of wheel st r ut
radi us of gyration around x, y and z axis
element of flexibility influence coefficient mat r i x
half t i r e footprint length
distance in x di rect i on between engine c. of g. and pitch hinge of
engine pod in wing plane
ith mas s element
accel erat i on, also exponent of polytropic expansion
pr es s ur e in t i r e, or in shock absor ber
ith general i sed coordi nat e
distance between upper - and lower shock absor ber beari ng when E = O
effective wheel radi us
di st ance t ravel ed, expr essed in half chords s = -rrhr-
st at i c moment of the ith mas s element with r espect to wing el, axis
time
coordi nat es of point i
angle of incidence
slip angle
wheel angular velocity
const ant s defining t i r e force-defl ect i on curve
quantity defined by eq. 3. 5-22
general i sed coordinate for wing bending
general i sed coordi nat e for engine pitch
general i sed coordinate for wing t orsi on
slip rat i o
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Af - slip ratio for max. value of (Xx
U- - friction coefficient
V - frequency
5 - shock absor ber deflection
P - mat er i al densitj'
0 - t i r e deflection
X - time
T - angle
tp f- t i r e yawing angle
0)
^ \ - Eul er angles around Z, Y^ and X axes
0) 1 -
A - general i sed coordi nat e for pylontank fore and aft motion with
r espect to wing
M a t r i c e s
A" - mat r i x of aerodynami r influence coefficients
B - mat r i x defined by eq. 3. 5- 2
C - general i sed stiffness mat r i x
D - vect or of drag forces
Dg - general i sed aerodynami c damping mat ri x
E - unity mat ri x
F - force vect or acting on shock absor ber
K - force vect or
L - vect or of lift forces
M - general i sed mas s mat r i x
M - moment vect or
Q - column of gener al i sed forces
R - t ransformat i on mat r i x
S - general i sed aerodynami c stiffness mat ri x
T - t ransformat i on mat r i x rel at i ng vect or component in Eul er - and in
Newton axes syst ems by means of Eul er angles
T2 - mat r i x rel at i ng (^ and ^Q mat r i ces by means of Eul er angles
V - vect or
W - weighting vect or
X. - posi t i on vect or of any point i
m - diagonal mat r i x of mas s el ement s
q - column mat r i x of general i sed coordi nat es
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H
p - column matrix of Euler angles
^r^i - rotation vector of any point i
(jjj - rotational speed vector of any point i
- column matrix
- s q u a r e ma t r i x
L _i - r ow ma t r i x
J - di agonal ma t r i x
r n - t r a n s p o s e of ma t r i x
S u b - a n d S u p e r s c r i p t s
A - a n t i - s y mme t r i c
Ae - a e r o d y n a mi c
E - quant i t y r e l a t e d t o Eu l e r a x e s s y s t e m
F - f us el age
L - left, or l andi ng
M - pos i t i on of Eu i e r a x e s s y s t e m wi t h r e s p e c t t o movi ng Newt on a x e s s y s t e m
N - quant i t y r e l a t e d to Newt on a xe s s y s t e m
R - r i ght
S - s y mme t r i c
St - s t a b i l i s e r
T - d i s p l a c e me n t s
V - ve r t i c a l s t a b i l i s e r
W - wi ng
WM - wa t e r me t ha nol t ank
X - r e l a t e d t o pos i t i on ve c t o r
a - quant i t y r e l a t e d t o e a r t h a x e s s y s t e m
d - dyna mi c
e - quant i t y r e l a t e d t o s t r u c t u r a l e l a s t i c i t y
h - hor i z ont a l
m - engi ne
n - n o r ma l t o s hock a b s o r b e r di r e c t i on
o - quant i t y def i ni ng Eu l e r o r a i r c r a f t a x e s s y s t e m wi t h r e s p e c t t o
movi ng Newt on a xe s s y s t e m , o r va l ue s at t i me t ^ 0
p - pyl ont anks
s - i n di r e c t i on of s hock a b s o r b e r
s k - s ki ddi ng
s - s pi n- up
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second impact
st at i c
wheel axle
X. y or z-component of vect or
rel at ed to rot at i on vect or
value of quantity due to shock absor ber deflection
differentiation with r espect to time
absolute value
i ncr ement al value of quantity ( )
quantity ( ) defined with r espect to ai r cr af t - , or Eul er axes
syst em
quantity defined with r espect to Newton axes syst em but decomposed
along axes par al l el to I ' ul er axes syst em
A few definitions, occuri ng in a single paragraph only, ar e locally defined.
All cal cul at i ons of the present study have been performed bj' using the met r i c
( m. kg. s ec. ) syst em. By kg i s indicated t he ki l ogram force.
For the introduction of the r es ul t s in the aeronaut i cal world, however, it was consi dered
mor e appr opr i at e to use for descent velocity and landing weight the Angl o-Ameri can uni t s
of f t / sec and l bs. because al l i mport ant existing ai r wor t hi ness r equi r ement s ar e f or mul a-
ted in these uni t s.
SI
St
w
X. y. z
( )
( )
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I NT R ODUC T I ON
, 1 . 1 , GENERAL
The ai rcraft desi gner is constantly confronted with the probl em of designing a i r -
craft st r uct ur es for conflicting r equi r ement s : r equi r ement s of adequate st rengt h
and stiffness at low weight and low cost .
The ar t of the desi gner i s t herefore to find the opt i mal compr omi se for these con-
flicting r equi r ement s i. e. to find the lightest and- from point of view of production
and mai nt enance- mos-t economic st r uct ur e for a given st andard of st rengt h and
stiffness.
The keyphrase her e i s "a given st andard of st rengt h and st i ffness". A cl ear defi-
nition of this is necessar y.
General l y spoken, this st andard can be formul at ed as to mi ni mi ze the chance of
damage or any permanent deformation, or of malfuntioning under all anticipated
operating conditions during the ent i re lifetime of the s t r uct ur e.
Although the ultimate responsi bi l i t y for sufficient st rengt h and stiffness r emai ns
with the desi gner, the definition of the r equi r ed st andard of st rengt h i s not hi s t ask.
It i s the task of the ai rwort hi ness aut hori t i es to define the r equi r ed st andard of
st rengt h and stiffness to which al l ai rcraft desi gns have to conform,
Thi s ent ai l s that pr i mar i l y these aut hori t i es define the operat i ng conditions and/ or
loads to be taken into account when designing s t r uct ur es . In doing so these aut ho-
r i t i es tend to be conservat i ve. Thi s attitude may in some cas es r esul t in a kind of
ext ra margi n of safety hidden in the pr escr i bed val ues of operat i ng conditions and/ or
l oads.
This hidden margi n of safety i s additional to the basi c safety factor of 1 ,5, which
i s at pr esent al most uni versal l y applied in ai rcraft design pr ocedur es.
According to the U. S. Feder al Aviation Agency (FAA ) regul at i ons this basi c factor
of safety of 1, 5 i s used to provide for the possi bi l i t y of loads gr eat er than the
"l i mi t " loads, ( limit loads being the maximum loads anticipated in normal condi -
tions of operation, i. e. loads with a cert ai n smal l probability of occurence ) and for
uncert ai nt i es in design. Li mi t loads multiplied with this factor of safety ar e called
"ul t i mat e" loads.*
The st r uct ur e shall be capable of supporting limit loads without suffering det r i men-
tal permanent deformations, and of supporting ul t i mat e loads without fai l ure.
The anticipated normal operating conditions, ( as used in the definition of limit loads)
can only be det ermi ned in a st at i st i cal way. Thi s means that t here is always a
cert ai n amount of uncertainty about t hei r quantitative val ues.
This explaine the tendency of introducing in the Ai rwort hi ness Requi rement s some
additional (hi dden) margi n of safety beyond the basi c safety factor of 1 ,5. e. g. by
pr escr i bi ng a too high gust velocity for the flight condition or a too high sinking
speed for the landing condition.
It will be cl ear however that the values of t hese additional hidden safety mar gi ns
* Thi s name i s in fact not very logical, since - as mentioned - the factor of safety
provi des not only for the possi bi l i t y of loads gr eat er than the limit loads but
al so for uncert ai nt i es is design.
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can be s mal l er if bet t er calculation schemes ar e used and the possi bl e operat i ng
conditions ar e det ermi ned mor e carefully,
Resear ch in these fields i s going on continually and thus the pr escr i bed operating
condi t i ons/ l oads ar e in di scussi on continuously.
In the quest for more economic st r uct ur es the ai rcraft desi gner will desi r e to lower
the r equi r ement s when it i s possi bl e to prove that existing r equi r ement s ar e unneces-
sar i l y conservat i ve. Thi s possi bi l i t y exi at s. In the past r equi r ement s have somet i mes
heen formul at ed without a sufficient knowledge of operat i ng conditions and/ or into
the par amet er s det ermi ni ng the l oads.
When damage does not occur i n st r uct ur es designed on the base of such r equi r e-
ment s it can be sai d that safety i s assur ed, but it will not be known how much
ext ra loading capacity i s hidden in the design,
On the ot her hand, t her e is a good reason to be caut i ous.
Damage may be experi enced with new types of st r uct ur es which were designed on
the basi s of exi st i ng requirenments which have proved t hei r value in the past with
ear l i er generat i ons of desi gns. Such experi ence pr oves that the existing r equi r e-
ment s do not include cor r ect l y al l physi cal phenomena involved in the loading case
consi dered. Such situations ar e the mor e likely to occur si nce formal r equi r e-
ment s have a tendency to r es t unchanged for long peri ods of t i me and t herefore
si t uat i ons ar i s e in which the formal r equi r ement s lag severel y behind the st at e of
the ar t .
Thi s st at e of affairs exi st s at this moment for the r equi r ement s with r espect to
loads due to landing i mpact .
As a r esul t of the landing i mpact the st r uct ur e i s exposed to loads which i ncr ease
in ver y short t i me from zer o to t hei r maxi mum val ue. The landing impact has
t herefore a dynamic char act er , which means that i nert i a forces due to the el as -
tic deformat i on of the st r uct ur e ar e becoming r at her i mport ant and by this fact
the s t r e s s e s in many par t s of the st r uct ur e may become higher than under
quasi - st at i c conditions, in which the r at e of i ncr ease of loads i s slow.
The exi st i ng r equi r ement s however ar e based on an obsolete st at e of ar t , in
which no dynamic effects were taken in account by the s t r e s s anal yst s. Conse-
quently the val ues of the i ni t i al condi t i ons- the sinking speed in par t i cul ar -
in the exi st i ng r equi r ement s had to be r at her conservat i vel y specified, as a
safe-guard agai nst the short comi ngs in the st at e of ar t .
Thi s safe-guard i s not more necessar y, since we know that in our time a more
accur at e dynamic anal ysi s can be per f or med. A new formulation of landing
i mpact load r equi r ement s t herefore i s badly needed.
It i s the ai m of the pr esent study to i nvest i gat e whether it is possi bl e to formu-
late more up to dat e, yet si mpl e r equi r ement s for the landing impact cases.
In doing t hi s the study will embr ace an extensive investigation into the rel at i ve
i mport ance of the l arge number of var i abl es involved in the landing impact
pr obl em, st hat i t wi l l be possi bl e to det ermi ne the design loads ( i. e. limit and
ul t i mat e loads ) in a more rat i onal way than due to the existing r equi r ement s.
- 1 0-
The study is r est r i ct ed to the det ermi nat i on of design loads due to landing i mpact s
on main landing gear s. In pri nci pl e a nose gear has to be t reat ed in the same way,
and can be added to the calculation scheme without furt her compl i cat i ons when t hr ee
point landings ar e considered.
The probl em of determining a complete load spect rum which can be used for a
fatigue anal ysi s of the st r uct ur e, i s not t reat ed in the present investigation because
a landing gear load spect rum is mainly due to taxi l oads.
The landing impact loads ar e only adding a very smal l percent age of the total num-
ber of load vari at i ons and t herefore can be taken into account in the fatigue spect r um
in a r at her crude way.
PHYSICAL PHENOMENA INVOLVED IN A LANDING IMPACT
When an ai rcraft touches down, the ver t i cal velocity has to be reduced to zer o in a
very short time i nt erval . This task i s mainly performed by the shock abs or ber s
and the t i r es . In or der to reduce the ver t i cal decel erat i on at touch-down both
t i re and shock absor ber act as ( non-l i near ) spri ngs,
At touch-down initially only the t i r es ar e deflected, acting mainly as spri ngs so
that a ver t i cal ground react i on force develops. When this force has become so
l arge that the amount of preload pr esent in the shock- absor ber i s exceeded, the
shock absor ber s t ar t s to deflect, converting par t of the i mpact energy into heat
by pushing hydraulic fluid through smal l ori fi ces and anot her par t of the energy
in potential energy of the compr essed ai r . This damping force, generat ed by the
hydraulic shock absorber, demi ni shes rapidly toward the end of the st r oke.
The total shock- absor ber load which r i s es very rapidly, and l evel s off after a
few hundredths of a second, i s t r ansmi t t ed to the ai r cr af t st r uct ur e. As this
st r uct ur e i s el ast i c it will deform by this loading and due to the rapi d appl i ca-
tion of this force, st r uct ur al vi brat i ons ar e excited. Thi s so called "dynamic
effect" of a landing impact can i ncr ease as well as decr ease the max. s t r e s s e s
at a cer t ai n station of the st r uct ur e. The amount by which this happens i s ex-
pr es s ed by "over shoot - f act or s", expressi ng the r at i o of loads which ar e found
by taking into account st r uct ur al el ast i ci t y, and the loads found when the s t r uc-
t ure i s assumed to be completely ri gi d. For modern l ar ge ai rcraft these dyna-
mic effects ar e most i mport ant . In this r espect the t i me hi st ory of the ver t i cal
landing gear load for a given descent velocity, i s of pr i me i mpor t ance.
The t i me hi st ory det ermi nes which deformation modes will be excited and to
which degree.
However, these facet s of a landing impact ar e cert ai nl y not the only ones which
deserve careful attention. A most i mport ant r61 e has al so the hori zont al friction
force between t i r e and runway. Thi s force i s due to the difference in speed
between t i re and runway surface at the moment of touch-down. The difference in
speed can be resol ved in two component s. One in the plane of the wheel disk, and
one perpendi cul ar to the first one. The first one bri ngs the wheel in a sudden
rot at i on.
The duration of this phenomenon i s a few hundredths of a second only, the time
needed for a complete "spi n-up". Spin-up, i s the action of rot at i onal accel er a-
- 1 1 -
tion of the wheel by ground friction forces, and is completed when the ci rcumferent i al
speed of the t i r e equals the forward speed of the ai r cr af t . As with all friction forces
the spi n-up force is proport i onal to the coefficient of friction and to the ver t i cal force
acting on the t i r e.
The friction coefficient /^x however, i s not a constant, but is very much dependent
on the "skidding velocity", as shown in the figure 1 . 2- 1 , skidding velocity being the diffe-
r ence between ai rcraft forward speed and wheel ci r cumf er ent i al speed. The value of/ix
var i es between 0,5 and 1 ,0 onidry sur f aces, but decr eas es very rapidly to very smal l
val ues when the condition of rolling contact between
t i r e and surfaces, thus zero skidding velocity, i s ap-
proached. This i mpl i es that the initial value and t he-
refore also the vari at i on of the friction coefficient
during the spin-up phase i s also dependent on the
forward speed of the ai rcraft at the moment of touch-
down.
Due to the friction force the landing gear is deflected
r ear war ds as is indicated in fig. 1 . 2-2. But after a
, . , ,. , while the friction force reduces strongly, due to
skidding velocity ^ " ^ ^
p- 2 2-1 est abl i shment of zer o slip condition, and the landing gear
spr i ngs back. Both the spi n-up and the spri ng-back phenomena introduce severe dynamic
effects in the st r uct ur e, due to the short duration of the friction force and the sudden
Horizontal wing bending and t or -
sion especi al l y ar e excited to
r at her high frequencies by t hese
phenomena. Spin-up and spri ng-
back ar e of par t i cul ar i mport ance
for the dynamic loading of heavy
concent rat ed mas s es which ar e
connected to wings such as, for
example, engines and pylon t anks.
Additional effects and loads, can
be expected due to a- s ymmet r i cal ai rcraft attitudes at the moment of touch-down. In
such cas es the right (left) side landing gear cont act s the ground before the left (right)
side one. The impact on the side of the fi rst contact i nt roduces a rolling moment by
which the ver t i cal touch-down velocity on the opposite side may become higher than
tlie ver t i cal velocity of the ai r cr af t . Such a touch-down can,for i nst ance, take pl ace
when a cr os s wind component i s pr esent . The lining up with the runway then is ob-
tained by such an initial rol l angle that the l at er al aerodynami c force is compensated
by a weight component. The ot her possi bl e pr ocedur e for cr os s wind landings i s to
s t eer a drift angl e in such a way that the resul t i ng ai rcraft ground speed vect or
i s in the runway di rect i on. Unless a perfect decrab maneuver i s performed anot her
as ymmet r i c effect occur s which should be taken into account,viz. a touchdown with a
cert ai n initial l a t e r a l velocity of the ai rcraft with r espect to the runway^ l ess than
the cr os s wind velocity. Thi s produces l at er al friction forces on the t i r e.
At t he moment of touch-down when the t i r e skids along the runway the friction force
//t<Z i s opposite to the r esul t i ng speed vect or V^ . As follows from fig. 1 .2-3 the l at er al
friction coefficient fi ythen i s proport i onal to si ntfr.rfrhei ng the t i r e yaw angle . When the
wheel s t ar t s to r ol l at spi n-up t he forward skidding velocity i s reducing very rapidly
to very smal l val ues. Consequently the t i r e yaw angle V' i ncr eases rapidly to val ues
around 90 and the l at er al friction coefficient/iy will pr act i cal l y be equal to jj. . Fr om
spi n-up.
Fi g. 1 .2-2 spri ng-back
- 1 2-
M k
( af t er spi n-up)
Fig. 1 .2-3
experi ment s it follows however that for a
yawed rolling t i r e this is al ready t r ue for
much smal l er val ues of i p
Due to the l at er al friction force the landing
gear also is deflected l at eral l y. However,
as t her e i s no spi n-up l at eral l y, also the
spri ng-back is absent and t herefore al so the
excitation of high frequency modes is absent .
The l at er al friction force t herefore only ex-
ci t es the lower wing bending frequenci es.
As general l y the l at er al landing gear bending
frequenci es ar e much higher, the l at er al
landing gear el ast i ci t y influences the landing
impact phenomena to a l es s er extent than
does the fore and aft stiffness of the landing
gear in rel at i on to the spin-up phenomena.
Finally t her e is st i l l another probl em : the vi brat i ons of the el ast i c ai rcraft st r uct ur e
have not only a di r ect effect on the s t r e s s e s at different st at i ons of the st r uct ur e, but
they al so influence the time hi st ory of the ver t i cal landing gear load, for they convert
a part of the impact energy in potential energy of the el ast i c deformed st r uct ur e.
How accur at e has to be taken into account this i nt eract i on effect ?.
A quite different facet of a landing impact is the generation of aerodynami c forces on
the ai r cr af t due to motions resul t i ng from the landing impact. These forces can con-
tribute to the total loading due to landing i mpact and t herefore deser ve our attention.
Of cour se if all the physical effects mentioned above have to be taken into account, it
is not l onger possi bl e to descr i be the landing by two initial conditions only, viz. the
sinking- and the forward speed. The landing impact then depends on a number of
initial conditions which, to a l arge extent, ar e independent of each ot her.
Also ai r cr af t l at er al velocity, rolling angular velocity, angle of r ol l , angle of yaw,
yawing angul ar velocity, and pitch attitude ( angle and angul ar velocity ) should be
specified.
A possi bi l i t y not yet mentioned is the rebound landing. It has to be consi dered whet her
such a landing with a part i al l y deflected shock absor ber can give r i s e to cr i t i cal l oa-
ding c a s e s ,
1 . 3.
EXISTING REQUIREMENTS FOR LANDING IMPACT LOAD CASES
The most i mport ant existing r equi r ement s ar e the Ameri can ones for t r anspor t ai r -
craft a s given by the FAA ( Feder al Aviation Agency) in FAR-25, The with r espect
to this study rel evant part of t hese r equi r ement s ar e reproduced in Appendix A,
They can best be i l l ust rat ed by r ef er r i ngt o fig, 1 , 3- 1 .
This figure shows a typical time hi st ory of ver t i cal and horizontal longitudinal wheel
loads. Thr ee combinations of these ver t i cal and hori zont al loads, indicated in the
fig, as 1, 2 and 3, have to be applied to the wheel axi s, and have to be placed in
equi l i bri um with the l i near and angul ar i nert i a forces of the ai rcraft as a whole.
- 1 3-
J^ig. 1 .3-1
The ver t i cal forces have to be derived f r om or checked
with, drop t est s. In these drop t est s it may be assumed
that at the moment of touch-down the t ot al lift equals
the ai rcraft weight, so that no initial ver t i cal accel e-
rat i on exi st s. This is in agr eement with t he available
st at i st i cal data as will be shown in chapt er 2.
The drag is specified by a fixed value in case 2.
In case 1 a friction coefficient has to be assumed
permi t t i ng the t i me requi red for complete spin-up, to
be cal cul at ed. A si mpl e i nt egr al formula exists
which will be derived in chapt er 3, for calculation of
the spi n-up t i me t .
The coefficient of friction rnay be est abl i shed by con-
si deri ng the effects of skidding velocity and t i r e pr es s ur e. However this coefficient
of friction need not be mor e than 0, 8.
In the third case, as is shown in fig. 1 . 3- 1 , the maxi mum forward acting horizontal
force depends very st rongl y on the dynamic behaviour of the st r uct ur e and this case
can only be defined pr oper l y when a compl et e dynamic anal ysi s is performed. An
al t ernat i ve method would be a drop t est on a rotating drum, or with a pr er ot at i ng
wheel, in which, however, only the el ast i ci t y of the landing gear itself wi l l be si mu-
lated, and not the el ast i ci t y of the r es t of ai rcraft s t r uct ur e.
Both a level attitude and a taildown attitude have to be investigated for t hese three
cas es . The forces defined by tlie fi rst and third case have to be applied only to the
landing gear and its di rect l y affected attaching st r uct ur e, and to large ma s s items
attached to the wing such as ext ernal fuel tanks, nacel l es et c,
Forward speed at touch-down has to be varied between VT and 1 ,25 VT in the
Li 1-2
l evel attitude, in which VL- = VgQ ( T. A. S. )*, the stalling speed with r espect to
undisturbed ai r at sea level in st andard at mosphere condi t i ons, and V^^ = ^SO' ^' ' ^' ^* ^'
the stalling speed at the altitude to be consi dered under ** ISA + 41 F conditions. For
taildown attitude forward speed i s pr escr i bed as V^p. For war d speed only influences
the value of the friction coefficient and the time for compl et e spin-up.
The ver t i cal force depends on the sinking speed, which, in the Ameri can r equi r ement s,
i s pr escr i bed as 10 f t / sec. for the maxiraium landing weight and 6 ft / sec. for the max.
take-off weight. The take-off weight case with a reduced sinking speed is defined in or der
to t reat al so the emergency case that an ai rcraft has to land j ust after take-off. As the
probability of a combination of such an emergency case and an extreme sinking speed
i s ext r emel y smal l a reduced sinking speed is pr escr i bed. In pract i ce usual l y the landing
weight case is cr i t i cal .
In addition to t hese tliree symmet r i cal load cases, t her e ar e two a- symmet r i c ones
pr escr i bed, which ar e al so indicated in fig, 1. 3- 1 . Only main wheels ar e assumed to
be in contact with the ground whilst the ai rcraft i s in the l evel attitude. The liorizontal
forces ar e rel at ed di rect l y to the ver t i cal forces and ar e well defined.
In addition to the r equi r ement that the under car r i age- and ai r cr af t st r uct ur e should
withstand the given l oads, t her e i s al so a separ at e r equi r ement prescri bi ng t e s t s to
prove shock absorbi ng ability of the landing gear under the pr escr i bed landing condi-
t i ons, i. e. that nei t her t i r e nor shock absor ber will bottom.
* T. A. S. = Tr ue Air Speed
** ISA = Int ernat i onal Standard At mosphere
- 1 4-
The shock absorbi ng ability must be further demonst rat ed by a t est with
an ul t i mat e descent velocity of 12 f t / sec, instead of the nor mal limit d
velocity of 10 f t / sec, ."requiring the landing gear not to fail.
escent
RIGHT LANDING LEFT LANDING
RIGHTLANOING LEFT LANDING
max- dr ag force case
GEAR
^MAX ^ M
.4K
MAX.
GEAR
AX
.tK
MAX.
/ D R A G / / D R A G
/ FORCEy / FORCE
r^MAX / ^" ^MAX
LATERAL FORCE
max- ver t i cal force
case
Fi g. 1 .3-2
LATERAL
FORCE
' MAX
. ( K
MAX.
DRAG
FORCE
/
one wheel landing
case
The pr esent B r i t i s h regul at i ons, the BCAR ( Bri t i sh Civil Ai r wor t hi ness
Requi rement s) , i ssued by the Ai r Regi st rat i on Board, which have been adopted
by most commonwealth count ri es, are based on the same approach as that of
the FAA. The pri nci pal landing load cases ar e indicated in fig. 1 . 3-2. Only
t hr ee different cases are pr escr i bed which ar e al l rel at ed to the maxi mum
ver t i cal force K
max.
to be derived from a drop t est for a cer t ai n sinking speed.
For the most i mport ant case of the landing weight this sinking speed i s not a
constant but depends on the stalling speed of the ai rcraft accordi ng to the
expr essi on;
Z^ = 7 <: 5, 0 + 0, 06 Vg^ < l i f t / s e c . in which Vg^
in m. p. h. i s the stalling speed at landing weight with wing flaps in the landing
position and with no sl i pst r eam effect. For the case of take-off weight the
pr escr i bed sinking speed i s 6 f t / sec, the same value as given by the FAA.
However, when a comprehensi ve dynamic anal ysi s i s performed, as r equi r ed
for landing gear s connected to the wing with overhung engines, 75% of the
pr escr i bed sinking speeds may be taken into account.
Although dynamic effects ar e very i mport ant indeed for a configuration with
overhung engines it i s not logical to r es t r i ct the lower descent velocity to t hese
configurations only.
The high drag loading case of fig. 1 . 3-2, i s al most i dent i cal with that of the FAA
case 1 . The same value of 0,8 i s chosen for the coefficient of friction. The
ver t i cal force however i s defined in a different way. Here it i s a fixed pr opor -
tion of the maxi mum value of the ver t i cal dropt est force, instead of the value
correspondi ng to the maximuna value of the spi n-up force. The proport i ona-
lity factor f i s rel at ed to the stalling speed with flaps down and with no sl i p-
s t r eam effects, and is defined by :
f = 0, 55 when V
f = 0. 75 when V,
So
So
< 50 m. p. h,
> 1 00 m. p. h,
with st rai ght line vari at i on with V between these two val ues.
- 1 5-
Also i dent i cal with FAA regul at i ons i s the condition that at the moment of touch-
down total lift is equal to the ai rcraft weight,
The Bri t i sh r equi r ement for an ul t i mat e descent velocity t est i s somewhat l ess
sever e than the equivalent FAA r equi r ement ,
The ARB defines an ul t i mat e descent velocity of 1 ,1 8 t i mes the l i mi t descent I
I
velocity, as compared with the 1 ,20 t i mes the limit descent velocity of the FAA
r equi r ement s,
Another i mport ant set of r equi r ement s ai e the MIL-specs, which must be s at i s -
fied by all mi l i t ar y ai r cr af t in the USA. j
The one rel at ed to ground loads due to landing impact for t r anspor t planes, viz,
MIL-A-8862 dated 1 8-5-1 960, i s, however, nearl y identical to the FAR r equi r e-
ment s.
The only i mport ant differences ar e a friction coefficient of 0, 55 instead of 0, 8
and the fact that the one wheel landing case i s not i ncorporat ed in these r equi r e-
ment s.
1 .4, THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY
, .. I
In par . 1, 2 all the physi cal effects involved in the landing impact pr ocess have
been descr i bed. All t hese effects should be taken into account in an anal ysi s aimed I
at cal cul at i ng exact loads i. e. loads due to given initial conditions taking into ac-
count al l physi cal effects involved. Thi s \- ould involve a very complicated ana-
l ys i s . A l ar ge number of independent initial conditions then had to be specified. The val -
ues of the initial conditions can be derived from measur ement s during landings with
vari ous ai rcraft t ypes. The st at i st i cal pr oper t i es of all the quant i t i es seperat el y then
can be det er mi ned. The question r emai ns however which c o m b i n a t i o n of initial |
condition has to be specified in or der to define cr i t i cal design loading cas es . The |
probl em becomes st i l l mor e complicated by the fact that for different sect i ons of |
the st r uct ur e different combinations of initial conditions will be cr i t i cal .
In pri nci pl e this probl em can be approached in a st at i st i cal way. Some of the more
recent l i t er at ur e ( e. g. ref. 1 ) follow this line of attack. Fr om the st at i st i cal pr o-
per t i es of the individual initial conditions which ar e assumed to be known, random
combi nat i ons of t hese i ni t i al conditions can be formed by means of cert ai n st at i st i -
cal techniques such as Monte Carl o technique or a weighted par amet er method.
When these random combinations ar e applied to the dynamic syst em descri bi ng the
ai r cr af t - and landing gear behaviour of a specific ai rcraft , resul t i ng l oads, s t r es - '
ses and accel er at i ons ar e obtained in the form of probability di st ri but i ons.
In pri nci pl e, all information needed for a complete fatigue, anal ysi s then i s available,
Fr om an abst r act physi cal point of view such an approach would be the only cor r ect
one. I
Unfortunately, however, in pr act i ce this approach does not work in providing j
I
d e s i g n l o a d s ( 1, e, l i mi t loads and/ or ultimate l oads) . This is due to sever al i
r eas ons , j
The most i mport ant one i s that the initial conditions defining limit and ul t i mat e loads,
have to be extrapolated from the available st at i st i cal infornaation since for t hese j
ext r eme conditions st at i st i cal information is not avai l abl e, I
I
- 1 6 -
Mo r e o ve r , due t o t he l i mi t ed amount of avai l abl e s t a t i s t i c a l dat a onl y a few me a s u -
r ed va l u e s a r e avai l abl e for s e ve r e l a ndi ngs . Thus t he s t a t i s t i c a l a c c u r a c y of t he
ext r enae ( e xt r a pol a t e d ) va l ue s i s even mo r e doubt f ul . Thi s i s s t i l l mo r e val i d f or
a c ombi na t i on of t he val ues whi ch r a i s e e x t r e me l andi ng i mpa c t l oa ds .
A f ur t he r r e a s o n i s t hat t he g r e a t amount of s t a t i s t i c a l i nf or mat i on needed i s not
yet a va i l a bl e for al l r el evant i ni t i al condi t i ons . It i s even doubt ful whe t e r t hi s i n-
f or ma t i on e ve r wi l l become avai l abl e, a s a cons t ant updat i ng wi l l be r e q u i r e d f or
each s uc c e e di ng ge ne r a t i on of a i r c r a f t .
For t h e s e r e a s o n s a full s t a t i s t i c a l a ppr oa c h f or c a l c ul a t i ng des i gn l andi ng l oa ds i s
i mp r a c t i c a b l e t o us e a s a b a s i s for pr ovi di ng d e s i g n l oad c a s e s . One of t he ob-
j e c t i ve s of t he p r e s e n t i nves t i gat i on t h e r e f o r e i s t o st udy whe t he r a not he r a p p r o a c h
i s p o s s i b l e f or def i ni ng r a t i ona l r e q u i r e me n t s f or l andi ng i mpa c t des i gn l oa ds .
Such an a ppr oa c h has been found pos s i bl e . It i s bas ed on a st udy of t he r e l a t i ve
i mp o r t a n c e of tlie va r i ous i ni t i al c ondi t i ons .
When i t i s pos s i bl e to d e mo n s t r a t e t hat s o me of t he i ni t i al condi t i ons e xe r t onl y a
mi nor i nf l uence on t he l oads , it i s no l onge r n e c e s s a r y t o col l ect a g r e a t amount
of s t a t i s t i c a l i nf or mat i on to def i ne t he s e i ni t i al c ondi t i ons .
It wi l l be shown t hat t hi s i nf l uence for s ome of t he i ni t i al condi t i ons i s so s ma l l
t hat t he y can be speci f i ed by fixed va l ue s wi t hout t oo much l os s of a c c u r a c y , t hat
ot her o n e s have to be var i ed bet ween t wo l i mi t s in o r d e r t o det ect ma x i mu m l oa ds ,
and t hat r e l i a bl e s t a t i s t i c a l i nf or mat i on i s onl y r e qui r e d for t he mai n i ni t i al c on-
di t i on ( i . e . t he de s c e nt ve l oc i t y) . Then t he s t a t i s t i c a l t as k i s s ur mount a bl e and
r a t i ona l r e q u i r e me n t s can be f or mul a t e d in whi ch onl y t he r e a l l y si gni f i cant p a r a -
me t e r s wi l l have t o be p r e s e n t .
However , when a s i mpl e f or mul at i on i s a i me d at , it has t o be i nves t i gat ed a l s o
how s i mp l e t he phys i cal s c he ma t i s a t i on of t he l andi ng i mpa c t can be, wi t hout i m-
pa i r i ng t he r e q u i r e me n t of bei ng abl e t o pr e di c t " t r u e " l oads i. e. l oads whi ch a r e
pr e di c t e d wi t h s uch a de gr e e of a c c u r a c y t hat al l r e l e va nt phys i cal ef f ect s a r e r e -
p r e s e n t e d and a r e such t hat t he di f f er ences wi t h t he exact l oa ds , due t o t he a p p r o x i -
ma t i ons i nt r oduced in t he cal cul at i on s c h e me , a r e of a s e c onda r y n a t u r e onl y and,
mo r e o ve r , a r e c ons e r va t i ve .
Be s i d e s t he mo r e or l e s s a c c u r a t e de s c r i pt i on of al l phys i c a l phe nome na i nvol ved,
t he r e i s a l s o t he ques t i on whi ch met hod of cal cul at i ng s t r e s s e s f r om gi ven e l a s t i c
and r i gi d body mot i ons i s t he mos t a c c u r a t e one.
The t wo ma i n ques t i ons t o be a n s we r e d bef or e a s i mpl e r a t i ona l r e q u i r e me n t can
be f or mul a t e d t he r e f or e a r e :
A) Whi ch va l ue s and combi nat i ons of i ni t i al condi t i ons have t o be p r e s c r i b e d in
o r d e r t o f or mul a t e a s et of des i gn l oa ds .
B) Whi ch d e g r e e of s ophi s t i cat i on i s needed in a l andi ng i mpa c t a na l ys i s in
o r d e r t o pr e di c t " t r u e " l oa ds and s t r e s s e s a s defi ned above.
By p r e s e n t i n g c o mp r e h e n s i ve and s y s t e ma t i c a n s we r s t o t h e s e que s t i ons t hi s i n-
ve s t i ga t i on e s t a bl i s he s t he foundat i on on whi ch a r a t i ona l s et of s i mpl e r e q u i r e me n t s
for l andi ng i mpa c t des i gn l oa ds can be ba s e d.
Mor e in det ai l , t he cont ent of t he p r e s e n t st udy can be s u mma r i z e d a s f ol l ows.
- 1 7-
In chapt er 3 a set of equations of motion has been derived allowing to t r eat pro-
perl y one point landings with initial l at er al ai rcraft speed with respect to the
ground. Another novelty of t hi s study i s that all formul at i ons a r e derived in a
very general way without build-in r est r i ct i ons such as smal l di spl acement s
and angul ar rot at i ons allowing l i neari sat i on, so that it would be possible to
formul at e the compl et e non-l i near equations of motion. ( Actual computations
in the pr esent investigation however, a r e performed for syst ems in which
l i neari sat i on of rigid body motions and el ast i c deformation is applied ).
Initial conditions to which ai r cr af t have to be subjected in or der to predi ct
r eal i st i c design loads is the subject of chapt er 4, in which the wealth of infor-
mation avai l abl e with r egar d to initial conditions of landing i mpact s is cr i t i -
cally revi ewed.
The numer i cal computations ar e performed for an example ai rcraft , the Fokker
F. 27 Fr i endshi p of which it has been shown in chapt er 5 that it is very wel l
suited to demonst r at e the usefuUness of the proposed met hods for defining lan-
ding impact design loads.
The r esul t s of the computations ar e present ed in chapt er 6. By analysing the
r esul t s the r el at i ve i mport ance of the vari ous initial conditions and the degr ee
of sophistication needed, can be investigated.
The concl usi ons of this investigation have to be checked by comparing the
calculated r es ul t s with measur ed data during act ual l andi ngs. This is accom-
plished in chapt er 7.
Chapt er 8 finally, formul at es a proposal for a rat i onal set of si mpl e r equi r ement s
for landing i mpact design l oads. In or der to study the consequences for act ual ai r -
craft desi gns of t hese proposed r equi r ement s, r esul t s of landing calculations accor -
ding to the exi st i ng and the proposed r equi r ement s ar e mor eover compared with
each ot her.
However, such an extensive investigation cannot be per f or med without a detailed
knowledge of what has al ready been achieved by r es ear ch car r i ed out in t he past.
Thi s investigation t her ef or e s t ar t s in chapt er 2 with an ext ensi ve l i t er at ur e survey.
- 1 8-
SURVEY OF EXISTING LITERATURE
The present investigation i s aimed at the development of rat i onal r equi r ement s
for the calculation of loads induced in el ast i c ai rcraft st r uct ur es by landing i mpact s.
As it i s intended that the proposed r equi r ement s should be applicable to modern
and future ai rcraft , in this survey most of the l i t er at ur e dating from before the second
world war, devoted to landing gear types which ar e now obsol et e, can be omitted.
However, the survey of l i t er at ur e devoted to the most commonly applied landing
gear syst em, viz. landing gear s equipped with hydraul i c-pneumat i c shock absor ber s
should st art in the nineteen t hi r t i es.
It was during this decade that the hydraul i c, pneumatic and hydraul i c-pneumat i c
shock absor ber s made t hei r ent rance, repl aci ng the old leaf spri ng and r ubber spri ng
under car r i ages.
Only the hydraul i c-pneumat i c shock absor ber s have survived and t herefore only
the l i t er at ur e devoted to this type of under car r i age will be mentioned.
Reviewing the l i t er at ur e, in par t i cul ar attention will be paid to the way in which the
dynamic pr oper t i es of wheel, shock absor ber and ai rcraft st r uct ur es ar e taken into
account, and to the way in which the loads due the landing i mpact s ar e calculated.
Publications from before 1 940 devoted to the landing impact phenomenon in general ,
and to the application of hydraul i c-pneumat i c shock absor ber s in par t i cul ar , ar e very
limited in number and in most cases they ar e dealing with one part of the subj ect ,or the
whole subject is t reat ed in a very simplified way. Typical exampl es ar e r ef s. 2-6.
Ref, 5 of V. d. Neut and Pl ant ema i s a very extensive investigation in the field of
symmet r i cal landing impact loads and i s devoted in par t i cul ar to the probl em of defining
cr i t i cal loading cases for nosewheel landing gear s. The t i r e- shock absor ber combination
of the nosewheel landing gear is r epr esent ed by a l i near spri ng, but for the main wheel
landing gear the shock absor ber damping char act er i st i cs ar e r epr esent ed by velocity squared
damping f or ces. The unsprung mass i s neglected while wheel and shock absor ber spri ng
char act er i st i cs ar e r epr esent ed by l i near spr i ngs. Ai rcraft t ransl at i on and- pitch ar e
taken into account. The equations of motion ar e solved by a numer i cal st ep by st ep method.
Simplified force-deflection char act er i st i cs of the main landing gear s ar e used however
in the majority of the cal cul at i ons.
Besi des defining cr i t i cal loading cases for the landing gear s also some ot her pr act -
i cal conclusions ar e deri ved. It i s found for example that ai rcraft pitch i s unimportant
for landing gear loads. Fur t her , the drop t est i nt erpret at i on probl em of how to take into
account st at i c lift forces, i s al ready recogni zed.
One of the few German publications which r el at es to this subject and i s pr i or to 1 940
i s that of Michael ( ref. 7).
In this work the l i near spri ng damper syst em, by which the shock absor ber is approxi -
mated, is t reat ed extensively. Also cases in which the shock absor ber damping is
proport i onal to velocity squared, as well as the case in which the damping consi st s of
dry friction, ar e t r eat ed.
The influence of the t i r e is touched upon but only briefly.
The same approach was adopted by Schlaefke in two publications dated 1 943 and 1 944
( refs. 8 and 9) . In the fi rst report again the model of the l i near spri ng damper syst em
is used. In the second it is investigated whether a shock absor ber damping proport i onal
-1 9-
to velocity squared is a bet t er approxinnation or not . Strangely enough, the author
concludes that this is not the case.
Dating from the same peri od ar e the investigations of Schlaefke ( ref. 10 ) and
Kochanowsky ( ref, 1 1 ) , wherei n al so the combination of t i r e and shock absor ber
was consi dered. In both t hese r ef er ences it i s assumed that the shock absor ber beha-
vi our can be descr i bed by a l i near spr i ng- damper syst em. Ti r e damping i s neglected and
a l i near t i r e spri ng char act er i s t i cs i s assumed.
One of the r es ul t s of Kochanowsky' s work was that the unsprung mas s of the wheel
i s of mi nor i mpor t ance for the landing gear loads and t herefore can be assumed to be
zer o,
Thi s has al so been shown by Marquard and Meyer zur Capelle in ref, 1 2. Thi s
publication ( 1 943 ) is fundamental in that r espect that t herei n the complete set of equa-
tions of motion for the rigid ai rcraft in a symmet r i cal landing in which the nose wheel
touches down after the main gear wheels, is derived.
Shock absor ber damping proport i onal to velocity squared and shock absor ber
spri ng char act er i s t i cs det ermi ned by the polytropic compressi on of the ai r taken into
account.
In addition t i r e deflection char act er i s t i cs and the unsprung mass ar e dealt with in
an appropri at e manner .
In a second publication ( ref. 13 ), the investigation is extended to asymmet r i cal
landing cas es . Thi s advanced anal ysi s of the landing impact phenomenon ( but
without spi n-up phenomena and ai r cr af t el east i ci t y) was buried, t oget her with the ot her
Ger man l i t er at ur e, under the rui ns of the Thi rd Reich. When it was dug up after seven
year s by Fltlgge ( ref, 50 ) the development in ot her count ri es was advanced so far that
the German l i t er at ur e could not mor e make any useful contribution.
The r eason for the fact that in Ger man l i t er at ur e so much attention was paid to the
shock absor ber i s due to a then exi st i ng Ger man r equi r ement which forced the desi gner to
use the drop t est data of one single specified t est for al l the different loading cas es . How
much this r equi r ement deviated from the physi cal t rut h was in fact the question t hese
t heor et i cal consi derat i ons at t empt ed to answer ,
In England, Fai r t hor ne i nvest i gat ed in 1 938 the influence of wing el ast i ci t y on landing
loads ( ref, 14 ). The landing gear i s r epr esent ed by a mas s l es s l i near spri ngdamper
syst em v.-hile the wing el ast i ci t y i s approxi mat ed by a single mas s connected to the fuselage
by a single spr i ng. It i s concluded that the influence of wing el ast i ci t y on landing gear
loads i s r at her smal l .
Templ e s ummar i zes in 1 944 in ref, 1 5 the i mport ant work performed at the RAE in
foregoing year s by Lindsay, Thorne and Makovski in the field of landing gear behaviour
anal ysi s.
In this work a pr act i cal st ep- by- st ep calculation method was developed for the cal -
culation of landing gear f or ces. A l i near t i r e force-defl ect i on di agr am i s assumed, t oget her
with shock absor ber char act er i s t i cs given by velocity squared damping and polytropic
compr essi on of the ai r . Also the spi n-up phenomena ar e fully investigated and taken into
account. Templ e hi msel f extended these i nvest i gat i ons to asymmet r i cal landing cases,
- 20-
The i mpor t ant probl em of det ermi ni ng the loads in the el ast i c ai r cr af t st r uct ur e due
to landing i mpact s was t reat ed by Williams in 1 945 ( ref. 16 ) who assumed the landing gear
l oads to be known functions of t i me. The loads in the st r uct ur e ar e consi dered to be the
sum of the l oads which would be experi enced by a rigid st r uct ur e and the loads due to the
r esponse motion of the el ast i c wing. Thi s method of approxi mat el y cal cul at i ng wing loads
i n el ast i c s t r uct ur es is called the "mode accel er at i on method",
With t hese publications of Temple and Williams the r es ear ch in England with r egar d
to the landing i mpact phenomena was al ready so far advanced that at that tinne al l quest -
i ons could in pri nci pl e be answered by analytical means. However, lack of comput at i onal
faci l i t i es prevent ed the wide spread application of these methods so that an appreci at i on
of the quantitative influence of the vari ous par amet er s did not become avai l abl e,
Consequently l at er Bri t i sh publications do not give real l y new information but a r e
extensions of ref. 1 6.
During t he second world war also in the USA much attention was being paid to the
landing impact probl em. This i nt erest was, to a l ar ge extent, due to the experi ence ob-
t ai ned from t he, for that t i me, l arge and fast ai rcraft .
The pr act i ce reveal ed that by landing i mpact s, loads were excited in excess of the
l oads calculated according to the then existing regul at i ons. The excessi ve loads could be
explained by taking into account the dynanaic loads due to st r uct ur al el ast i ci t y, a factor
neglected by the then existing regul at i ons,
As is cust omar y in the USA this probl em was also investigated experi ment al l y. The
mos t important publications devoted to measur ement s of landing i mpact phenomena ar e
r ef s . 1 7-21 , The fi rst one of Hootman r epor t s the i neasur ement s conducted on a l ar ge
number of ai r cr af t in the year s 1 937-1 942. Ref. 19 descr i bes the extensive landing i mpact
meas ur ement s performed on a l arge bomber. Besi des measur ed accel er at i on and s t r e s s e s
i n different pa r t s of the st r uct ur e it al so contains data with r espect to the ai r cr af t attitude
and velocities at the moment of touch down. Ref. 21 descr i bes the extensive meas ur ement s
on different ai r cr af t , performed by the Ai r Mat eri al Command of the USAF in the year s
i mmedi at el y aft er the second world war,
With r egar d to the analytic approach to the probl em in the USA,first of al l the work
of Keller should be mentioned. ( ref. 22 and 23 ). This investigation formul at es in an
appropri at e way the equations of motion of wheel and shock absor ber , and cal cul at es the
ver t i cal landing gear loads of a rigid ai r cr af t . In ref. 23 it i s descri bed how in an el ast i c
st r uct ur e the accel er at i ons have to be calculated when the landing gear forces ar e known
a s a function of t i me. Rat her crudely the spi n-up time i s assumed to be equal to the t i me
for which the ver t i cal force i s at i t s maxi mum value,
In the USA speci al attention has been paid to the probl em of calculating the dynamic
l oads in el ast i c st r uct ur es due to landing i mpact s.
An exampl e i s the publication of Stowell, Houbolt and Schwartz ( ref, 24 ), in which
t hi s problem has been solved for a homogeneous pr i smat i c bar which i s stopped i nst an-
taneously by a r est r ai nt acting in the middle of the bar . As an ai rcraft wing is not homo-
geneous and not pr i smat i c, t hi s method is not applicable to act ual wing s t r uct ur es .
- 2 1 -
A publication of Biot and Bisplinghoff ( ref. 25 ) does not have this short comi ng. It
i s in this r epor t that the concept of "normal modes" is introduced for the fi rst t i me ever
in the l i t er at ur e of the aeronaut i cal sci ences,
In t hi s publication the loads acting in the wing ar e cal cul at ed by means of a sum-
mat i on of basi c load di st ri but i ons, which in t urn are the di st ri but i ons of i nert i a loads
produced by vi brat i on in one of the nor mal modes. In the same way as the total response
follows from a summat i on of normal modes, each multiplied with flifferent part i ci pat i on
f act or s, the so called general i sed coordi nat es, the total load follows from a summat i on
of t hese basi c load di st ri but i ons, each multiplied with the moment ar y values of the r e s -
pect i ve general i sed coordi nat es. Thi s method for calculating loads i s known as the "mode
summat i on met hod".
However, Biot and Bisplinghoff multiplied these basi c load di st ri but i ons with
"dynami c r esponse f act or s", i. e. maxi mum values of response f act or s for the appropri at e
nor mal mode. These maxi mum val ues were defined as the maxi mum value of the envelope
of response fact ors det ermi ned from a l arge number of t i me hi st or i es of landing gear
l oads. Thi s pr ocedur e was followed i n or der to avoid the cal cul at i on of the t i me hi st ori es
of the general i sed coordi nat es in a specific case,
Another method for the calculation of dynamic loads in el ast i c st r uct ur es i s pr esen-
ted by Shou-Ngo-Tu in ref. 26. Assumi ng known velocity time hi st or i es of the landing
gear connection points to the wing, it i s shown that the beam r esponse can be descri bed
by a superposi t i on of rigid modes and normal modes of the el ast i c st r uct ur e with nodal
poi nt s at the landing gear pi ck- up. As a consequence the landing gear connection point
t i me hi st ory cannot contain components due to st r uct ur al el ast i ci t y, as the vel oci t y time
hi st or y of this point, which i s assumed to be known, has been det ermi ned assumi ng the
wing st r uct ur e to be rigid. This cont radi ct s experi ment al data and therefore t hi s method
has not found wi de- spr ead application in pr act i ce,
Fi nal l y, Scanlan formul at es once mor e in ref. 27 the equations of motion of a st r uc-
t ure consi st i ng of el ement s for which beam theory i s applicable, which is excited by
landing gear forces for which the t i me hi st or i es ar e known. Thi s publication dupl i cat es
the work of Kel l er as present ed in ref. 23.
Fur t her r es ear ch in the USA usually is a further development of the work of Biot
and Biaplinghoff and i s devoted in most cases to checking the accur acy of this method and
the validity of i t s pr emi s es .
The accur acy of r esul t s obtained with this method was checked experi ment al l y by
Ramber g and Mc Pher s on of the NBS ( ref. 28 ), It was found that the use of the "dynamic
response f act or s" was too conservat i ve for desi gn pur poses. The negl ect of the phase
differences between the different normal modes did not cause appreci abl e e r r o r s in wing
root bending moment s. For wing tip loads however, this conclusion i s certainly not valid,
Was s er man' s group of the USAF Ai r Mat eri al Command has conducted an exJensive
i nvest i gat i on in the field of landing loads, proceedi ng along the l i nes of Biot and Bispling-
hoff. Fr om an exper i ment al i nvest i gat i on ( ref, 21 ) the i mport ance of spin-up phenomena
and landing gear el ast i ci t y was appreci at ed.
Simple expr essi ons for the approxi mat e calculation of both ver t i cal and hori zont al
landing gear force time l i i st ori es ar e developed, allowing a mor e accur at e det ermi nat i on
- 22-
of landing gear loads than with the "dynamic response f act or s" of Biot and Bisplinghoff.
Thi s is shown in ref. 29 by compari son with measur ement s on act ual ai r cr af t .
Mc- Br ear t y s t r es s es in ref. 30 al so the i mport ance of the contribution of spi n-up
phenomena and landing gear and/ or wing el ast i ci t y by which l ar ge hori zont al dynamic
loads ar e excited. Thi s insight was gained from experi ence with the Lockheed Constellation
under car r i age.
Woodson extends in ref. 31 the work of Biot and Bisplinghoff to a- s ymmet r i cal l an-
ding cases and det er mi nes the dynamic response fact ors for a number of different given
a- s ymmet r i cal landing gear forcing functions for a very much simplified physi cal model.
He concludes that a- s ymmet r i cal landing cases can easi l y lead to hi gher wing loads as com-
par ed to symmet r i cal landing cases of the same i nt ensi t y. Moreover, it i s found that the mag-
nitude of the dynamic response fact ors to a cert ai n extent i s independent of the forcing
function shape,
A compari son of the accuracy of the different methods for the calculation of landing
loads, viz, the mode accel erat i on method of Wi l l i ams, the mode summat i on method of Biot and
Bisplinghoff, and the method of Levy (ref. 34), i s performed by Ramber g (ref. 32), Thi s i s done
by compari son of cal cul at i ons with r esul t s of model drop t est s. It was found that the mode
accel erat i on method and the method of Levy ar e super i or to the mode summat i on method.
With al l these methods of calculating landing loads it i s always assumed that the
landing gear load time hi st ori es ar e unaffected by wing el ast i ci t y. Therefore the cal cu-
lation could be split in two par t s . Fi r st l y the calculation of the time hi st or i es of the l an-
ding gear loads assumi ng the st r uct ur e to be rigid, and secondly the response calculation
of the el ast i c st r uct ur e to the known ext ernal loads.
Stowell, Houbolt and Batdorf in ref. 33 investigated in which way the probl em of
det ermi ni ng landing loads could best be divided in two. By using a model consi st i ng of a
homogeneous, pr i smat i c bar r epr esent i ng the wing with a concent rat ed mas s in the cent er,
r epr esent i ng the fuselage, and one single cent ral l y mounted mas s l es s spri ng without
damping, r epr esent i ng the under car r i age, compari son with exact analytic solutions was
possi bl e. The method general l y used, consisting of det ermi ni ng landing gear loads as s u-
ming the st r uct ur e rigid, and then calculating the response of, and the loads in, the el ast i c
st r uct ur e, on these known landing gear loads, proved to give the best correl at i on.
The i nt eract i on between landing gear load and wing el ast i ci t y i s the subject of an
experi ment al as well as a t heoret i cal investigation by Mc- Pher son, Evans and Levy of the
NBS in 1 948 ( ref.34 ) . It i s found that landing gear loads ar e always reduced by taking
into account wing el ast i ci t y. For act ual st r uct ur es this reduction can amount to 10% and
thus the neglect of this effect i s a conservat i ve pr ocedur e. It i s however doubtful whether t hese
conclusions ar e valid in al l cases,
Within the f r ame- wor k of this s er i es of i nvest i gat i ons al so the publications of
Jenkins and Pancu ( ref. 35 ) and of Poland, Luke and Kahn ( ref. 36 ) should be mentioned,
together with ref. 37 from 1 950 of Pl an and Flomenhoft, summar i si ng the work done at
the MIT. By this work the conclusion of Mc- Pher son was affirmed. Moreover it was
shown once again that the mode accel er at i on method is the most accur at e ono of all approx-
i mat e methods for the calculation of landing l oads. Also an experi ment al investigation has
been performed with r egar d to the influence of the aerodynami c forces induced by the landing
shock on landing loads in el ast i c wings. The landing gear of the windtunnel model was r e pr e -
sented by a l i near spri ng. The exper i ment s have shown that the aerodynami c forces gener a-
ted by the landing shock ar e negligible with r egar d to the peak values of the landing loads ,
but they ar e rapidly damping out the vi brat i ons excited by the landing shocks.
- 23-
The influence of wing el ast i ci t y on landing gear loads for a configuration for which
a l arge influence of wing el ast i ci t y may be exp( cted viz, a high wing ai rcraft with engines
far i n front of the wing, i s t r eat ed in r ef s, 38 and 39 of ten Asbroek and Pl ant ema. Fr om
comparat i ve cal cul at i ons in which shock absor ber loads and spi n-up phenomena a r e taken
into account in a ri gorous way it i s deduced that the influence of el ast i ci t y on ver t i cal
landing gear loads i s at the most 6%. The influence of landing gear el ast i ci t y was al so
i nvest i gat ed. For the configuration consi dered her e with an unbraced main gear it proved
to be r at her i mport ant because the spi n-up phenomenon induces fore and aft vibration of the
landing gear .
An extensive survey of landing load l i t er at ur e up to 1 950 can be found in ref. 40.
At that t i me landing gear loads could have been predi ct ed in a r at her ri gorous fashion. Thi s
i s shown in publ i cat i ons such as ref. 41 of Yorgi ades ( 1 945),in which a graphi cal method
for predi ct i ng landing gear loads is developed,and al so t heoret i cal l y in ref. 38 as well as
in ref, 42 of Hurty, both from 1 950. In most cas es , however, the landing gear loads were
taken from r esul t s of drop t est s and subsequen' ly the loads in the el ast i c st r uct ur e due to
t hese known forces had to be calculated. It was known at that time that this could best be
done by usi ng the "mode accel er at i on" method of Wi l l i ams.
The knowledge as present ed by ref. 40 was not r est r i ct ed to r es ear ch i nst i t ut es. Also
industry had adopted it, as is shown by publications as e. g. ref. 30 from Lockheed, ref. 35
from Convair, ref. 43 from Chance Vought, ref, 44 from Mc-Donnel and ref. 45 from Douglas.
Never t hel ess, the knowledge that spi n-up forces could cont ri but e consi derabl y to the
dynamic loads ( r ef s. 30 and 38) , was sel dom taken into account in act ual cases.
In act ual cases the drop t est has an innportant place in calculating landing l oads. I.T
most cas es it provided for all different loading eases the ext ernal l oads. Therefore it was
not supri si ng that when the NACA st art ed an extensive investigation into the field of landing
impact phenomena the rel i abi l i t y of the drop t est was the fi rst subject for r esear ch.
In par t i cul ar the question how accur at e the st at i c aerodynami c forces acting on
the wing at touch down ar e r epr esent ed by a reduced mas s in a drop t est , a procedure
which was then i nt roduced in ai r wor t hi ness regul at i ons, was investigated by Milwitzky and
Lindquist ( ref. 46). It was found that this reduced mas s method yielded a consi derabl e
i mprovement of accur acy compared with the old method in which the aerodynamic forces
were compl et el y neglected. Thi s was al so shown by Fl oor in ref. 47.
As par t of this same NACA investigation Lindquist in ref. 48 t r eat s in a mor e
gener al way the influence of st at i c aerodynami c and i nert i a forces on resul t i ng landing
gear l oads.
Another facet of the NACA investigation i s t reat ed in ref. 49 by Yntema and
Milwitzky. They investigated analytically with an impulse method the rat i o between a-
s ymmet r i cal and s ymmet r i cal landing l oads. The same subject had al ready been t reat ed
as long ago as 1 932 by Taub ( ref. 2 ).
As in modern ai rcraft st r uct ur es el ast i c deformat i ons ar e mor e and more pronoun-
ced it became mor e and mor e i mport ant to predi ct quantitatively the dynamic loads due
to landing i mpact s at an ear l y st age of the design. Since drop t est s can not be performed
before the design at t ai ns a r at her advanced st age, the anal yt i cal predi ct i on of landing gear
loads should r ecei ve mor e attention."
- 24-
In 1 951 and 1 952 the r epor t s of Flgge ( ref. 50 ) and Milwitzky and Cook ( ref. 51 ) were
published in which the equations of motion of t yre, wheel and shock absor ber were deri ved.
In this r espect al so r ef s. 52 and 53 of Walls must be mentioned which descr i be exper i -
mental i nvest i gat i ons of the NACA devoted to a bet t er underst andi ng of ai r compressi on
phenomena in shock abs or ber s . Ref. 51 i s without doubt, the most i mport ant publication
in this field because it descr i bes thorougly the landing impact pr ocess and i nvest i gat es
also the quantitative i mport ance of the different phenomena.
Therefore it can be judged which simplifications can be introduced in the anal ysi s, without
i mpai ri ng the accur acy.
These publications do not consi der, however, drag loads and spi n-up phenomena. On
the other hand ref. 54 of Milwitzky, Lindquist and Pot t er and ref. 55 of Pot t er a r e com-
pletely devoted to drag l oads. In par t i cul ar ref. 54 contains a fundamental and complete
description of the physi cal phenomena connected with the building-up of drag forces at
landing i mpact , and mor eover gives r esul t s of an experi ment al investigation. The work of
Flgge ( ref. 56 ), is devoted to an analytic t reat ment of the spi n-up phenomenon.
Now that the st at e of the ar t permi t t ed the accur at e analytic det ermi nat i on of the
ext ernal l oads, again the question ar ose how l arge i s the influence of ai rcraft el ast i ci t y
on the loads generat ed by t yre, wheel and shock absor ber . In ref. 57 this probl em i s
treated by Cook and Milwitzky with the help of two different simplified exampl es. Drag
loads are neglected however and wing el ast i ci t y i s only r epr esent ed by fundamental wing
bending. The r es ul t s of this investigation show that in cert ai n cases the influence of wing
elasticity on landing gear loads i s l ar ge. Quantitatively however the r esul t s ar e not very
reliable, because this influence is analysed in a r at her crude way as it i s assumed that
the influence of el ast i ci t y is independent of landing gear position, a par amet er whicn is
varied in this investigation.
Benthem in ref. 58 is the first i nvest i gat or who t akes into account all rel evant landing
gear forces and wing el ast i ci t y in a rat i onal manner. His investigation is r est r i ct ed,
however, to a par t i cul ar ai rcraft and t r eat s only symmet r i cal landing cas es . As a com-
plete anal ysi s i s r at her complex most subsequent publications ar e devoted to a par t i cul ar
ai rcraft . An exampl e i s ref, 59, Thi s r ecent publication from Douglas shows the long road,
which this type of anal ysi s has gone along from the ear l y nineteen fourties up till the pr esent t i me.
Now a complete analytic investigation of loads due to landing i mpact s can be performed by
aid of fast comput er s. This is also i l l ust r at ed by e. g. ref. 60, to mention only one, demon-
st rat i ng that t hi s type of analysis has been completely adopted by the i ndust ry. In ref. 59
it is proved by compari son with extensive and accur at e experi ment al r esul t s, that a com-
plete analytic t r eat ment of landing gear forces yields mor e accur at e r esul t s than a calcul
ation based upon drop test r esul t s. ( El ast i ci t y of the st r uct ur e does not play a significant
role in this investigation, a very rigid naval fighter being used for the exper i ment s ).
Finally, ( in 1967 ) ref. 61 became available, showing the application of this
kind of anal ysi s to the very uncommon landing gear design of the X-1 5. The actual cal cu-
lation, however, again i s r est r i ct ed to rigid ai rcraft symmet r i cal landing cases, without
spin-up phenomena of the nose-wheels being taken into account. The equations of motion
have been deri ved for all six rigid body degr ees of freedom.
Ref. 62 i s another example of a modern anal ysi s. This reference i s devoted to a
comparison of analytic and experi ment al r esul t s of landing impact load time hi st or i es of
a dynamical scal ed model of a supersoni c t ransport with delta wing.
Since it i s now possi bl e to cal cul at e analytically loads due to landing i mpact s accurat el y,
it i s very i mport ant to know al so mor e accurat el y the t i r e pr oper t i es , such as the
deflection and fri ct i on char act er i s t i cs . Both in England and in the USA full attention has
been paid to this subject and a lot of r epor t s have been published. Two summar i es of
work in this field ar e given in r ef s. 63 and 64, For l at er r esul t s r ef s . 54, 65 - 67
should be mentioned,
A last link in this chain of data needed for the accur at e pr edi ct i on of loads due
to landing i mpact s, ar e the flight conditions at the moment of touchdown. This invol-
ves e. g. ver t i cal velocity, hori zont al velocity, angle of pitch, rol l and yaw angle,
rol l i ng velocity, amount of wing lift and fri ct i on coefficients. These data have to be
collected in a st at i st i cal way. The accumul at i on of such data i s pr ecedi ng on a l arge scal e.
As these data ar e al so r el at ed to the type of ai rcraft and ai rcraft configuration, this
mat er i al has to be kept up to dat e. Fort unat el y, as will be shown l at er in this study, not
al l these data have the same i mpor t ance. Many i nvest i gat i ons have been performed al -
r eady and a s ummar y of i nvest i gat i ons up to 1 957 r egar di ng conditions at touchdown i s
given in ref. 68 ; ref. 69 - 75 contain mor e recent information.
- 26 -
THEORY OF LANDING IMPACT LOAD ANALYSIS
3. 1 . INTRODUCTION
Developing rational calculation methods for predi ct i ng loads due to landing i mpact s r e-
qui res the development of a set of mat hemat i cal equations providing an accur at e decr i p-
tion of the physical phenomena involved. This is an ext remel y complex t ask,
The ai rcraft is a free moving continuous el ast i c syst em for which it i s al ready difficult
to define a pr oper schemat i sat i on such that di spl acement s and deformations can be defi-
ned with a not unreasonabl e amount of computational effort. Moreover, the ext ernal forces
acting on this dynamical syst em ar e of a very complex nat ur e. Being dependent in a non-
l i near way on the initial conditions, t hese forces mor eover ar e dependent on ai rcraft di s-
pl acement s and deformations in a very complicated way.
A very i mport ant probl em for the formulation of a set of equations t herefore is a pr oper
definition of an axes syst em allowing an easy descri pt i on of the position and motion of
any st r uct ur al point, as well as the expressi on of these quantities in a limited number of
chosen probl em var i abl es. Thi s is the subject of par . 3. 2. By introducing vect or - and
mat ri x notation t hese rel at i ons ar e very well suited for comput eri sed cal cul at i ons.
The equations of motion proper ar e derived from the Lagrange equations. As i s derived in
par. 3. 3t he introduction of the mat r i x rel at i ons derived in par . 3. 2 between absolute di spl a-
cement s and general i sed coordi nat es l eads automatically to the formulation of mat r i ces of
general i sed mas s es and stiffnesses for the vari ous possi bl e choi ses of general i sed coordi nat es
As part of the formulation of the equations of motion, par . 3. 4 expr esses the general i sed
forces as afunction of the loads acting at the landing gear s. When t i r es of separ at e landing
gears of a single ai rcraft do not touch down si mul t aneousl y a speci al complication occur s.
The moment at which a second set of general i sed forces s t ar t s acting at the dynami cal
syst em, again, is very much dependent on the motions and deformat i ons the dynamic s ys -
tem is performi ng. Also this rel at i on is derived in par . 3. 4.
For ces and moment s excert ed on the landing gear can be derived from the equations of
motion of the unsprung mass when t i r e forces and i nert i a forces of the unsprung mas s , ar e
known. When rel at i ons between di spl acement s of unsprung mas s and general i sed coordi na-
t es ar e known, t hese quantities can be det ermi ned. These rel at i ons ar e derived in par . 3. 4,
from which it follows that t i r e forces and unsprung mas s i nert i a forces ar e defined but for
one par amet er , shock absor ber deflection.
Shock absor ber deflection is defined by the non-l i near rel at i onshi p between shock absor ber
deflection and shock absor ber forces, to whicli par . 3. 5 is devoted. Also non-l i near i s the
rel at i onshi p between t i re forces and t i r e deflection, being the ot her subject of par . 3. 5.
For ver t i cal t i re forces however l i neari sat i on can be applied. For hori zont al t i r e forces
this is cert ai nl y not allowed. These frictional forces ar e proport i onal to the ver t i cal t i r e
force,but the friction coefficients ar e dependent on wheel motion in a very complicated
manner. In par t i cul ar the dependence of friction coefficients on wheel ci rcumferent i al speed,
causing the spin-up phenomenon, has to be mentioned,
Besi des landing gear forces, also aerodynami c forces due to motions imposed on the ai r -
craft by the landing impact, ar e acting on the ai rcraft . The l i near i sed expressi ons for t hese
forces ar e derived in par . 3. 6.
Then the equations of motion ar e completely formulated. Methods for solving this set of
equations ar e di scussed in par 3.. 7.
However, the solution obtained is r est r i ct ed to t i me hi st or i es of general i sed coordi nat es.
The different methods available for calculating i nt ernal loads in the ai rcraft st r uct ur e for
given values of general i sed coor di nat es, ar e dealt with in par . 3. 8.
-27-
3. 2. THE COORDINATE SYSTEM
.The motions which an el ast i c ai r cr af t i s performi ng after a landing i mpact , can be
divided into two par t s , vi z.
the motions the rigid ai r cr af t i s performi ng with r espect to the eart h sur f ace.
the deformat i on of cer t ai n par t s of the ai rcraft with r espect to the rigid body
st at e.
With r egar d to the descri pt i on of motions due to ai rcraft el ast i ci t y it is nor mal to
think of the use of an ai r cr af t axes syst em. The axes syst em is fixed to the ai rcraft
as a rigid body. The motions due to ai r cr af t el ast i ci t y can thus conveniently be
descri bed with r espect to it. The ori gi n of this axes syst em can in pri nci pl e be
chosen at will. However, when the ai r cr af t const ruct i on i s such that wing and
fuselage deformat i on can be descri bed as bending of and t orsi on about el ast i c axes
of t hese par t s , it will be convenient to chose the i nt er sect i on of these el ast i c axes,
or the i nt er sect i on of the perpendi cul ar projection of one el ast i c axis on the other, as
the ori gi n.
A different choice of the ori gi n takes into account the fact that the motions of the
ai r cr af t with r espect to the ear t h surface al so have to be descri bed. These ar e
ent i rel y det ermi ned by the speed vect or of the rigid ai rcraft cent er of gravity and
i t s rot at i on vect or . In or der to be able to compare di rect l y the motions of a rigid
and an el ast i c ai r cr af t it i s t herefore preferabl e to chose the ori gi n of the ai rcraft
axes syst em in the cent er of gravity of the rigid ai r cr af t .
As ai rcraft s t r uct ur es in which el ast i c axes can be defined ar e exceptions nowadays
r at her that the rul e, t hi s l ast definition will in general be consi dered the mor e i mpor -
tant one. Ther ef or e, the pr esent investigation chooses the ori gi n of the ai r cr af t , in
the ri gi d ai r cr af t cent er of gravi t y.
The el ast i c deformat i ons of any point of the ai rcraft st r uct ur e have to be defined
with r espect to this ai rcraft axes syst em. Ther e i s , in pri nci pl e, an infinite number
of deformat i on possi bi l i t i es of continuous s t r uct ur es . In pr act i ce this infinite num-
ber i s being reduced to a smal l number of nor mal i sed modes of deformation which
conveniently schemat i ze the behaviour of the physi cal syst em. The multiplication
fact ors of the nor mal i sed modes which define t hei r part i ci pat i on in the deformation
of the ai r cr af t , ar e called the g e n e r a l i z e d e l a s t i c c o o r d i n a t e s .
The di spl acement s of an ar bi t r ar y point i with r espect to the ai rcraft axes syst em
can be expr essed into the general i zed el ast i c coordinate by,
3. 2-1
'\'H
Lm-rj.\: \^e
in which A'
Ax
ar e the di spl acement s of the point i
i s the column mat ri x of eeneral i zed el ast i c coordi nat es
and RT i s the t ransformat i on mat r i x.
E. g. , for a wing for which the l i neari zed deformat i on can be descri bed by a single
bending deformat i on mode f (y) and a single t orsi onal deformation mode g (y), which
- 28-
ar e normal i zed at a cert ai n value at the wing tip, the rel at i on between di spl acement s
of a point i of the wing ( z ; 0), and the
general i zed el ast i c coordi nat es i s as follows
AXj = 0
AY- = 0
AZj = q, f ( yj ) - qj >f i ^( yi )
Hence, for this example
H -
Fi g. 3. 2-1
f(yj )--><i g(yi )
and
H-
In the same way the rotation vect or of a cr oss section y = constant,due to st r uct ur al
el ast i ci t y can,be expressed in the general i zed el ast i c coordi nat es. The following can
be wri t t en
H-NW
3. 2-2
in which
^
1^'
v ^4
and
df
Hence
) r thi
^ z - 0
Likewise the expressi on for the angular velocity vect or can be defined in this way
The motions of the rigid ai rcraft in space can be descri bed with r espect to two
kinds of axes syst ems vi z.
the moving, or Eul er, axes syst em which i s an ai rcraft axes syst em fixed in the
ai rcraft c. of gravity of the rigid ai rcraft
the Newton axes syst em which i s fixed in space or i s moving with a uniform
velocity without rot at i on
When the equations of motion of the ai rcraft moving in space ar e formulated with
r espect to the axes syst em fixed to the ai rcraft cent er of gravity then the Newton
axes syst em will be needed in any case as a fixed frame of reference for the des -
cri pt i on of the ai rcraft position with r espect to the ear t h. Therefore the rel at i ons
between vector components along the axes of an ai rcraft (-or Eul er axes syst em )
and along the axes of a fixed (-or Newton axes syst em ) have to be known.
These rel at i ons can be derived by t hree successi ve rot at i ons of the Newton axes
syst em in such a way that i t s axes di rect i ons become par al l el with the axes di r ec-
tions of the Eul er axes syst em. The or der of the consecutive rot at i ons has to
be chosen. In the pr esent investigation the or der i s followed which i s general l y
adopted for ai rcraft stability investigations ( See e. g. ref. 76 ). This means that the
Newton axes syst em i s fi rst rot at ed clockwise about i t s Z- axi s over an angle V .
The vect or components U, V and W in the Newton axes syst em ar e then rel at ed to
- 29-
Fi g . 3. 2- 2
ve c t or c ompone nt s Uj^, V-, and Wj^ i n t he so
obt ai ned new a x e s s y s t e m as f ol l ows
Uc os {\) + Vs i n( | )
U
V^ =- Us i n 4 + Vcosl J)
3. 2 - 3
W, W
Th i s new a xe s s y s t e m X| , Y, , Zj i s now
r ot a t e d c l oc kwi s e ove r an angl e 0 a r o u n d
tlie Y]^ a xi s .
The r e l a t i o n s bet ween t he c ompone nt s U, , V, , W-^ and U2, V2, W2 a r e obt a i ne d by
cycl i c p e r mu t a t i o n of 3, 2- 3
W2 = Ui s i n 0 -t- Wi c os 0
U2 = Ui cos 0 - Wi s i n 0 3. 2-4
The t hi r d r ot a t i on i s ove r an angl e 0 a r ound t he X2 a x e s .
The r e l a t i o n be t we e n t he c ompone nt s U3, Vg, W3 and U2, V2, W2 a r e obt ai ned
agai n by cycl i c p e r mu t a t i o n
V
w

= Vg = V2 COS 0 -t- W2 si n 0
Wg = - V2 Sin 0 + W2 cos 0
Ug = U2
3. 2- 5
Af t er s ubs t i t ut i on of eq. 3. 2- 3 i nt o 3. 2- 4 and of eq. 3. 2- 4 i nt o 3. 2-5 t he f ol l owi ng
r e l a t i o n bet ween ve c t o r c ompone nt s i n t he Eu l e r - and i n t he Newt on axes s y s t e m i s
obt ai ned
W
V. y
c os e cosy
sin;^ si ne cos^-cos^S.siny
cosp<.sine.cosi(..+sin^.siny
cose si ny
si n^ sini|i sine+cosfJ cosy
cos^sj ne si ny- si n^ cosy
-sfn e
sin ^ COS e
cosecos^
U
V
V^
3. 2 - 6
The t h r e e angl es ijj , 0 and 0 a r e cal l ed t he Eu l e r a ngl e s .
When de c ompos i ng t he ve c t or c ompone nt s al ong t he Eu l e r a xe s s y s t e m i nt o c o mp o -
nent s al ong t he Newt on a xe s s y s t e m, by c a r r y i n g out t he t h r e e s u c c e s s i ve r o t a t i o n s ,
" 0. - . - 4^ . t he r e s ul t i ng t r a n s f o r ma t i o n ma t r i x T has t o be t he i nve r s i on of t hat
gi ven by eq. 3. 2 - 6 .
When
whe r e
3. 2 - 7
i s t he c ol umn ma t r i x and
eq. 3. 2-6 t hen c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d by
i V,
W=H- ' N
Howe ve r i t a p p e a r s t hat 3. 2- 6 i s i de nt i c a l wi t h <V
E
H
3 , 2 - 8
3 , 2 - 9
Hence
[T]-' . [T]'
3.2-1 0
This result could have been predi ct ed at once from the mat r i x theory ( see e. g. ref.
77 ) because T i s an orthogonal mat r i x for which eq. 3. 2-1 0 is valid in gener al .
The vect or V can be e. g, a vect or defining a point i in space. Then
Ix.} = [T](..]
3.2-1 1
The vect or \ v[ can also r epr esent a rot at i on or an angul ar velocity in a point i. Then
When the Eul er angles ^^ , 0 and 0 ar e so smal l that l i neari zat i on i s allowed, eq.
3. 2-6 yi el ds,
H-
1
4
8
4;.
1
-r
-e
0
1
3. 2- 1 3
The rot at i on by which the Newton axes syst em i s t ransformed into the Eul er axes
syst em can al so be defined by rot at i on vect or s along the axes of the Newton axes
syst em instead of being defined by the t hree Eul er angl es. The rel at i ons between the
Eul er angles and rotation vect or s ^PQ , ^Q and ^Q- along the X-, Y- and Z-
X y z
axes of the Newton axes syst em can be derived by decomposing the rot at i on vect or s
l|) , 0 and 0 along the X, Y and Z axes.
( See fig. 3 . 2 - 3 ) . The vect or i ^ i s ent i rel y
along the Z- axi s .
The vect or 0 has components 0. cos tj) and
- 0. sin tjj along the Y and X axes. The
vect or 0 has components -i- 0. cos 0 and
-0 sin 0 along the X-^ and the Z]^ = Z axes.
Fi nal l y the component 0. cos 0 can be de-
composed along X and Y axes with components
0 cos 0 . cos 4) and 0 cos 0 . sin 4*
By adding the different components along the
X, Y and Z axes the following rel at i on i s
Fi g. 3. 2-3 obtained.
cos e -
c o s e '
-si n. e
cosy
si n y
_si n y
COSy
0
0
0
1
(0]
9
M
9 or^tpj -m[0]
3.2-1 4
which r educes to < tX) ^
'0]
e
4^
when linearization i s allowed.
-.^1 .
The rel at i on between the Eul er angl es and the rot at i on vect ors along the axes X, Y
and Z of the Eul er axes syst em i s, accordi ng to eq. 3.2-1 2, 3. 2-1 0 and 3. 2-1 4.
{*^H-'W"H'W-H'NM
3, 2-1 5
Deriving the rel at i on di rect l y and in the same way as eq, 3. 2-1 4 has been deri ved,
the r esul t i s
r.
^r
0
COS gl
- si n 0
- s i n jef
cos e sin 0
COS e c os ^
H " K:
0
3,2-1 6
Since T2, and in the same way T ' T 2 = T2 . rel at e vect ors along the i nt ermedi at e
posi t i ons of the axes to the components of these vect or s along the axes of the Newton-
or Eul er axes s ys t ems , the same t ransformat i on mat r i ces T2 and T2 rel at e vect or
components of ot her quantities in those axis syst ems. Therefore the rel at i ons
W,
ar e valid.
If.] r_i r 1 r 1
T, 0 and CO - T, J
J L J I J L J L ,
3.2-1 7
Fi nal l y it must al so be possi bl e to expr ess the t ransformat i on mat r i x [ T ] itself in
the rot at i on vect or [vp ]
The proj ect i on of the vect or component of U and W, in the Newton axes syst em,
on OZ i s given by : ( see fig. 3. 2-4 )
W. cosii) + U.si n'S)^
Oy ' Oy
The proj ect i on of this vect or along OZ^ on axi s OZ3 of the Eul er axi s syst em i s
given by
( Wc os i Poy -I- Usi n^Poy ). cos ( Zg O Z ^
As mor eover the proj ect i on of V on OZ3 i s given by V. sin (ZgOZ^), the final
expr essi on for the vect or component Wg i s obtained by substituting the expr essi on
for sin ZgOZ^ and cos ZgOZ^. The r esul t is :
W:
/ , ' , = [ c o s ^ P . s i n ^P .U_sin^5 , cos% V+cos^l cos^) .w]
fty
The expressi on for U3 and Vg can be ob-
tained by cyclic permut at i on of the indices
X, y and z in 3. 2-1 8.
When l i neari zat i on i s allowed eq. 3, 2-1 8
, reduces to
' -*"^ox^zr/ ; xao^^ fz
, 1
cos ( Z o OZ ^ ) = 1 ,
^ 3 ' \ Vco?V^
1 -ton' ^' -Pov ^
s i n { ZQOZM = , / r - y-
3 ' Vtar?^5. cos^Pn !
x y
Fi g. 3, 2-4
W3 = ^ 0 y U - 9 o ^ V + W
and in the same way
P o,
3,2-1 8a
U3 =^02 V - iPoy W + U
V3 =^0x W - ^ 0 2 " + V
- 32-
or
U3
V3
W,
I
^n
S -^ox
U
vl
w
3.2-1 8b
JV
which i s in accordance with eqs. 3. 2-9, 3. 2-1 3 and 3. 2-1 4.
The ori gi n of the ai rcraft axes syst em with r espect to the Newton axes syst em fixed
in space i s defined by the coordi nat es XQ , y^ and ZQ. The position of any ot her
point of the ai r cr af t with r espect to the Newton axes i s then defined by the mat r i x
expr essi on.
W^Hi^^K
3.2-1 9
The position of the same point with r espect to a Newton axes syst em which i s moving
with a constant speed V^ i s given by
f 1 r T
3. 2- 20
[xi}-[T][xi]+[xo|-[vo]'
\ M[M4
Choosing Vg to be equal to the forward hori zont al speed of the ai rcraft at touch down,
Xjy[ r epr es ent s the di spl acement s due to landing forces of the ori gi n of the Eul er axi s
syst em, with r espect to the ori gi n of the Newton axes syst em.
The p o s i t i o n of a point of the d e f o r m e d ai rcraft i s defined by adding A^Xij
given by eq. 3. 2- 1 to [Xj] as given by eq. 3. 2- 20.
[4
X|1 + 'ai][se} +[x}
3, 2-21
Decomposed along axis par al l el to the axi s of the Eul er axis syst em eq. 3. 2-21 be-
comes
[^^e)-H*NK]^H'lxH]
3. 2- 22
Hence the total d i s p l a c e m e n t of a point of the deformed ai rcraft , t hereby taking
into account that at t = 0 the two axes syst ems coincide and that f Xj| is independent
of t i me, is given by
es
and along the X axes
AX, J -
3. 2- 23
3. 2- 24
Upon l i neari zat i on, that i s neglecting product s of var i abl es assumed to r emai n
smal l , t hi s r educes to
A X, =
0.-4). e
4J. 0.-0
-6. 0 . 0
+
.''^IH^Kl
3 . 2 - 2 4 a
. 33-
a n d t h u s [ ^ AXi J - [ AX, J
In a slightly different way eq. 3. 2-24a then can be wri t t en as
[AXiJ-[AXi^}-[x]
o. 2i . -yi
-Zj, 0 . xj
yj -xi . 0
e
LY J
^Nb]
in which
and
Fil^n is ciel
defined by
I 0 0 0 z j -yi
0 I 0 -?| 0 Xj
G O - I yi -5^i 0
MN
3. 2- 25
3. 2- 26
N-
I 0 0 0 Zj . ^i
0 1 0 -2j 0 Xj
O O I - 71 -Xj 0
and
l -' ' J-LXoY o. Zo. 0. e. 4). %. --%J
3. 2- 27
In the same way the r o t a t i o n v e c t o r of a mass el ement (*Pj] can be wr i t t en as
a superposi t i on of the rot at i on of the ri gi d ai rcraft f^^o] ^nd the rot at i on due to el as -
tic deformation tip j j
Accordi ng to eqs. 3. 2-1 4, -1 5, -2 and-1 2,
and
l ^ j f -
^ 1
3. 2-28
which in l i neari zed form become
or
in which
W-W-NW
;''.]-[[c].[E]f>,j]
3 . 2 - 2 9
3. 2- 30
Thus for descri bi ng the posi t i on of the ai r cr af t with r espect to the ear t h a Newton
axes syst em i s always neces s ar y. However, for the deri vat i ons of the equat i ons of
motion of the ai r cr af t both axes syst ems can still be used. In the field of ai r cr af t
st abi l i t y and cont rol when the ai r cr af t i s consi dered to be a rigid body, usually the
equations of motion ar e deri ved with r espect to the ai r cr af t - or Eul er axes s ys t em.
Thi s i s because for ri gi d ai r cr af t with t hi s axes syst em the mas s quantities a r e
const ant s. For an el ast i c ai rcraft this i s no longer t r ue, though the deviations a r e
- 3 4-
second or der effects.
For aer oel ast i c investigations t herefore the equations of motion ar e general l y derived
with r espect to a Newton axes syst em which i s moving with the constant speed of the
ai r cr af t . With r espect to such an axes syst em the equations of motion ar e much
si mpl er . Also in this axes syst em the i nert i a quantities deviate from const ant s with
second or der effects when the val ues of al l general i zed coordi nat es ar e of the fi rst
or der of smal l ness.
With flutter pr obl ems this i s always so as in fact then only the stability of the physi -
cal syst em against infinitesimal deformations is consi dered. With r esponse cal cul a-
tions, such as gust - and landing impact cal cul at i ons, the general i zed coordi nat es
ar e finite and it has to be checked for any calculation, al so the pr esent ones, whether
the assumpt i on to neglect second or der t er ms , is valid, and thus if l i neari zat i on i s
allowed. Experi ence thus far i ndi cat es that for landing impact cal cul at i ons l i near i -
zation i s allowed and t herefore will be assumed to hold t rue for the pr esent i nvest i -
gation. Because in that case al l basi c mas s data ar e identical whith that for aer oel as -
tic i nvest i gat i ons, for convenience the equations of motion for the pr esent i nvest i -
gation, on landing i mpact s of el ast i c ai rcraft , ar e derived with r espect to the same
axes syst em as used for aer oel ast i c i nvest i gat i ons, i. e. a Newton axes syst em moving
with constant speed, coinciding with the ai rcraft axes syst em at t = 0.
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The equations of motion of a dynami cal syst em with a finite number of degr ees of
freedom can be derived most conveniently from the Lagrange equations
d t 'li f^l 'li 3. 3- 1
in which
E = kinetic energy of the syst em rel at i ve to the chosen reference frame
U = potential energy
Q; = general i zed forces, i. e, the work done by ext ernal forces when a unit dis-
pl acement i s performed by the i th general i zed coordi nat e
qj = general i zed coordi nat es, i. e, independent coordi nat es giving the possi bl e
di spl acement s of the dynami cal syst em.
The kinetic energy E i s of a syst em of n di scr et e mas s es m, is
E= I [i(xV y^-f i ') m + u)^^ l^ + i U)^, ly + 1 lx)\ |^ 1
3. 3- 2
in which the coordi nat es x, y and z and the angul ar vel oci t i es tO . ) . and ijj
have to be expr essed in the general i zed coordi nat es q.. These general i zed coor di -
nates qj^ can, accordi ng to the choice made in par . 3. 2, be split in the general i zed
el ast i c coordi nat es q and the 6 cyclic coordi nat es viz, the 3 linear coordi nat es of
- 35-
the cent er of gravi t y t oget her with the t hr ee Eul er angles defining the position of the
ai rcraft reference frame in space with r espect to the moving Newton axis syst em.
In mat r i x notation the contribution to the total kinetic energy of a single mas s ele-
ment nij^ of the st r uct ur e can be wri t t en .;is
dE-T^i(L><ijH+L^[''-f]H)
3. 3-3
in which mj i s a scal ar and x-, 00^ and i\j ar e defined as
,2
Xi -
O O i -
) UJ\
^\'
r xi ]
^yA an
-.1
d l - i -
Lx, 0 0
hi P.
0 0 L7
3. 3- 4
i , i and i^. ar e the radi i of gyration of the mas s el ement m^ with r espect
n ^i "1
to i t s own c of g.
Equation 3. 3-3 can be expr essed in the general i zed coordi nat es q by substituting in
eq, 3, 3-3, eqs, 3, 2-25 and 3. 2-29. The resul t i ng expr essi on i s given by
dE|-.Lnni|qJ(R;..R^^^.R'^..i^j.R^J^c,] 3, 3. 5
The total kinetic energy E can now be found by summi ng over the whole st r uct ur e :
E-iN
which can be wri t t en as
Imi(RVR,j+RVLfR^j)(q}
-iL^j[M
3. 3-6
3. 3-7
in which M i s the mat r i x of general i zed mas s es ,
The operat i ons on the kinetic energy, occuri ng in the Lagrange equations yield :
and eq. 3. 3-1 r eads
3i if-p-Hi-':
3. 3-8
3, 3-9
When gravi t at i on i s assumed to be i ncorporat ed in the expr essi on of the general i zed
forces, the pot ent i al energy of a l i near el ast i c st r uct ur e is a homogeneous quadrat i c
function of the general i zed coordi nat es, so that iL can, in general , be wri t t en as
5i
"x 1
or
6^
3.3-1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 CjjJ l^qe
When eq, 3. 3-1 0 i s subst i t ut ed in eq, 3. 3-9 the final expr essi on, in mat r i x notation,
of the equations of motion i s obtained, viz,
Ml^kHH-W
3.3-1 1
- 3 G-
It depends on the choice of the general i zed coordi nat es q which form the submat r i x
C^ will t ake.
When the deformat i on modes to wjiich the el ast i c general i zed coordi nat es apply
ar e defined as the di spl acement s and rot at i ons of a finite number of segment s of
the st r uct ur e, the mat ri x Cj^ i s the stiffness influence coefficient mat r i x which
i s the i nver se of the flexibility influence coefficient mat r i x.
When the ampl i t udes q of uncoupled deformation modes f of cer t ai n par t s of
the st r uct ur e, e, g, wing or fuselage, between which no el ast i c coupling exi st s,
ar e chosen as the el ast i c general i zed coordi nat es, the general i zed stiffness mat r i x
i s a diagonal mat r i x of which the diagonal el ement s can be det ermi ned as follows :
Assume the deformation q f to be the only possi bl e deformat i on. Eq. 3. 3- 1 1 than
t akes the form
{t ^ ni i f ' ( i ) j Se +Cc , g- 0 3.3-1 2
from which can be derived
z n ? .
C- +V Y_ mj f (I) 3. 3- 13
l-l
in which V i s the nat ural frequency, of the uncoupled deformation mode f (i)
It will be cl ear that 1 . m^ f (i) i s the diagonal el ement of the general i zed mas s
mat r i x rel at ed to tne general i zed coordi nat e qg
The successi ve uncoupled modes cf a par t of the st r uct ur e thus est abl i shed ar e
orthogonal.
It i s al so possi bl e to use as assumed modes the nor mal modes of the whole s t r uc -
t ure assumed to be fixed in i t s cent er of gravi t y. In that case not only the gener a-
lized el ast i c mat r i x C i s a diagonal mat r i x, but al so that par t of the general i zed
mas s mat r i x which i s rel at ed to the el ast i c general i zed coor di nat es.
Fi nal l y it i s possi bl e to use as assumed modes the nor mal modes of the whole
st r uct ur e as a free body. Then the total general i zed mas s mat r i x i s a diagonal
mat r i x.
In cer t ai n speci al cases it may prove insufficiently accur at e to approxi mat e the
t rue deformat i on modes by pr escr i bed uncoupled modes of unknown ampl i t udes of
e. g. wing or fusel age.
Thi s i s especi al l y t rue when l arge concent rat ed mas s es such as engines and/ or
pylontanks in real i t y ar e not rigidly connected to wing or fuselage, as i s assumed
in the cal cul at i on of the uncoupled deformation modes. Consi derabl e bet t er appr o-
xi mat i ons to t r ue deformations can be obtained when in the calculation pr oces s of
the pr escr i bed deforination modes t hese el ast i ci t i es ar e taken into account.
In such cas es , however, al so the dynamic schemat i sat i on of the physi cal syst em
has to include as general i zed coordi nat es not only the ampl i t udes of the ( in this
way i mproved ) uncoupled bending and t orsi on deformation modes, but al so the
rel at i ve motion of these concent rat ed mas s es with r espect to wing or fusel age.
-37-
For such a syst em the cal cul at i on of the el ement s of the general i zed st i ffness
mat r i x r el at ed to wing bending or t orsi on i s somewhat mor e complicated t hen
the si mpl e expr essi on 3. 3- 1 3.
Confining eq. 3. 3-1 1 to the two degr ees of freedom involved, e. g. wing t or s i on
and engine pi t ch with r espect to the wing, yields :
(-v^Mji + Cj j qj - v ^ Mj j - q j - o
-V'Mjj qj +JCj-V'Mjj^qj.0 3-3-14
The wing t orsi on mode has been calculated from a syst em with many degr ees of freedom
( wing split up in sect i ons) including the engine pitch.
The char act er i st i c equation is given by :
- V' Mi i +Ci
- V ' M
ij
-V^M
U
Cj - V' Mj j
3, 3-1 5
Of this equation, valid for a wing deformation mode which is known, the general i sed
mas s es , the frequency V , and the equivalent spri ng stiffness Cj of the engine with
r espect to the wing, ar e known. Then C., in this case the element for wing t orsi on of
the general i sed stiffness mat r i x, can be calculated from eq. 3. 3- 1 5 instead of from
eq. 3. 3- 1 3.
The ext er nal f or ces, defining the general i zed forces Q can be split into st at i c
f or ces, e, g. gravity f or ces, and t i me dependant f or ces, e. g. landing gear f or ces.
Because we ar e dealing with l i near s ys t ems the di spl acement s and deformat i ons
can then al so be split into st at i c and t i me dependent par t s ;
S - Rg t + ' ^ d ' 3. 3- 1 6
in which the subscr i pt st i ndi cat es the st at i c par t and d the time dependent
par t of the vect or of general i zed coordi nat es q. When eq. 3. 3-1 6 i s subst i t ut ed
in eq. 3, 3-1 1 the r esul t i s
Mqd+ C fqst+ Idj - Qst-I- Qd
3. 3- 1 7
Thi s can be split up into the following two equations
Mqd+Cqd- Qd
Cqst - Qst
3.3-li
3. 3-1 9
The subsequent sect i ons deal with eq. 3. 3-1 8. The loads calculated by solving
eq. 3. 3-1 8 have to be added to the loads resul t i ng from the solution of eq. 3. 3-1 9
in or der to obtain total l oads.
GENERALIZED LANDING GEAR FORCES
The forces occuri ng at the contact point of t yre and runway give r i s e, in pri nci pl e,
to three f or ces and t hree moment s a'; the point W, which i s the wheel axle or, in
the case of a bogie under car r i age, at the lower end of the main leg.
They will be dealt with in det ai l i n the next chapt er. It i s the rel at i on between t hese
forces and moment s and the general i zed forces which i s derived in the pr esent par a-
graph.
The gener al i zed force vect or Q i s defined by the work done by these forces and
moments when t here ar e unit di spl acement s of the general i zed coordi nat es q^. Thus
dA=[ _Qj d[ q} 3^4.1
The work done by the landing gear forces and moment s i s given by the expr essi on
3. 4-2
dA-LXwJdJx.j+LMwJ.dJ^^j
in which the index N i ndi cat es that the quant i t i es involved ar e rel at ed to the Newton
axis syst em moving with constant speed VQ and coinciding with the ai rcraft axes
system at t = 0.
Then Q i defined by
W-|t-LKwj[i^-^}+KJl-^
3. 4r 3
The f or ces generat ed at the contact point of t i r e and runway being perpendi cul ar and
paral l el to the ear t h' s surface, the force and moment components K and M^y along
the Xg^, Yg^ and Z^- axes of an axes syst em of which the Z - a x i s i s ori ent ed pe r -
pendi cul ar to the ear t h' s surface and the X - axi s par al l el to the ai rcraft plane of
symmet r y, acting at point W, have to be t ransformed to components along the mo-
ving Newton axes syst em.
Let the angl es (j' a ^ and 0 be Eul er angl es defining the successi ve rot at i ons
through which the Newton axes X , Y^ , Z have to be car r i ed in or der to ar r i ve at
a a a
the moving Newton axes syst em which coi nci des with the ai r cr af t axes syst em at t = 0.
Then, accordi ng to eq. 3. 2-9, the components of forces and moment s along the mo-
ving Newton axes syst em, with r espect to which equations of motion have been defi-
ned, ar e given by
KwN=TaKwa 3,4.4
MwN=''"a MwQ
The di spl acement vect or A Xyy is given by eq. 3. 2-25, vi z.
A Xw- RTV,-' ^ 3. 4- 5
The mat r i x R-n however cont ai ns the shock absor ber deflection P as a par amet er
J. W o
and it wi l l prove useful to expr ess AX^ explicitly in ^ . Therefore eq. 3. 4- 5 i s
defined as being valid for ^ = 0. The di spl acement of W due to shock absor ber
- 39-
deflection then has to be added to AX ( ^ = 0 ) Thi s di spl acement can be split
up into two par t s viz, the extention ? itfielf of the landing gear for the ri gi d ai rcraft
and, secondl y, a di spl acement of W due to a rot at i on of the ^ vect or caused by
s t r uct ur al deformation, yielding A Xy^ K andAXy^K r es p,
The component s A )<vv C of P along the X, Y and Z axes for the rigid ai r cr af t can
be denoted by -a ^ , -b P and -c F , in which a, b and c ar e related to the
angles 9 wx and ^ wy . defining the posi -
tion of the shock abs or ber with r espect to the
ai rcraft axes syst em, ( see fig, 3. 4- 1 ).
The rel at i ons between a, b and c and "P^
and ^vv y ar e found by making the following
subst i t ut i ons in eq. 3. 2- 8.
X
4-1
Fi g, 3, ^ - 1 i _shock absorber
cent er l i ne
4- _0
0 - ^
V
1
and Vc
The r esul t i s
a = cos ^vv si n ^ w .
b - +si n ip
Wv
c = cos ^'vv . C0S^5yv
The di spl acement vect or A Xuu *- i^ then given by
lAX
w^
A X w e ^
When l i near i zat i on i s allowed, this can be wri t t en as
3. 4-6
AX.
W i
f a - b y -1-c e
^ ay + b- Cj <
t ae+bj i f +c
-l
"o c -b"
-c 0- a
_b -a o_
U]
e
LvJ
3. 4- 7
The di spl acement s Ax Yv ^ >Lf<fi % a ndAZy^^^ of the components -a ^ i - h ^
and -c 5 , due to the rot at i on vect or 'P K of the origin of the vector caused by
st r uct ur al deformation can be deri ved by referi ng to fig. 3. 4- 2.
In l i neari zed form the expr essi ons ar e given by :
rEc.cos45|
- Ax w| ,
.A 7^1
_ A z
- ~E b mp + ^ c i p K
bz ^y
3. 4-8
Fi g, 3, 4- 2
2
-40-
Thi s can be wri t t en as
\^^y
c c -b
c 0 a _
_b-a d I ^t^
^ :
^ .
3. 4-9
Upon substitution of l^P e
si onforJAXwK \ be c ome s :
V,
q ( as defined by eq. 3. 2-2, the expres-
["nj-[#'^gj-
0 c - b'
c 0 a
L b -a 0.
'^l
{-}
Because it i s assumed that l i neari sat i on i s allowed this r educes to
r 1 jo c -b"*
= -E -c 0 a
AX
w
_b-a oj [_ 5_
Hence the total di spl acement of W i s
AX
w w
& m
0 c - b
-c 0 a
b-a 0
0+
]{^
'Kc Ve
o r
where
and
co^ r
[ AX^} =| T^| | q| - ^
["w44^-M
'o c - b '
-c 0 a
b -a 0
J
3.4-1 0
3.4-1 1
3.4-1 2
Then
dAX
w _
dq
- ^
w,
3. 4- 1 3
Because ^ i s a par amet er completely det ermi ned by the val ues of the gener al i -
zed coordi nat es q and the boundary condition that the t i r e r emai ns in contact
with the eart h surface, 5 is not a general i zed coordi nat e itself.
Ther ef or e the t er m ^i' ^Wg} di sappear s when AXyy i s differentiated with r espect
to q.
In the foregoing it has been derived al ready ( eq. 3. 2-1 6 and 3. 4- 9) that <p ^ i s
defined by
w-
^ 0 + ^f
b_
or, when l i neari zat i on i s allowed,
%^
SI
M-W^^'Jh]
3,4-1 4
3.4-1 5
4 1 -
fhlH
^]
3.4-1 6
Hence, according to eq, 3,4-1 2
Fr om 3, 4-1 6 it follows that d ^p w
dq
By substituting eq. 3. 4-1 6 and 3. 4-1 3 into eq. 3. 4-3 the following expressi on for
the general i zed forces Q i s obtained
W-L''""i(^w]-5f,>L"-j{"5]
3.4-1 7
The wheels need not make ground contact si mul t aneousl y. E. g, when t here i s an
initial angle of bank at t = 0 and assumi ng the left hand landing gear touches
fi rst , it will take some time before right hand landing gear makes contact. For
such a second impact a si mi l ar expr essi on as given by eq. 3. 4-1 7 is valid for a
second general i zed force which has to be added to the one rel at ed to the impact
of the left hand landing gear . Thi s i mpl i es that anot her par amet er ent er s the
equation of motion viz. the right hand landing gear deflection ^p for which, in
the same way as for g ^ , an equation descri bi ng the shock absor ber behaviour
has to be taken into account.
The moment at which the second landing gear makes ground contact must be known,
and i s det ermi ned by the ori ent at i on and initial conditions of the ai rcraft at t= 0.
The ver t i cal distance from the wheel to ground at t = 0, z^ - z^, is det er-
^left ^right
mined by the Eul er angl es, ^)a , 0^ and 0a^ as used in eq. 3. 4-4.
For the vect or X the rel at i on
i s valid.
[ XWQ ( t - o ) j - Ta [ xw, (t - o) j - [ Ta [xw
3.4-1 8
As landing gear s ar e symmet r i cal l y positioned with r espect to the ai rcraft plane
of symmet r y x^l = "wR
this into eq. 3.4-1 8 gives
WL
W|
and y^ =-"9^1 Substituting
: wa ( t - o ) - Zwa(t-o) - - 2 | yJ( si n f^-cos Oa)
left right
3.4-1 9
The moment of touch down of the right hand landing gear is reached when the z-
component of the di spl acement vect or of the right hand landing gear is equal to
the initial ver t i cal di st ance.
as given by eq, 3, 4-1 9.
Therefore at time tpj at which
Zwa ( t - o ) - z^jj
left
( t-o)
right
3 , 4 - 2 0
^ ^ O D ^ ^ ^ 2 ' w - K s i n * a - c o s e a )
the second i mpact t akes pl ace.
42-
Accordi ng to eqs. 3. 2-25 and 3. 4-1 8 the di spl acement vect or of the point W i s
given by
AX
Wr,
Rl
The landing gear deflection ^ i s a function of the force F - acting in the shock
abs or ber di rect i on, and the force Fj^ nor mal to it. Thus the force vect or K^
n
act i ng at the wheel axle has to be decomposed in the shock absor ber di rect i on,
and perpendi cul ar to it.
The r el at i ons expressi ng this decomposition ar e given by eq. 3. 2-1 8 in which Fg
i s r epr esent ed by Wg and U, V and W must be repl aced by the force components
Ky^ , K^ and K^ . The rot at i on vect or ( w in eq. 3, 2-1 8 i s , in the case of
the shock absor ber di rect i on, composed of the angl es bj which the Z- axi s of the
Newton axes syst em has to be rotated to bri ng it in coincidence with the shock
abs or ber . The di rect i on of the shock absor ber with r espect to the ai rcraft or
Eul er axes syst em i s composed of the angles ('4^c] in the undeformed position
and the ang
les [ip^]
due to deformation,
Then, with r espect to the Newton axes syst em the rot at i on vect or of the shock
absor ber axis Zg is
3.4-21
i^Sel]-[T]{^s+^^
-(^s+^^l
when ipg can be consi dered to be smal l . Whether this i s the case or not depends
ent i ri l y upon the par t i cul ar design of the ai rcraft under consi derat i on. Usually Vp
i s ver y smal l .
In fig. 3, 4-1 the position of the undeformed shock absor ber with r espect to the
ai r cr af t axes syst em i s defined by the angles ^^vvv ^"^ '^Wv
The r el at i on betweer
- ' x - - ' " y
j n i ^ s j and *Pwy ^^id ^Wy ^^ given by
tPg - - cos ip, ^x..
3 . 4 - 2 2
2 'y '^ ' X
Upon substitution of 3, 4-21 and of the force vect or K^ in eq. 3. 2-1 8b the r esul -
ting expr essi ons for Fg and F^ become
o r
^^n
(^ = y-+-^HJ
^ S x + ^ J
IK
w,
3 , 4 - 2 3
3 , 4 - 2 4
in which a l s or ^p i s a function of the general i zed coordi nat es q,
- 43-
LANDING GEAR FORCES
3. 5. 1 . E q u a t i o n s of mo t i o n of u n s p r u n g m a s s
The forces and moment s t r ansmi t t ed by the wheel to the landing gear ar e
det ermi ned by the equations of motion of the unsprung ma s s . They will be
deri ved for the case of landing gear s in which a single wheel axis is con-
nected to the lower end of the shock absor ber . For other kinds of landing
gear s , such as e. g. bogie landing gear s, the equations of motion of the un-
sprung mas s ar e mor e compl ex. For bogie landing gear s t hey are deri ved
e. g. in ref. 78.
The equations of motion of the unsprung mas s in an X , Y , Z axes syst em
for landing gear s with a single wheel axle ar e given by : ( s ee fig. 3. 5. 1 . )
v
m W- ^^Wg - - ' ^ Wg -t-
m
m
-K
<Pv
M.
M
K. 3, 5- 1
_ K^ d- K, (e-u)
I a 0
_ K, d-h K^ (v -nei/)^ )
fig. 3. 5- 1
in which
d- (R-(r) cos iPv,^-o ^i " ^Pw, / o^ V'w^
e= (R-(r)sin iPw +a cos^J* cos (/?
In t hese equations R is the free r adi us of the t i r e
and Q" the deflection of the t i r e which,by definition,
is identical t oAzw*ATvi c Wheel excent ri ci t y i s a.
When twin wheel landing gear s a r e considered the
excent ri ci t y a i s zer o. In that case it is assumed
that the forces acting on the two wheels are equal,
The naoment about the Y axis can exist only when
a brake moment is applied. As duri ng the spi n-up
phase of the landing i mpact no brake moment i s applied, no moment about the
Y axi s is t r ansmi t t ed to the unsprung mas s .
The contribution of the forces Ky and K to the moment about the Z^ axis can
II ft
be written as K. .e -h M- + K, e</> . i" whichMj , the cor ner i ng moment , defined
0 a ' a ^z
as M, ='Ky .v_K, .u , is due to tne offset of the wheel cent er of pr es s ur e when
* a ' o o
the wheel per f or ms a yawing motion. When twin wheel landing gears ar e consi -
dered ( a = o) also the contribution to this moment of K, usually is r at her
smal l , as Vw^ is only up to a few degr ees.
The contribution Kj .u to the moment about theXg axis can be neglected with
r espect to K, .d
The moment s of i nert i a I, and L
ar e not constants but depend
on Vw. V * . and Vw,
- 4 4 -
When, however, l i neari sat i on is assumed to be valid, the deviations from
constant val ues ( valid in the ai rcraft axes syst em ) ar e second or der
effects only and thus ar e negi i gabl e.
Equation 3. 5-1 can be written in mat ri x notation as
and 3.5-2
is defined by
0 d
d 0
-e -e yj^
e
-v-ec/),
in which B is
[B]-
In equation 3. 5- 1 the expr essi ons
K]-MK]^"d[AXw]-[T][AX,}
can be subst i t ut ed. When l i neari sat i on is allowed these expr essi ons can,
accordi ng to eq. 3.4-1 6 and 3. 4- 1 1 , be expr essed in the general i sed coor-
di nat es as fcjUows :
{ ^W , H * W H R ^] H
and
When this l ast expressi on i s differentiated twice with r espect to t i me, the
r esul t is :
-,/. ^")
[ A Xwj . [ R T] [ q] - [ R W ] + [Rw,j[q] -2 | [ R w] [ q] - ^ f 3 . 5 - 3
2 F o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s a c t i n g on t h e t i r e
In or der to der i ve the magnitude of the force vect or K,,, and moment
vect or M the forces K,, K
ya
and K^ and the moment My have to be
known mor e pr eci sel y.
A compl et e and exhaustive t r eat ment of the nat ure of t hese forces and the
moment can be found in r ef s. 51 , 5 4 and 64. Some of the more i mport ant
facts of t i r e behaviour which have to be r epr esent ed in the analytic expr ess-
ions to be deri ved for t hese forces and the moment M , will be descri bed
briefly.
The most i mport ant aspect of t i r e behaviour for landing impact phenomena
is i t s deflection char act er i s t i cs , det ermi ni ng the v e r t i c a l f o r c e K,^
as a function of the deflection (f . It follows from the experi ment al l y
det ermi ned force-deflection char act er i s t i cs that with i ncr easi ng- and de-
cr easi ng f or ces, the deflection char act er i s t i cs ar e different, indicating
a hyst er esi s loop, which means appreci abl e energy di ssi pat i on in the t i r e,
Moreover it is found that the force deflection rel at i on is an exponential one
-45-
which can, be described by K.
-5.cr'
in which 6 and E are constants, having
differe.'it values for different segments of the
deflection curve.
Finally it has been proved that the force-de-
flection characteristics are independent from the
deflection velocity. As is shown in fig. 3.5-2
the force deflection curve can also be approxi-
mated fairly accurately by straight lines, thus
by a linear relationship between force and de-
flection.
From the investigation described in ref. 51 it
follows that this linear approximation of the
force-daflection curve can be applied in the
calculations of landing impact forces with a
negligeable loss in accuracy. Another result of ref. 51 is that the hyster-
esis effect can be ignored. Thus the tire force-deflection curve can
be represented by
K, = O
fig. 3. 5-2
^^a =-5,((r-(ro)
when Cr (fj,
when (}'^>(>(i ^
3. 5-4
This expression will be used in the subsequent analysis.
When it is necessary to represent also the case of tire bottoming,this can
be done by prescribing another, much larger value of 6 for values
of G" larger than (j^ .
Hence ^z^ - b,{(i r(o) -^A^'^ ) ^^^^ ^> G,
The h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e , originating from the contact of tire and runway,
can be decomposed into components Kv and Ky parallel to the X and Y
axes.
These horizontal forces are a function of K^ as they are frictional forces.
Therefore there can be written e. g.
K
xa
K.
ya
l ^x- K
za
3. 5-5
J-
i-
. *
.}
0
In a physical sense, the coefficient of friction is certainly not a
constant during the landing impact process. Qualitatively the variation of
|Ix with time is given in fig, 3,5-3. The time at which |I.^ becomes
nearly zero is the spin-up time tg, at which
the wheel starts to ruU instead of to skid.
In order to be able to explain the dependance
of |Jlx from t, the dependance of [i ^ from
such quantities as skidding velocity, slip
ratiOjtire heating etc, has to be borne in mind.
0 a; at 06 M
f i g . 3.-
10
-46-
Ski ddi ng vel oci t y V j ^ i s t he di f f er ence bet ween t he Xg^ component of t he
s peed at t he wheel axl e and wheel c i r c u mf e r e n t i a l s peed.
3 , 5 - 6
Hence V
sk
V -I- X y r eff. ,
i n whi ch f i s t he angul ar vel oci t y of t he wheel ar ound i t s axi s and r ^ j j t he
ef f ect i ve wheel r a di us . In ref. 54 t he fol l owi ng e xpr e s s i on for reff i s d e -
r i ve d on t he ba s i s of s ome s i mpl i f i ed a s s u mp t i o n s r e ga r di ng t i r e di s t or t i on
i n t he gr ound cont act r egi on :
eff
-S. 3, 5- 7
Ex p e r i me n t s a s r e por t e d i n ref. 63 r oughl y c onf i r me d t hi s e x p r e s s i o n in whi ch
R i s t he out s i de f r ee r a di us of t he t i r e . The a ppr oxi ma t i on of r^ff by eq. 3. 5- 7
onl y a p p e a r s in connect i on wi t h t he def i ni t i on of V5i< and, hence, wi t h s l i p r at i oA
The s l i p r a t i o A i s t he r a t i o of s ki ddi ng vel oci t y and Xo component of
s peed at t he wheel axl e.
The s l i p r a t i o X t he r e f or e i s defi ned by
Vsk
Mx
.8
.6-
.4-
.2
0
Iadhesive
friction(A=Ar)
sl i di ng frictlon(A=1)
f i gl 3 of ref .5^
^ 20 40 so 60 3S 9'
^^ef f 3 . 5 - 8
Vox-*-*Wo
The phys i c a l p r o c e s s e s oc c ur i ng in t he
t i r e and t he expl anat i on of t he s ket ched
~- be ha vi our of / i x , a r e de s c r i be d in ref. 54.
It a p p e a r s t hat t he va r i a t i o n of/^x wi t h
t i me can be expl ai ned ma i nl y f r om t he
de pe nde nc e of Mxon s l i p r a t i o A and s ki d-
di ng vel oci t y V5^, . Qual i t at i vel y Mx va r i e s
wi t h s l i p r a t i o and s ki ddi ng vel oci t y in t he
way gi ven in f i gs . 3 . 5 - 4 and 3. 5 - 5 .
The t wo c u r ve s in fi g. 3. 5-5 c o r r e s p o n d
t o t wo s pe c i a l val ues of A ( i . e. A = Ap
and A = 1 ). At t he mome nt of t ouch down
t he s l i p r a t i o i s 1 and t he s ki ddi ng vel oci t y
i s at i t s ma x i mu m and i s equal t o t he t ouc h
down f or wa r d s peed. It wi l l t h e r e f o r e be
c l e a r f r om fi g. 3. 5-5 t hat t he i ni t i al va l ue
of Mx i s l owe r when t he t ouch down f or wa r d
s peed i s hi ghe r .
100
0 10
fi g. 3 . 5 - 5
When t he whe e l s t a r t s t o r o t a t e , due t o t he coupl e pr oduced by t he f r i ct i onal
f o r c e s , bot h s l i p r a t i o and s ki ddi ng vel oci t y a r e r e duc e d. Bot h ef f ect s t end t o
i n c r e a s e t he coef f i ci ent of f r i ct i on. The coef f i ci ent of f r i ct i on wi l l be at i t s
ma x i mu m when t he s ki ddi ng vel oci t y i s c l o s e t o z e r o . When t he wheel a ngul a r
vel oci t y i s s t i l l f ur t he r i n c r e a s e d i n t he fi nal s t a ge of t he t r a ns i t i on bet ween
p u r e s l i di ng and pur e r ol l i ng, t he coef f i ci ent of f r i ct i on i s r educed t o t he val ue
bel ongi ng t o r ol l i ng f r i ct i on.
F o r s l i p r a t i o s X s ma l l e r t han t he val ue X at whi ch t he ma x. val ue of yU^ i s found
- 47 -
t he dependence of /x f r om s l i p r a t i o X can be a p p r o x i ma t e d by t he fol l owi ng
par abol i c e x p r e s s i o n .
H,--M:i(Mlx(ArM
in whi ch ^cX^c,\^) i s t he ma x i ma l val ue of Mx c ompa t i bl e wi t h the a c t ua l val ue
of t he ski ddi ng vel oci t y Vg. . See fig. 3. 5- 5.
As an a ppr oxi ma t i on t he r e l a t i on bet ween Ms andV^p, for A = Ap , i s a s s u me d
t o be a l i ne a r one as f ol l ows f r om fig. 3. 5- 5, The f ol l owi ng e xpr e s s i on t hen can
be s ubs t i t ut ed in eq. 3 . 5 - 9 .
\^s-\^x ( ' - C , - ^ ) 3, 5- 1 0
max ^ V '
"x
whi ch, by s ubs t i t ut i on of eq. 3, 5-8 in eq, 3. 5- 1 0 can a l t o be wr i t t en a s
^ i s ^ ^ x . . i - c , A ( i + - , ^ ) 3, 5- 1 1
k-'A^^^)]
However , a s fol l ows f r om fi g. 3. 5- 5, C-^ i s s ma l l for A =Xj- , The s a me bei ng
t r u e f o r A<Ar it i s a c ons e r va t i ve a s s umpt i on t o ne gl e c t t hi s effect al t oget her
and put C-^ - 0, s o t h a t Ms = P-x^ . Fo r A<; Af t he e x p r e s s i o n forMx t hen be c ome s
Mx= i %a i i x A( 2 Ar - A) 3.5.1 2
Fo r s l i p r a t i os bet ween Ar and 1 . 0 t he f r i ct i on coef f i ci ent Mx can be a s s u me d
t o be l i ne a r l y dependent on t he sl i p r at i o A . Si nce ' ^s = '^XrnnY >
' ^ x - ^ Xr p a x [ ' - ' ' ^ - ^ ' - ' ^ ' ' ^ S k j ^ h e n A> Ar 3. 5- 1 3
Accor di ng t o fig. 3. 5- 5 and t he fact t hat for A = 1 , V^j^ =VQ t he dependence of Mx
fromVQ for A = 1 can be a ppr oxi ma t e d by a l i n e a r r e l a t i ons hi p for s ma l l val ues
of VQ Fo r VQ > 50 k m/ h it i s i ndependent f r om VQ , As l andi ng s p e e d s gener al l y
a r e ' l a r g e r t han 50 k m/ h t he coef f i ci ent C2 can be a s s u me d to be c ons t a nt . Hence
^X=' ^x^ax[ ' - ' ^- ^^' ^^| 3.5.1 4
The a ngul a r vel oci t y of t he wheel V can be found f r om t he i nt egr at i on of the
equat i on of mot i on of t he wheel , vi z.
J
y- - t i xKz( , - l " - i r i 3.5.1 6
Hence v, / ^Z
y - - f JI^ pa - ( R- o- ) ' dt 3, 5- 1 6
Upon s ubs t i t ut i on of eq. 3. 5- 1 6 in eq. 3. 5- 8 and of eq. 3.-5-8 in eqs , 3, 5-1 2
and 3. 5- 1 4, M-x can be s ol ved in an i t e r a t i ve p r o c e s s . The quant i t i es
M-x. X r ' ^n > ^ and J a r e c ons t a nt s . Fo r gi ven va l ue s of (T and
x ^ and an i ni t i al val ue of (Ij j , t he quant i t y V , and s u c c e s s i ve l y a l s o X
and a new val ue of jJ-x^can be d e t e r mi n e d .
By s ubs t i t ut i ng t hi s val ue of | i ^ in t he e x p r e s s i o n for V , a new i t e r a t i on
s t e p s t a r t s . Thi s goes on unt i l t he val ue of ^Ix does not change any l onge r .
However , in n e a r l y al l a na l ys i s of l andi ng i mpa c t be ha vi our t he coef f i ci ent
of f r i ct i on [ I ^ i s a s s u me d t o be cons t ant unt i l t he mo me n t when t he whe e l
c o mme n c e s t o s t a r t p u r e r ol l i ng. As sai d bef or e, t hi s mo me n t is cal l ed t he
- 48-
spi n-up t i me t . How crude t hi s assumpt i on of constant Mx ^^ compared with
an anal ysi s in which Mx ^s a function of slip rat i o A , has been investigated
in the present study.
When |1 i s assumed to be constant until the moment of complete spi n-up
tg, an expressi on for tg has to be deri ved,
This moment can be found as the moment at which the impulse of the
rotating wheel is equal to the i nt egrat ed i mpul se moment delivered by the
frictional force.
By substituting the eq. 3.-5-6 in eq. 3. 5-1 6 and taking into account that
at spi n-up V..,, = o so that then V -i x - T- f the following expr ess
^ ^ sk v w - eff
ion is obtained from which t can be found
r^R-0-)-Kx . dt =- l , ^^i i w.
/o J R-(y^
3.5-1 7
After t i me t_ the coefficient of friction |J,x can be assumed to be zero, as
i s usual l y done, or it can be assumed that t her e is a hori zont al force of
such a magnitude that at any moment t her e is rolling contact between the
t i r e and the runway. The analytic expressi on for this condition i s, in
accordance with eq. 3.5-1 5
K,
or
" R-cr
3.5-1 8
L
A l a t e r a l h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e Ky is pr esent when the wheel surface
i s not only subjected to the forward speed VQ + x^ - V . rgff, but also
to a velocity component V^ + y^ in which V^ is the l at er al velocity of
the ai rcraft at t = o par al l el to the ear t h surface, and y^ i s the velocity
of the l at er al di spl acement of the landing gear with r espect to the ai r cr af t
c of g. The l at er al force then is
skidding
M K,sinV/-
| Iy Kj
3.5-1 9
"w+Vo,
fig. 3.5-7
At the moment of touch down when the t i r e st ar t s
to skid over the runway surface, the hori zont al
friction force Ml<2_is pointing opposite to the di r -
ection of the resul t i ng speed vect or of t i r e contact
point, as shown in fig. 3. 5-7. As V (t=o) i s of the
or der of 0. 2 k 0. 3 radi ans at most ( 20 to 30 kts
cr os s wind ) the initial hori zont al forces ar e equal
to Ky _ 4;u. K,
' ' " ^ r e s ^ " 3 . 5 - 2 0
Kx - M- Kr
Hence Mx = Mf.sand My = V^Mras ( V^ in rad. )
For a yawed r o l l i n g t i r e the hori zont al friction
force i s in gener al not in the di rect i on of the l ocal
speed vect or. But also in t hi s case it is found in
ref. 64 that for smal l values of the yaw angle V(< 20
- 49-
t her e is a l i near rel at i onshi p betv/een the l at er al fi-iction coefficient and i p
The factor of proport i onal l y however, i s different. It i s smal l er for the skid-
ding than for the yawed rolling tirt;. For l ar ger val ues of V' a constant value
of the l at er al friction coefficient is found. The relation between My and tp
t herefore is found to be of the type as sketched by fig. 3. 5- 8.
All experi ment al r esul t s provided by ref, 64 on
this rel at i onshi p can be descri bed fairly accu-
rat el y by the empi r i cal rel at i onshi p:
yawed rolling.
--^yma-x ^
^^y-( ^-?V: S')^iy^^when^<1.5
in which S is defined by
'nnax
V when C>1.5
' max *
3,5-21
5--!^
K-
-V (y/ in degr ees} 3,5-22
' max 0
Njj is the "cor ner i ng power" or initial slope of the l at er al force (MyKj )
curve plotted against yaw angle. Hence
N,
dK
(-S^)
d 4; ' ip-o
Ref, 64 provi des an empi r i cal expressi on for N^,
( y/ in degrees ) 3, 5-23
VIZ.
3.5-24 Nc- Cc(P+-^i Pr ) - ^ t j l ' 2 - ^ - 8 - 8 ( ^ ) ' } f r ^ <0j 0875
[ 2R \ 2R' J ^r*
Nc=Cc ( P- t - . i 4Pr ) wM0D67i - 0. 3^- - | f or X ; > 0.0875
in which ; C i s a coefficient of the or der of magnitude 1, depending on the
type of t i r e, when NQ i s a force per degree (M
p is the t i r e pr es s ur e specified for nor mal operat i on.
p the rat ed t i r e pr es s ur e ( 0, 25 t i mes the bursting pressui -e)
and w the width of the undeflected t i r e
For some cur r ent t i r e si zes the following N. val ues ar e calculated with eq.
3.5-24 for -:r^r ^ 0 , 0875, assumi ng p = p to be valid and G" in i nches.
2R - . o . . ) ,
56 X 16 Type VII, p = 1 40 I bs/ sq. inch, N 460 ( r ( 1 -0, 065( r ) l bs / degr ee
39x1 3 Type VII, p
95 I bs/ sq. inch, N^ = 366 ( r ( 1 -0, 094 (T ) l bs/ degr ee
34x1 0, 5 Type VII, p = 80 I bs/ sq. inch, N = 225 ff" ( 1 -0, lOSfT ) l bs/ degr ee
Hence N^ is approxi mat el y proport i onal to G" . The quantity J ; however,
will be much l ess dependent on (j" , because K^ is proport i onal to (j" ,
accordi ng to eq. 3. 5-4. During spin upMy s t ar t s with 3. 5-20 and ends with
3. 5- 21 . It would cert ai nl y be a simplification when it would be possi bl e
t ot akeMy " ^Vmox - constant for all val ues of V Fr om fig. 3. 5-8 it follows
that l i v * U V o"ly for smal l val ues of d) and thus t her e will be only a
- ' ma x
mar ked difference in Ky with and without the assumpt i on of constant Jly
-sc-
at t he ve r y begi nni ng of t he l andi ng i mpa c t phenomenon, a s i s s ket ched i n
fi g. 3. 5- 9. Th e r e f o r e i t ma y b e expect ed t hat t he
a s s umpt i on Llv = U-a wi l l have onl y a s ma l l
' J^max.
i nf l uence on t he ma x i mu m va l ue s of l andi ng i m-
pact l oa ds .
Whe t he r t hi s i s t r u e or not has been i nve s t i ga t e d in
p a r . 6, 4 by pe r f or mi ng c o mp a r a t i ve c a l c ul a t i ons wi t h
My = My and wi t h My = f(V^) . F o r t he de pe nde nc e
of |jLy on y equat i on 3. 5- 21 has been appl i ed. The c a l -
cul at i on e xa mpl e in t hi s st udy i s t he Fokke r F . 27 whi ch
h a s 34 X 1 0, 5 t ype VII t i r e s wi t h a t i r e p r e s s u r e of 80
I b s / s q , i nch, f or whi ch t he N^ va l ue s a r e gi ven above,
F o r t hi s t i r e t he s t i f f nes s i s gi ven a s 6| = 4250 l b s / i n .
= 0, 7 and K^ pr opor t i ona l t o (T a c c or di ng t o eq. 3. 5- 4, t he
f ol l owi ng e x p r e s s i o n f or '$ i s found:
S = 0,075 ( 1 - 0, 1 08 (r)<M ( ^ in i n c h e s )
Subs t i t ut i on of J in eq. 3. 5- 21 and negl ect i ng t he (j" c o r r e c t i o n gi ves
^y=^^ymnv^ ^^ 0 - mmi 'f)i \)' whe n4j
max
20"^
3 . 5 - 2 5
liy=Hy
max
when 4J ^ 20^^
F o r " va l ue s of 1 k 2 i nches t he effect of t hi s CT c o r r e c t i o n i s s ket ched in f i g. 3. 5- 8
t oge t he r wi t h eq. 3. 5- 25, i ndi cat i ng t he r a t h e r s ma l l i nf l uence of t hi s c o r r e c t i o n .
F o r a yawed t i r e t h e r e i s a l s o mome nt about a ve r t i c a l a xi s , i . e. t he c o r n e r i n g
mo me n t . F o r t hi s mome nt t he f ol l owi ng e xpr e s s i on i s gi ven in ref. 64, in whi ch 1 i s
- O.B5R\/T/2R_(Cr/2R)'
hal f t he f oot pr i nt l engt h, gi ven bi j
= - ( 0. 8 "S
^ ' o = - ( S - ' S'
' ^Vmox' ^Zo-' = - ( 0 , 2 9 -
S h o c k a b s o r b e r f o r c e s
wlien is < 0. 1
0. 01 ) when 0, 1 <C "S<:0, 55
0. 1 ) when S > 0, 55
3. 5- 26
The equat i ons of mot i on cont ai n s t i l l an u n d e t e r mi n e d p a r a me t e r , vi z.
t he s hock a b s o r b e r def l ect i on f oc c ur i ng i n e qs . 3. 4- 1 1 and 3. 4- 1 3.
The addi t i onal equat i on d e t e r mi n i n g ^ i s t he equat i on d e s c r i b i n g t he
act i on of t he hydr aul i c p n e u ma t i c - s h o c k a b s o r b e r . Thi s equat i on i s de r i ve d
and t r e a t e d in det ai l i n ref. 5 1 . In g e n e r a l it can be s t at ed t hat t he t ot a l
f or c e F , ge ne r a t e d i n t he s hock a b s o r b e r and act i ng p a r a l l e l t o t he s hock
a b s o r b e r c e n t e r l i n e , i s bui l t up of t h r e e c ompone nt s . Hence :
- F , = F j j + F p + F p 3. 5- 27
wh e r e i n
Fj j i s t he f or ce due t o t he hydr a ul i c r e s i s t a n c e
F p i s t he pne uma t i c f or ce due t o c o mp r e s s i o n
of t he a i r i n t he uppe r p a r t of t he s hock
a b s o r b e r
Fp, i s t he f r i ct i on f or ce bet ween pi s t on and
c yl i nde r .
3 . 5 - 1 0
- 51 -
T h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e FT, ori gi nat es from the pr es s ur e
difference acr os s the ori fi ces. In some st r ut s the orifice ar ea is constant.
In ot her cases a met eri ng pin or rod is used to control the size of the
orifice when the st rut is deflected. The flow through the orifices i s fully
turbulent. The equation descri bi ng the flow through the orifices can be
derived as follows :
Resi st ance force W in an ori fi ce with net cr oss
ar ea A-^ and local speed V is given by
1 1
ORIFICE
W =
V^.A.
^ . 2 r - ^ N 3,5-28
in wichCn is the coefficient of di scharge andp
the mas s density of the hydraul i c fluid. The coeff-
icient of di schargeCQ is the rci proque of the
drag coefficient. The vol umet ri c rat e of di scharge is defined by
Q = A^. V
so that eq. 3. 5-28 can be wri t t en as
W- 4 QVor Q ^ ^
2C
HPV
3.5-29
As the r esi st ance force W can also be written as
W- AN-(Ph-Pa)
in which PK- PQ i s the hydraulic pr es s ur e difference over the orifice,
eq. 3. 5-29 can be written as
Q.
D
3.5-30
3.5-31
/iPV
The speed V can be eliminated by substituting the Bernoui l l y equation
y 2 p v' - Ph - Pa or P/2-^'\/%^P^a)
in eq. 3. 5-30 . The resul t is
For Q t her e can al so be wri t t en
Q = Ajj i 3.5-32
in which A n i s the hydraulic shock absor ber piston ar ea which is equal to
A|-| =A-| in fig. 3. 5-1 0. When a met eri ng pin is present A|-| =Ai-Ap
when Ap is the vari abl e cr os s sectional ar ea of the met er i ng pin.
;xf
Upon substitution of 3. 5-32 in eq. 3, 5-31 the following expressi on resul t s
Ph - P.
H
o r
2CD V
? ^H ^
H
2C,
' D "^N
Thi s is the well known formul a of Weisbach.
For a given shock absor ber t herefore :
FH = ^-i'
3.5-33
or. in or der to expr ess the fact that FTT i s always opposite to the
- 52-
di rect i on of
t
ill-Ni' or ^'H - ^\t\t
Fji - T7-> .Hf ... FT. = NlPI-P 3. 5- 34
When a met eri ng pin is applied, as i s often the case, A.^., and t herefore also
N, ar e functions of ^ .
Another refinement of shock absor ber s ar e the pr es s ur e operat ed rebound
check val ves or "snubber val ves" which cl ose off the main ori fi ce as soon
as the st r ut begins t o elongate so that the fluid i s forced to r et ur n to the
lower chamber through secondary ori fi ces. Then N i s different for positive
and negative values of ^ .
In this r espect the possi bi l i t y of a rebounce landing has to be consi dered.
When elongation of the st rut i s performi ng slowly a rebounce landing may
take place with a part i al l y aeflected shock absor ber st r ut .
Consequently the react i on of the shock absor ber to such a rebounce landing
will be different from a nor mal landing and may give r i se to hi gher impact
loads for equal descent velocity. However, the descent velocity on second
impact most probably i s l ower. Ther e ar e only the Fr ench r equi r ement s
which ask to consi der the possi bi l i t y that the ver t i cal descent velocity in a
rebounce landing will be gr eat er than on the fi rst landing.
Such a load case is very much dependent on the t i me i nt erval between both
landings. It will have to be vari ed or to be pr escr i bed in or der that such a
r equi r ement will be of any pr act i cal value for a desi gner. Experi ence
l ear ns that t hese tinne i nt erval s ar e of the or der of 1 sec.
The p n e u m a t i c f o r c e F^ i s det ermi ned by the equation of polytropic
compr essi on of ai r which i s given by
p ^ V = Constant
or 3. 5- 35
/V_ \n
in which V i s the ai r volume of the shock st r ut and VQ the ai r volume of
the fully extended shock st r ut .
Since V = VQ - A^.^ 3.5-36
, in which A^ is the pneumatic ar ea of the shock st rut , ( see fig. 3, 5-1 0)
the expressi on of Pg^ becomes, upon substitution of 3, 5-36 in 3, 5-35,
^- '- '^o ^V^''^
and hence
:t
-5J-
fig. 3.5-1 2
The value of n has been shown in ref. 51 to be in
pr act i ce about 1 .1 , as against the value of 1 . 4
for adiabatic compr essi on. It has been shown
in ref. 51 , however that the r esul t s of landing
impact calculations ar e i nsensi t i ve to vari at i ons
of n. The dependency of F from g , as given
by eq, 3, 5- 37, i s sketched in fig. 3. 5- 1 2. For
a given shock absor ber this exponential ex-
pr essi on for the pneumatic force can be approx-
imated quite accurat el y by the following power
s er i es of r
A +
o ^ ?
+ A,
f
+ A,
t
+ A,
t 3.5-38
Finally t her e i s the f r i c t i o n f o r c e F^, which ori gi nat es from the
friction between piston and cyl i nder.
According to ref. 51 the friction is dry friction. Thus the friction force
i s proport i onal to the nor mal force and independent of the magnitude of
the contact surface and, in fi rst approximation, also independent from r
The friction force i s given by
-flM^'h^H N I
3.5-39
in which M-b and ^l^^ ar e friction coefficients
of l ower and upper beari ng. The normal forces
F. and F acting on the beari ngs ar e dependent
on ^ , however. The rel at i ons ar e given by
F . h
n Fl{?+^)
fig. 3.5-1 3 F2( g+q) = F ^ ( h - 5 - q )
in which q is the di st ance between upper and l ower beari ngs in the fully
extended position.
Upon substitution of eq. 3, 5-40 in eq. 3. 5-39 the resul t i ng expressi on
3.5-40
for Fp becomes
= i _
t^b,
J\ + Ui - h-S-q
5+q + ^b, - ^
3.5-41
or, when l-l'b = ^''b as occur s in many cas es ,
F
t\ "11^
2h
- i h^b 3 . 5 - 4 2
Hence the resul t i ng equation defining the deflection * of the shock absor ber
i s given by
-F = N
s
3.5-43
-54-
In eq. 3.4-24 the rel at i ons between F , F , F and K , Kw ,
s' n^' n2 w^' w^-
K.^y ar e given. The expressi on for F i s then given by
2 " 2V/2
3, 5-44
By substitution of eq, 3, 5- 2 in eq, 3. 4-24,using the rel at i on 3, 4-4,and of
eq, 3.5-3 in the resul t i ng expressi on, the following expressi on for
I F I = I F , F F is obtained
L J L s n^ ngj
{.| -{.,][4K.].[.j.[f,]{.].([''.44.,].{,])g
-2e[w,]{^]-i[''w](^]]
3,5-45
This can be written as
in which thus [r,]-*[%] [M[' <.} -' ^w[' ' T,]{il,j]
{fl]-[*,]""w|R.,j*[F',]{<l}j
Substituting 3, 5-46 in 3. 5-43 finally gives
-Fs,f-^Fs^^2[FsJ[^]^[FsJ{^}?+N||?+Ao+A,^A2f4A3f+A,?i
3,5-46
4( M- ' ) * ' ' ' ( ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "^* 4' "JW H SJW 5 )
\t\'t
3.5-47
or
However as long asF^ ^^A^t hen 5 = 0 .
0 ^ - o
- 5 5 -
GENERALISED AERODYNAMIC FORCES.
It has been assumed that j ust before touchdown t her e is a static equi l i bri um
between the total weight and the aerodynami c forces acting on the ai r cr af t .
However, due to the ai r cr af t motio.n subsequent to the landing i mpact , there
ar e additional aerodynami c forces generat ed. It i s the work done by t hese
forces which define the general i sed aerodynami c forces due to landing
i mpact . In the same way as i s done for the landing gear forces in eq. 3. 4-2
the work done by the aerodynami c forces i s defined by
dX^, . do
3.6-1
in which K, ^ is the vect or of aerodynami c forces acting on small a r e a s
N
dO of the lifting sur f aces, X^, the di spl acement vect or of the r ef er ence
points of t hese smal l a r e a s . The general i sed forces Q, ar e then defined
by
"* dq
dX
A
dq
N. .do 3, 6- 2
Besi des the aerodynami c forces acting on smal l ar eas dO t here a r e also
pure couples rel at ed to non- ci r cul at or y aerodjmamic i nert i a effects which
can be neglected as can all aerodynjiaiic i nert i a effects. According to
eq. 3. 2-25 t here can be written
A)<L^R.
dq ^'
and, hence , , T. . .- - 3.6-3
L"-j-yo^-JN"
The aerodynami c forces ar e always defined with r espect to an ai rcraft axis
syst em and t herefore the rel at i on given by eq. 3.2-7 has to be used ;
K. . T R . 3 . 6 - 4
Ther e ar e aerodynami c forces acting on wing, horizontal-and ver t i cal -
st abi l i ser as well as on the fuselage.
These forces ar e due to changes in ci rcul at i on around lifting surfaces as
well as due to drag forces D. The l at t er ar e par al l el to the local flow
di rect i on ; the former, the lift forces L, perpendi cul ar to it. Then e. g.
for wing and hori zont al st abi l i ser t her e can be written
L
K
K
A . , "
L^s,si nca-a.)-D^s,cos{ a-a,)
A . y - O
3. 6- 5
^A.--i-w.st=ta-ci.)-D^_s,sin(a-a.)
fig. 3. 6-1
where the subscr i pt s W, St refer to wing and
( hori zont al ) st abi l i ser , r es p. The index o
r ef er s t o the zero lift line, which will be
different for wing, fuselage and hori zont al
st abi l i ser . For the ver t i cal st abi l i ser can
be wr i t t en:
-56-
^Ae, - Ly Sl ^ p- Dv cos 3
KAey. - Lv^s3- DvSi n( 3 3, 6- 6
i<A.,-o
where [3 i s the l ocal slip angle, the angle of
incidence of the ver t i cal st abi l i ser , and the
subscri pt V r ef er s to ver t i cal st abi l i ser ,
The fuselage i s in pri nci pl e subjected to an
angle of incidence a. as well as to side
slip angle R and t hus :
Av "
Lpv sin(a-a^)-DpyCos(a-a)-i- Lpsi n 3- 0^ ^ 0023
- Lp^cosp- DpHSi n 3
3, 6- 7
K^e^ __LpvCOs(a-a)-DpvSi n(CUaJ
where subscr i pt s FH and FV r ef er to fuselage hori zont al and fuselage
ver t i cal .
The aerodynami c forces and moment s depend in a ver y complicated manner
on the ai r cr af t motions due to the landing i mpact . Thi s is due to the fact
that t hese changes in aerodynami c r eact i ons, ar e subject to "aerodynami c
l ag", which means that it t akes t i me before the aerodynami c forces r each
the val ues correspondi ng to st at i onary flow. It is the subject of unsteady
aer odynami cs to cal cul at e t ht nat ure of the aerodynami c lag, which
ori gi nat es from count eract i ng vort i ces developed in the wake as a react i on
to changes in ci rcul at i on along the wing. In the pr esent case the probl em
i s r es t r i ct ed to i ncompr essi bl e flow because landing speeds, though st i l l
becoming hi gher with every new generat i on of ai rcraft design, ar e of such
a magnitude that all compressi bi l i t y effects can safely be negl ect ed. The
probl em can even mor e be r est r i ct ed to that of finding the so- cal l ed
"indicial functions", which ar e t i me hi st or i es of aerodynami c forces due
to st epwi se changes in the boundary conditions.
Changes in the boundary conditions of the flow around chordwi se rigid
lifting sur f aces may be t ransl at i on, or rot at i on about a pitching a xi s .
But when chordwise deformat i ons ar e possi bl e, indicial functions due to
pr escr i bed chordwi se deformations of the lifting surface can al so be
cal cul at ed, A survey of indicial aerodynaj ni cs can be found in ref, 79.
The aerodynami c force K^j (t) due to the ar bi t r ar y motion (X (t) can
then be expr essed in the indicial function F (t) by means of the Duhamel
i nt egral , yielding
KA. ( t )
- fF{i-T).da
Jo dr
dr
3, 6- 8
in which T is a dummy var i abl e,
By di mensi onal anal ysi s it can be shown however that the t r ue independent
vari abl e in these probl ems is not t but S = . , the di st ance t ravel l ed
expr essed in number of half chor ds. Some published r esul t s of indicial
.2
functions of lift on rigid finite span wings due to the st epwi se vari at i ons
in angle of incidence ar e given in fig, 3, 6- 3.
It will be seen that smal l differences in plan form ar e not very i mport ant ,
Fi ni t e span effects tend to reduce the influence of unsteady flow effects,
Thei e i s, however, st i l l another reason
which r educes the i mport ance of unsteady
flow effects for landing impact pr obl ems.
Therefore it has to be kept in mind that
during a heavy landing impact, which l ast s
at the most 0. 05 to 0, 10 sec, the change
in s is only,
S = M _ ^ 50x0.1 ^i _67
F(S)
F(c/0)
Rect angul ar
El l i pt i c
Fig, 3, 6- 3
assumi ng \^
50 m/ s e c and C/, a^3 m,
I 1 It will be cl ear from fig. 3. 6-3 that during
I 5 1 0 ^ ^
such a smal l vari at i on in s the influence
of the unsteady effects can be taken into account by assumi ng the i ncrement al
aerodynami c forces due to landing impact to be proport i onal to the steady aer o-
dynamic forces correspondi ng to the moment ary values of the boundary condi-
tions of the lifting surface, the proport i onal i t y factor being about 1 for
smal l aspect rat i o st rai ght - and drUa wings and about 0. 6 for sl ender st rai ght
wings.
The i ncr ement al steady local aerodynami c lift forces can, according to
aerodynami c t heory, be expr essed in the local i ncr ement al angles of
incidence ACt by means of the following l i near mat r i x rel at i on
[ LJ-[ A] : [ Aa]
in which A is the mat ri x of aerodynami c influence coefficients which can
be calculated by ei t her lifting surface -, or by lifting - line aerodynamic
t heor y- , See e, g. ref, 80. When the approximation is even more crude
and st r i p theory is assumed to be applicable, [ AI t akes the form of a
diagonal mat r i x of which the el ement s ar e the i nver se val ues of the local
lift curve sl opes.
For i ncr ement al drag forces due to ai rcraft mot i on,as a resul t of the
landing impact,no appropri at e theory is vailable.but according to exper i -
ment al evidence it can be assumed as a first appi-oximation that also
t hese quant i t i es ar e l i nearl y dependent on local i ncr ement al angles of
incidence A CX . Hence
["J-W'H
3, 6-1 0
The substitution of eqs, 3. 6-9 and 3. 6-1 0 in eqs. 3. 6- 5, 3. 6-6 and
3. 6- 7 and l i neari si ng, gives
-58-
H-pa]-[Aa]-pp]-[Ap]
3.6-1 1
The local i ncr ement al angles of incidence ACl and A 3 have now to be
expr essed in the general i sed coordi nat es q . Because ACt andA P
ar e due to both rotation and to t r ansl at i onal vel oci t i es of the ar ea con-
cerned, the following can be wri t t en
in which Rj,
Aa ] .
Ap] -
and
C' ^ l
^'^^J
R ^- .
jq]-!.
[qj-i-
me
' " ^
N
jq
[\
1
an that the
3.6-1 2
defined by the second and third row r es p. of the mat r i x I R^l defined
by eq. 3. 2-29, In the same way the i rows of the nnatrices |RTI1 and
Rf , correspondi ng to the i points at which the ACt and A 3 have to
be calculated, are defined by the 3rd, and 2nd row r es p, of the t r a ns -
formation mat r i ces [RTJ given by eq. 3, 2- 25,
Substitution of eq. 3. 6-1 2 in eq. 3. 6-1 1 gives
{'" l ' rr' y] i t [ * rNi ^R
3, 6-1 3
Hence K.o ^^ l i nearl y dependent on q. Li neari sat i on of eq. 3. 6-4, t her e-
fore, r esul t s in
Eq. 3. 6-3 can be also written as
3, 6- 1 4
| Q A . j - [ R T, j K^.^.doJJRT^j K,.^.dO iR,^JK,.^.dO 3_g.^3
When this i nt egral expressi on i s written in mat ri x notation as follows
M'HMIH
f
w
w
M
3, 6- 1 6
- I L. Jl
and when eq. 3. 6-1 3 is substituted in eq. 3. 6-1 6, the final resul t is
J L J L J L .1
- kj l w Dp
- RT, W Ap
- RT, wl [ A
'WW-
'Mli""
'MW~
'[f'^ylW-
' f' T.j^wjj^Do]'
RTJ W Dp
Rty W Ap
r 1 FT 1 r T'
RT, W A
RT^llq!
RTylq!
RT.][q
RTJ q'
3.6-1 7

- 59-
which can be wri t t en as
H'HW'HW 3.6-18
Hence, the general i sed aerodynami c forcesidue to the landing impact can
be split into a gener al i sed vi scous damping mat r i x [Dl and a cont r i bu-
tion [|sl to the general i sed stiffness mat ri x f cl
3,7. THE SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
In the foregoing par agr aphs the equations, descri bi ng the physical pl i e-
nomenon of a landing impact, have been deri ved. The equations act ual l y
used for the cal cul at i ons ar e the l i neari sed ones,
They ar e summar i sed in the following :
Equations of motion
General i sed forces
l^.]*[c][,,].{,,J.(,.J
-L'<-J(N -5N )4N -p5]
Impact t i me of right hand l andi nggear i s det ermi ned by
t
AZw (t) - . _2y si n^ cosG-
Axis t ransformat i on for landing gear forces and moment s
3,3-1 8
3,4-1 7
3 . 4 - 2 0
3, 4- 4
3, 5- 2
Equations of motion of unsprung mas s
{ w.j -j .]--" .(><,!
t"-.H"-]-Hl'^l-ll-.]N
Rel at i ons between gener al i sed coordi nat es q and wheel axle di spl acement
3 , 5 - 3
The ground to t i r e forces a r e det ermi ned by
K^ -,; _(?,((?_ (J^) in which CJ^Tw
7 - . ^ i , K, ( R- (D/J
Jo
X - 1 - V( R- . tr/3)
^ 0 , -^ *w^
LL _ | 1 A . ( i X r - X )
^ ^ man \Z
^ ' x - ^ ^ X ^ < A- A^ ) C, ]
when X < Xp.
3.5-4
3.5-1 5
3.5-1 6
3.5-8
3.5-1 2
3,5-1 4
when A> Xf
- 60-
^x- t i x K, 3. 5-5
4 ) = ^Oy+ ^0
VO,+ * W, - V ( R - 1 ^ )
i i y_ ^y^O,075(l-^(fl07S4))) ^' when 4)< 20
when 4 > 20 PLy-tiy
' 7 mox
K = t i , K,
^ y =- f - y Zo
For the cor ner i ng moment M, the following rel at i on is valid
o
M2 = -lAy . Kz . 1 . ( 0. 8^ ) when C< 0,1
.(C-C-0.01 ) when 0,1< C < 0,55
.(0,29-0,1 ^) when ^ > 0 , 5 5
in which L, is defined by
3. 5- 25
3.5-1 9
3.5-26
^ -
^^N
K.
^ 3.5-22
and
N= C,(r_C2 CJ"
( C. en C ar e constants) 3, 5- 24
An al t ernat i ve way of cal cul at i ng |J,y is :
M.^-H (CL C ) when C < 1,5
^ y - t i y
' / mo x
when t> ^ 1^
The final par amet er to be det ermi ned i s the shock absor ber defl ect i on^.
Thi s quantity is defined by the non - l i near second or der differential
equation
3, 5-21
3 , 5 - 4 7
which Fg J F^ and Fg I as well as F^, ,Fp andlFp l . ar e functions of q
i n
However
l~ 0 v\hen-Fs|j.< Ao
Thi s syst em of second or der differential equations descri bi ng the r esponse
of the el ast i c st r uct ur e, t oget her with the non-l i near equations, descri bi ng
the behaviour of the shock abs or ber s , cannot be solved analytically due to
the non-l i near char act er of the l at t er equation,
A numer i cal method has to be applied for which sever al methods ar e avai -
l abl e. A survey of t hese methods i s given e. g. in ref. 81 . They can be
classified as follows :
- 6 1 -
a) f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e m e t h o d s . These methods ar e more suitable
for desk cal cul at or s because a consi derabl e number of resul t s has to
be st ored and because fairly l ar ge i nt erval s can be used.
b) s t e p - b y - s t e p m e t h o d s . These methods ar e par t i cul ar l y suited
for digital comput ers because no separ at e st art i ng pr ogr am is needed,
only the r esul t s of the l ast st ep ar e needed for obtaining the r esul t s
of the next step, and because in most cases the procedure i s very-
si mpl e and st rai ght forward. Due to the high speed of the modern
digital comput er s, i nt erval length is not of pr i mar y concern,
.Simple methods requi ri ng smal l er i nt erval length compete t herefore
with more sophisticated methods allowing l ar ger i nt erval length for
a given accuracy. An example of the l ast cat egory is the Runge-Kutta
method of which vari ous vari ant s exist. Er r o r s ar e of the or der of
the fifth power of the i nt erval length. Si mpl er methods ar e those in
which the unknown function i s approximated in the i nt erval A t by a
t runcat ed Tayl or s er i es to which, if desi r ed, al so an i t erat i ve pr o-
cedure for i ncreased accuracy rnay be added.
Which of the methods i s chosen depends to a l ar ge extent on the experi ence
and preference of the comput er pr ogr ammer , as well as on the nat ure of
the expr essi ons for the genei' alized forces occuri ng in the equations of
motion.
For the present investigation an i t erat i ve st ep- by- st ep method is followed
in which the dependent var i abl es ar t approximated by a Tayl or s er i es in
which the t er ms up to the third power of the i nt erval length ar e ret ai ned
and higher or der t er ms ar e negl ect ed. This i s equivalent to the asumption
that along the i nt erval the t hi rd deri vat i ve of the dependant vari abl es is assumed
to be constant.
For, when q (t-i-A t) _ q (t)
q ( t - hAt ) = q( t). A t-i-q( t)
then
q (t-fAt)-' /2q(t).At^-q(t).At-^q(t) 3 .;._i
q (t-HAt)= V6q( t),A t\%q( t)A tlq( t).A t-fq( t)
which is equivalent to a four t er m Taylor s er i es expansion fur q( t f At )
Since the equations of motion can be written as
q - f ( q , q ) 3. 7- 2
a value of q (t+ A t) is also found by substituting the expressi ons for
q ( t t A t ) .-^n.i q ( t-t-A t)
in eq. 3.7-2 and tiius the ihird derivative of q i s determinod by
q( t ) =q( t + At ) . q ( t +At ) - q ( t )
At ^' ' - 3
Substitution of eq. 3. 7- 3 into eq, 3, 7- 1 then gives yields
- 6 2 -
q(t-i-At)=. V^q (tJ.At-hViqCt-i-AtJ.At+qlt)
q(t+At)->6C} (t-HAt).At^+y3q (t).At^+q(t).At-^q{t)
The i t erat i ve procedure i s now such that by substituting 3. 7-4 into 3. 7-2
a bet t er approximation of q{t-|-At) i s found.
Substitution of this value into 3. 7- 4 gives still bet t er approxi mat i ons
of q( t f At) and q( t +At ) , and so on. The i t erat i ve procedure i s
st art ed by assumi ng q (t-i-At) =0 .
Then ci(t-l-At) = q( t ) and a fi rst est i mat i on for q(t-i-At) and
q(t-l-At) can be found from 3. 7- 4. Upon substitution of these values
into 3.7-2 a fi rst bet t er approximation for q(t-l-At) is obtained. The
i t erat i ve procedure stops when two values of q(t-hAt) for two s ucces s -
ive i t erat i on steps differ by l ess than a predet ermi ned value E
The equation of motion 3. 7-2 i s in fact given by eq. 3. 3-1 1
{'J-H["]>]-H["]>hMli.
which is mor e general by including a damping t er m D] q[
The complication of the calculation procedure ar i s es from the gener a-
lized forces Q. In or der to be able to cal cul at e Q the additional non-
l i near shock absor ber equations 3. 5-47 have to be solved for the shock
absor ber di spl acement s ^
These var i abl es ar e t reat ed in the same way as the general i zed coor-
dinates q. Hence the following approxi mat i ons for g , equivalent to
eq. 3. 7-4 for q, ar e used.
g ( t +At ) =y j | ( t 4- At ) . At - i - y2| ( t ) . At +| ( t )
3, 7- 5
^( t - | . At ) - y6| ( t - f - At ) - At ^ + y3 ^ ( t ) . At ' t | ( t ) . At ^ ^ ( t )
The complete calculation procedure is then as given in scheme 3. 7- 1 ,
present i ng the basic scheme,
When no i t erat i on procedure i s followed the feed back l i nes of q ,
E and ? in the scheme have to be omitted. But then such a
scheme works only when the expr essi ons for the general i zed forces do
not contain second deri vat i ves of q, P and ?
How the general i zed forces Q and Q ar e calculated depends on
the schemat i zat i on used for t yre forces and shock absor ber forces, as
well as on the way in which the unsprung mass is t reat ed. The cal cul a-
tion procedure for Q and q as derived in chapt er 3. 5 is depicted
in scheme 3, 7-2,
- 63-
q_,7,qj<e j q(t-(-2At)
scheme 3, 7-1
Xyy Xyy X ^
^Pw *Pw ^Pw
Kz =f(7v^)
a
e g , 3. S- t
I
V ( t + A t ) t i , k (R-ZJA
e q. 3-5-1 s
I
^' ( t +At ) =V( t ) f Y ( t t At ) At
I Y (t-t-At)"
e q. 3-5-8
i X(t -t-ATT
e q 3_5_i2
_u
H E
Nj .=C,z^_C,zJ,
e q . 3.5-24
4'-bgtg^;^^^^i^=^ ,
Vo,^-)<^-Y (R-?y3)
r. IiM-y eq.3.5-25|l eq 3.5.22
I l
I
M-y e q.3.5-71
1
f^Z ' o ^a
o I e q. 3.5-5
~ r t t ^
K y eq.3.5-19
C
M^ eq.3.5_26
E: __n
Kwe e q . 3 5-1 Mwc
e q . 3 . 4 . t
^w,
M,
e q. 3 4_4
scheme 3, 7-2
- o4 -
More simplifications ar e possi bl e when e. g, M_ is neglected, or
when the unsprung mas s is assumed to be zero as is often done, A mor e
i mport ant simplification consi st s in assumi ng |J.j. = constant.
Then Ky can be calculated i mmedi at el y, but the spi n-up time tg has
o
to be calculated by means of eq. 3, 5- 1 7, When myy, the unsprung mass
is assumed to be zero, no second deri vat i ves for f and q ar e needed
and t herefore it is then possi bl e to omit the i t erat i ve procedure and to
cal cul at e i mmedi at el y q and to solve di rect l y ? from that eq, 3.5-47
which r esul t s when p and p =0 ar e substituted.
Therefore accordi ng to the schemat i zat i on used, many vari ant s of the
same basi c pri nci pl e, i . e. a numer i cal st ep- by- st ep method, can be
adapted for the solution of the equations of motion of the landing impact
probl em.
CALCULATION OF LOADS
The solution of the equations desci' ibing the landing impact phenomenon,as given
in the precedi ng chapt er s, yields st i l l only the t r ansi ent di spl acement s and the
time deri vat i ves of the general i sed coordi nat es, t oget her with the shock absor ber
deflections.
However, the purposeof this investigation is not to calculate only t ransi ent m o t i o n s ,
but al so t ransi ent l o a d s at vari ous points of the dynami cal syst em under consi der -
ation, So t her e r emai ns to be descri bed how t ransi ent loads can be calculated from
a knowledge of the t r ansi ent r esponses and t hei r t i me der i vat i ves.
In this investigation st at i c st r uct ur al deformat i ons, the loads due to gravity forces and
st at i c aerodynami c forces, ar e separ at ed from the dynamic deformat i ons due to
the i ner t i a forces, landing i mpact forces and aerodynami c r esponse f or ces.
The solution of the equations of motion yields this dynamic r esponse. Therefore,
for cal cul at i ng t o t a l l o a d s , the s t a t i c l o a d s have al so to be taken into
account. However, the st at i c loads can be det ermi ned in a st rai ght forward and
conventional manner and t herefore they will not be dealt with specifically in the
present chapt er.
For the det ermi nat i on of the d y n a m i c l o a d s , four met hods can be mentioned
which will de descri bed briefly. These methods ar e :
1) the load summat i on method
2) the mode accel erat i on method
3) the mode di spl acement method
4) the influence coefficient method.
1) Accepting the schemat i zat i on of the act ual physi cal syst em as obtained
by reduction of the number of degr ees of freedom, it is possi bl e to
cal cul at e "t r ue" loads in that schemat i zed syst em by moans of the
"load summat i on met hod". In this method the loads at a cert ai n point
due to i nert i a forces, aerodynami c forces and landing gear forces
ar e calculated separat el y and subsequently added.
-65-
As explained in para 3. 6 the aerodynamic forces are taken into account
as quasi-steady forces. This means that these forces are approximated
as a summation of stiffness forces proportional to displacements of the
generalised coordinates and of damping forces proportional to velocities
of the generalised coordinates. Thus the load summation method may be
expressed symbolically as
L( 5c. y. 7 . t ) =5 l.q.+ X A. . , q. ^i ^A. . q. . ^L^( t ) 3 . ^
where
L ( X. y. z. t) - total load at a certain point ( x, y, z ), at a certain time t.
L may be a shear force, a bending moment, a torsional
moment, etc.
Ij = load at a point ( x, y, z ) due to a unit acceleration of the
i'th generalised coordinate q, (t)
A = load at a point (x, y, z ) due to aerodynamic stiffness for a
''i
unit displacement of the i' s generalised coordinate q- (t)
A-fj = load at a point (x, y, z ) due to aerodynamic damping for a
unit velocity of the i's generalised coordinate qj (t )
LQ ( t) = load at a point ( x, y, z ) due to the forces and moments
acting at the landing gears at the time (t)
2) The mode a c c e l e r a t i o n met hod as developed by D. Williams was
first published in 1945 in ref. 16, while a clear explication of the method
can also be found in ref. 80 and in particular in ref, 82.
With this method of calculating structural loads the total load is split up
into two parts, viz,
the load due to the deforr.aation of the elastic structure
the load due to ail other loads ( therefore including the inertia loads
due to the rigid body accelerations )
It will be clear that the ratio of the total load to the second part of the load
is what is the commonly called the dynamic overstress factor.
When the generalised coordinates are representing amplitudes of normal
modes and when the external loads would be independent of the motion of
the physical system, this method can be applied straightforwardly and
leads to accurate results even in the case that the continuous elastic struc-
ture is represented by only a few elastic normal modes,
In that case the equations of motion can be written as
M.q ^C.q-Q
in which the matrices M and C are diagonal matrices.
The d i s p l a c e me n t of the i's vi b r a t o r y mode can then be written as
qj = i ^-IL q. ( i > k when k is number of rigid body
Cjj Cii ' modes)
6 6 -
or q = q _ q, 3. 8-2
when q ^ = -QL and V,^=. ^
Since the pri nci pal of superposi t i on appl i es, the l o a d s due to st r uct ur al
deformation can be wri t t en as
_ . ^
L{ x , y , z , t ) = Z L, q. 3. 8-3
where Lj i s the load at the t i me t at the place ( x, y, z ) due to a unit di s-
pl acement in the i th nor mal mode.
Substituting eq. 3. 8-2 in eq. 3. 8-3 yields
L ( x, y, z, t ) = Z L, q, _ S: L. _L q.
' Gk I ^ Ut i=k I w2 ^1 3. 8 - 4
i
Thus the total dynamic load, including loads due to the pr escr i bed ext ernal
loads and the i nert i a loads of the rigid body modes, can be written as
L ( x. y, z.t ) - L (t )+ X L. q.+ ;: L. q _ Z L. q.
t ot al !: i-l I ^' ^ l -k l ^ s t i= k I wZ ^l
i
When for the third t er m the summat i on is made over all the infinite nor mal
modes of the continuous st r uct ur e, t he first t hr ee t er ms together r epr esent
the load which is calculated when the st r uct ur e is assumed to rigid. Thus
t her e can be written
L = L _ 2 L . - L q . QQ, r
t ot al fiqid i=ik ' \l.2 ' -^ " " 5
Because tlie additional load due to st r uct ur al deformations i s, in this
approxi mat i on, proport i onal to the a c c e l e r a t i o n s "of the el ast i c nor mal
modes, this method is called the "mode accel er at i ons method".
The Lj^'s ar e defined as the loads due to a unit deformation of the st r uct ur e
in the i' th mode. Therefore they can be expressed in the i nert i a load di s-
tribution in the i' th nor mal mode, as it is this i nert i a force di st ri but i on
which forces the st r uct ur e to vi brat e in the i' th nornaal mode,
Ther ef or e the Lj^'s can be calculated di rect l y from the mass di st ri but i on
in the st r uct ur e, and the shapes of the nor mal modes,
Expr essi on 3. 8- 2, and consequently also eq. 3. 8- 5 become more compl i -
cated when the ext ernal loads depend on the motion of the st r uct ur e.
When such loads ar e indicated by Q2 ( q , fj, q) eq. 3, 8-2 becomes
q, = A , . ^ _ ^ q ,
"-l i l - i i L i j
SO that eq. 3. 8-5 can be wri t t en as
L = L . . + r L. /.Qi _ - L q.\ 3 8-7
t ot al r i g i d * i - k I \ T- V2 " ' / J . '
'-il ' i
Thi s complication of the pr esence of Q2 can be avoided liowever by
wri t i ng eq. 3. 8-6 as
q Qj - Q2 Mil g.
" - I I ^ 1 1 " - I I
and by substituting this expressi on into eq. 3. 8-7 which then becomes
L = L . . + i L f q _ -Qj_1 Q Q n
totol r i gi d* jt; ^ | P i f~ j 3, 8- 8
- 6 7 -
Thi s expressi on i s much si mpl er because Q2 niay be a very complicated
function of all the general i sed coordi nat es and its t i me deri vat i ves,
Therefore eq. 3. 8-8 is much easi er to cal cul at e.
Another complication for applying the mode accel erat i on method seems tc
ar i s e in the case that the general i sed coordi nat es a r e not r epr esent i ng
nor mal modes but assumed modes. Then the M mat r i x is no longei' a
diagonal mat r i x and, as long as el ast i c couplings a r e absent, eq, 3.8-6
compl i cat es to the form
q - A 4. J i _ ^"i" ^'! q.
' C c - C,i 3, a- 9
"-II > - i i * - i i
Upon substitution of eq, 3.8-9 into eq. 3. 8- 3 the expressi on for the load
Ltotal becomes
total rigid* m I 1 ^ . ^
However r e- ar r angi ng en.. 3. 8-9 in the form
1 0
- Q L - W\^l ^ q . - Q j
C C C-
^11 *-ll "-II
' I
and substituting this into eq. 3.8-1 0 again gives eq. 3.8-8 so that the use
of assumed modes does not lead to a mor e compl i cat ed application of the
mode accel erat i on method for calculating l oads.
Compari ng the load summation and the mode accel erat i on method it will
be cl ear that Lj,jjjj i s taken into account in the same way. The difference
between the two methods st ems firstly from the way in which the ext ernal
forces due to motion ar e taken into account. In the force summat i on method
this i s done in an "exact " way while in the mode acceLjration method this
is done by a summat i on over a r est r i ct ed number of normal modes. See
eq, 3. 8- 8.
In the case of nor mal modes this is the only diffei-ence. However when the
probl em is formulated with the use of assumed modes there i s al so a
difference in the calculation of i nert i a loads due to vi brat ory motion. In
the mode accel erat i on method this contribution to t he total load i s,
accordi ng to eq. 3. 8-1 0, given by
n
_ r L. I ^<i % = J idii_ L. I -Mil q
1=1 r i-k r-
r
-lq.=-.^ i Ll q . ^ ^ q.]
' Mil ^> '"Xy^ r i;', Ml, ^M
while in the load summat i on method this contribution can be t'-xprossed as
j - k I ^1 | =K '' y 2
The difference i s thus due to the inertia coupling t er ms in the equations of
motion.
It can be concluded that the "mode accel erat i on" method is a relatively
si mpl e meihod for calculating dynamic loads which i s only slightly l ess
accur at e than the "load summation method", because the contributions to
the total load of a number of the higher nor mal modes are neglected,
These cont ri but i ons ar e smal l however. This is only true, however, when
- 6 8 -
t he phys i c a l s c h e ma t i s a t i o n i s s uc h t hat t he g e n e r a l i s e d st i f f ness ma t r i x
i s a di agonal ma t r i x ,
3) The " m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d " has been devel oped by Biot and
Bi spl i nghof f in 1 943 ( ref. 25) . Th i s met hod c o n s i s t s s i mpl y of a s u mma -
t i on of l oa ds due t o uni t d i s p l a c e me n t s in t he va r i o u s g e n e r a l i s e d c o o r d i -
n a t e s .
Thi s pr i nc i pl e of s upe r pos i t i on i s e x p r e s s e d a l r e a d y by eq. 3 . 8 - 3 .
L = . L. q.
t o t a l | = k I ^1
in whi ch Lj i s t he l oad at t i me t at t he pl a c e ( x, y, z ) due to a uni t di s pl a -
c e me n t in t he i t h mo d e . Hence t h e s e qua nt i t i e s can be e x p r e s s e d d i r e c t l y
in t he i ne r t i a l oad di s t r i but i ons in t he i t h mode , a s l ong a s t he a s s u me d
mo d e s a r e n o r ma l mo d e s or b r a n c h mo d e s , s i nc e t he s e i ne r t i a l oad d i s t r i -
but i ons f or ce t he s t r u c t u r e t o d e f o r m in t he i t h mo d e . The di f f er ence wi t h
t he mode a c c e l e r a t i o n met hod i s c l e a r l y d e mo n s t r a t e d by s pl i t t i ng q^ a s
' l j ~ ' l i st ot i c"' " ' l i v i br
so that eq. 3. 8-3 can be wr i t t en as
" n
t o t a l = i =t < i ' 1 s t a t i c + j t k ' " ^i v i br 3 . 8 - 1 1
The s econd t e r m of eq, 3, 8-1 1 i s c ommon t o bot h me t hods ,
Howe ve r , t he f i r st t e r m i s s u mme d up t o n = c-^ in t he mode a c c e l e r a t i o n
met hod whi ch i s equi val ent t o t he a s s u mp t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l r i gi di t y ma d e
f or t hat p a r t of t he t ot al l oad in t he mode a c c e l e r a t i o n met hod,
As in p r a c t i c e n i s us ua l l y r a t h e r s ma l l t he mode di s pl a c e me nt met hod
wi l l be l e s s a c c u r a t e t han t he mode a c c e l e r a t i o n met hod, wh e r e a s t he
c a l c ul a t i on p r o c e d u r e f or t he mode d i s p l a c e me n t met hod i s s i mp l e r . Thi s
i s c l e a r l y i l l us t r a t e d by s o me e x a mp l e s gi ven in ref. 82.
4) The ' ' i n f l u e n c e c o e f f i c i e n t m e t h o d ' ' can be us ed when t he e l a s t i c
p r o p e r t i e s of t he phys i c a l s t r u c t u r e a r e def i ned by an i nf l uence coef f i ci ent
ma t r i x and when t he e qua t i ons of mot i on a r e f or mul a t e d wi t h t he d i s p l a c e -
me n t s of a n u mb e r of s t a t i ons of t he s t r u c t u r e a s g e n e r a l i s e d c o o r d i n a t e s .
Then t he r e l a t i on
1 - 1 (
- W
F - X or F
3 . 8 - 1 2
i s val i d, in wtiich
\xl i s a known d i s p l a c e me n t ve c t o r
i c j i s t he f l exi bi l i t y i nf l uence coef f i ci ent ma t r i x r e l a t e d to t he X ve c t or
[ F ] i s t he f or ce ve c t or r e q u i r e d t o hol d t he s t r uct ui - e in t he gi ven def or -
ma t i on conf i gur at i on def i ned by t he d i s p l a c e me n t ve c t o r X.
F r o m t he F ve c t or t he l oa ds at va r i ous poi nt s of t he s t r u c t u r e can be cal -
cul at ed s t r a i ght f or wa r dl y.
Howe ve r qui t e often t he n u mb e r of g e n e r a l i s e d c oor di na t e s i s r e duc e d by
e x p r e s s i n g tlie di s pl a c e me nt Xj in a s ma l l e r n u mb e r of n o r ma l mo d e s .
- 69-
Hence
In pri nci pl e t her e ai-e as many iiorinal modes as t here ar e defined di s-
pl acement s X^ but in pr act i ce n i s always much smal l er than the number
of di spl acement s X^. When now eq. 3. 8-1 3 i s substituted in eq. 3. 8-1 2
the accur acy of the r esul t s of eq. 3. 8-1 2 det er i or at es very rapidly with
decr easi ng n. Ther ef or e the applicability of this method i s r est r i ct ed
to t hese pr obl ems which ar e formulated di rect l y with the di spl acement s
as gener al i sed coor di nat es. Thi s means that in pract i ce this method is
l ess suitable because the number of general i sed coordi nat es is becoming
too l ar ge,
For the pr esent investigation the mode summat i on method has been chosen
for the cal cul at i on of the dynamic loads ar i si ng from landing impact.
The influence coefficient method cannot be used because the number of
degr ees of freedom had to be r est r i ct ed to such an extent that the accuracy
of the method would have been completely insufficient.
The mode di spl acement method is also not accui-ate enough when only a
smal l number of el ast i c degr ees of freedom ar e taken into account.
Thi s i s especi al l y t r ue when the ext ernal loads form a l arge contribution
to the total loads and when they ar e concent rat ed in single points.
The mode accel er at i on method f.inally could not be applied because Q^
and Q2 cannot be separat ed in thi; case of landing gear l oads. Thi s i s
due to the fact that the equations descri bi ng the behaviour of the landing
gear ar e non- l i near , as shown in par. 3- 5. Therefore the landing impact
loads due to the descent velocity and due to the react i ons of the ai rcraft
ar e i nsepar abl e.
In conclusion;the load summat i on method has been chosen. This method
i s the most accur at e one but it al so r equi r es the gr eat est effort.
However, work involved i s not a cr i t i cal factor when the cal cul at i ons
ar e performed on a fast modern digital comput er and t herefore this
method is best suited for application to al l kind of dynamic h>a cal cu-
l at i ons.
- 7 0-
4. THE INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR THE LANDING IMPACT PROBLEM
Landing l oads can be calculated by the means of a rat i onal anal ysi s as developed in
chapt er 3, if a number of initial conditions at the moment of touchdown ar e known.
To this end extensive r es ear ch has been car r i ed out, especi al l y by the NASA. The
most recent s ummar i es of resul t s obtained in this field ar e r ef s. 68, 73 and 74. Thi s r e -
s ear ch, which i s of a st at i st i cal nat ure, i s going on continuously. New types of ai r cr af t
usually need new landing techniques. By this the landing behaviour changes and thus the
i ni t i al conditions f.s well. Thus vari ous i ni t i al conditions ar e constantly being observed
as the evolution of the ai rcraft continues. Thi s trend i s shown e. g. by ref. 75 for l arge
super soni c ai rcraft ,
For an ai r cr af t with a given under car r i age geomet ry and position, c. of g, position
and ma s s distribution, which is landing on a runway with a given slope with a given t rue
ai rspeed without initial accel er at i ons, the landing impact is det ermi ned by the initial
at t i t ude, earth velocity-and angular velocity vect or of the ai r cr af t . Thus the following
initial conditions have to be specified,
. ver t i cal velocity
. l at er al velocity
, hori zont al forward velocity
r ol l angle
pitch angle
. yaw angle
rol l i ng angul ar velocity
. yawing angular velocity
, pitching angular velocity
Though not st r i ct l y an initial condition al so the value of the t i r e friction coefficient
is r equi r ed. In t hi s chapt er the numer i cal val ues of the vari ous initial conditions and of
the friction coefficient will be dealt with.
The vert i cal velocity at touch down i s the most i mport ant par amet er in the landing
load probl em and t herefore deser ves careful consi derat i on. To get cr i t i cal l oads,
a r at i onal maximum ver t i cal velocity has to be chosen,
Fr om the r es ul t s of ref, 73 a probabi l i t y di st ri but i on of measur ed ver t i cal vel oci t i es
can be derived. See fig, 4- 1 ,
These r esul t s have been obtained for non-gusty, cl ear weat her, daytime conditions at some
large ai rfi el ds in the USA, Also included ar e a somewhat ol der and mor e conservat i ve curve
proposed by Lockheed ( ref, 70 ), and the curve for the l arge supersoni c ai rcraft of ref, 75,
In ref. 74 it i s report ed that the big turbojet t r anspor t s experi ence ver t i cal vel oci t i es
at landing i mpact s about 25 percent hi gher then those experi enced by pistonengined or
t urboprop ai rcraft . Most probably t hi s is not due however to the cl ass of ai rcraft , viz. the
turbojet t ransport ai rcraft , but due to the ai rcraft weight, wing loading, di st ance of the pilot
forward of the landing gear, mean hori zont al touch down speed and the el evat or effective-
ness. As is shown in ref. 73, these a r e the i mport ant par amet er s controlling the probability
of a cer t ai n ver t i cal velocity.
Ther e i s, however, a st rong i nt erdependence between t hese pa r a me t e r s . A l ar ger ,
and thus heavier ai r cr af t nearl y always has a l ar ger di st ance between pilot and c. of g. . ver y
often a higher hori zont al forward speed, and in many cases a s mal l er el evat or effectiveness.
One can ar gue t herefore that ver t i cal descent velocity st at i st i cs ar e pr i mar i l y depen-
dent on ai rcraft weight, with the heavi er ai r cr af t experi enci ng l ar ger descent vel oci t i es,
- 7 1 -
i
>ROBABILITY
OF
EXCEEDING
10
-6
10 H
l o' -
piston \
il and
turboprod \ r f . 7 J \ N
aireraft r \ \ . ^
N.AS.A I " - . A ^ 0 "
raf.73 i \ \ \ \
^ > : : - \ \ \
i ' ' '
2fi
FT.
5 10
Vs
SEC-
For the present investigation, in which a t urbo-
prop ai rcraft i s used as an example, the outer
limit of the band for pi st on- and t urboprop ai r -
' craft will be used.
Deriving limit ver t i cal descent vel oci t i es from
t hese probability cur ves means that limit loads
have to be defined in a probabi l i st i c way,
In this r espect the commonly accept ed definition
of limit loads is : loads occuring not more then
once in a lifetime of t he ai rcraft . For t r anspor t
ai rcraft life general l y i s assumed to be 30 -
H5 40. 000 hour s. The number of landings, however,
i s very much dependent on the cl as s of ai rcraft
consi dered.
fig. 4-1 For short haul ai r cr af t a typical flight is of the
or der of half an hour. For long di st ance ai r -
l i ner s the t ypi cal flight is at l east 3 hour s. However, very often long di st ance ai r cr af t are
downgraded to s hor t er rout es l at er on when a new generation of ai r cr af t appears. This invol-
ves a s hor t er typical flight. It can be st at ed t herefore that the number of landings per ai r cr af t
lifetime can vary from 20. 000 for long di st ance ai rcraft to a maxi mum of 1 00. 000 for typical
short haul ai r cr af t . For the present investigation, dealing with a t ypi cal short haul turboprop
ai rcraft , fig. 4-1 then i ndi cat es a limit descent vflocity of 5 & 5, 5 f t / s ec. This i s a true ai r -
speed ( TAS) , i . e. independent of al t i t ude. Desceni velocity being independent of altitude i s in
agr eement with pilots experi ence and with existing r equi r ement s.
It has to be kept in mind however that t her e a r e some aspect s, not included in most
measur ement s of descent vel oci t i es, which may i ncr ease the t r ue descent vel oci t i es experi en-
ced by the landing gear .
When, for exampl e, the descent velocity i s det ermi ned by means of ground camer as , as
was most l y done, the i ncr ease in ver t i cal i mpact velocity of the landing gear due to an initial
ai rcraft rolling velocity t owards the fi rst impacting wheel, is not included in the measured
val ues. All indication of how ser i ous this effect
can be, i s given by fig. 4-2 derived from ref.
74, indicating that for the l arger ver t i cal vel o-
ci t i es the st at i st i cal difference in impact vel o-
city between both gear s i s rat her smal l indeed.
Extrapolating, however, to smal l probabi l i t i es
of exceedence, an ext ra 0,5 f t / sec. descent ve-
locity should be taken into account for the dif-
ference between measur ed descent and true
descent velocity of the landing gear , ''
The total l i mi t descent velocity correspondi ng
to the outer limit of the band for piston- and
turboprop ai rcraft then bet-oines 5, 5 ^ , 5 =
6,0 f t / soc.
Another aspect which may i ncr ease effective
descent vel oci t i es and i s not included in any
NUH8EB OF LANDINGS 312
ui
I - 2
G 10
o
~j
UI
> iS
3
I -J
^ 5
* o
U) UI
5 > 10
?5
- I
u. >-
o: Ui
Ui . -
B 4
X UI
3 or
z o ,
^
^
V^v
^
\ \
N
t
V
\
\
\
\
\
\
^
1
"WHEEL
L \
\v^2-W H EEL
^ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
V
\
I
\
2 3
Z . F T / SEC-
fig. 4-2
Thi s effect i s not pr esent in the curve for the XB-70 in fig. 4-1 because for that ai r -
craft descent vel oci t i es have been measur ed di rect l y at the landing gear s.
- 7 2-
measur ed descent velocity, is present ed by the possi bi l i t y of touching down at a point of the
runway where locally a positive slope of the runway is pr esent . Then a component V. sin(slope)
has to be added to the landing gear descent velocity.
It can be argued however that this has to be covered by the safety factor in dealing with
loads gr eat er than the maxi mum loads anticipated in nor mal conditions. The probability of the
combination of an ext r eme descent velocity with a subst ant i al local positive slope of the run-
way is negligably smal l . The combination of nor mal descent velocity with such a posi t i ve slope
has a much hi gher probability of occurence but will produce an effective descent velocity smal -
l er than the ul t i mat e descent velocity.
With r egar d to the probability di st ri but i on of fig. 4-1 it should be kept in mind that all
t hese values ar e derived from landings in good vi si bi l i t y. For night landings and landings in
bad visibility somewhat higher descent speeds could be expected. However, ref. 73, pr esent s
some st at i st i cs from which it can be concluded that t her e i s hardl y any st at i st i cal difference
in descent vel oci t i es for day- and night operat i ons.
Also aut omat i c landing pr ocedur es may have a di r ect influence on descent velocity s t at i s -
t i cs si nce with such pr ocedur es somewhat l ar ger values may be expected. Ther e is however
not yet sufficient st at i st i cal information available to prove this st at ement .
It is thought that a limit descent velocity of 6 f t / sec. , as proposed above, is a rat i onal
value for smal l er t urboprop ai rcraft and older piston engined ai rcraft up to a landing weight of
a 50, 000 l bs. For the l ar ger turbojet ai rcraft a l ar ger value of Z must be pr escr i bed, as fol-
lows cl earl y from fig. 4- 1 . It has been reasoned above that t hese l ar ger val ues of Z ar e pr i -
mar i l y due to the heavi er weight of t hese turbojet ai r cr af t . By lack of sufficient st at i st i cal data
a limit descent velocity could be pr escr i bed which var i es l i nearl y with landing weight. The
weight limit for which 6 f t / sec would be valid should include the cl ass of short haul t urboprop
ai rcraft and executive j et s. A limit of W. = 50, 000 lbs then s eems appr opr i at e. An the basi s
of the st at i st i cs for the XB-70 and the pr esent t urboj et s a max. of 1 0 f t / sec should be chosen
for the new generat i on of l ar ge wide body j et s. A landing weight limit of 300. 000 lbs will cover
t hese ai rcraft t ypes.
The following formula then is proposed :
Z = 6 f t / sec. when W. < 50. 000 lbs
o L ^*
W - 50,000
Z = 6+^ X .80 f t / sec. when 50, 000 < W < 300. 000 lbs
50,000 ^
Z = 10 f t / sec. when W, > 300. 000 lbs
o ' L
, St at i st i cal data about the l a t e r a l v e l o c i t y with r espect to the runway at touch down,
V- ar e not avai l abl e. .Some indication of what is allowable is present ed by the magnitude of
thf ci;rtified cr os s wind components at landings for pr esent day ai r cr af t . These values ai-e in
most cases 20 to 30 kt s. At such landings a t i r e yawing angle V is pr esent on which the l at er al
friction coeffi ci ent l y is dependent, as shown in par . 3-5. The initial value of V is usually smal l
but it i ncr eases very rapidly to V val ues of the or der of 7r/2 rad. when spi n-up is completed and
then also the max. values of My ar e reached.
At landings with smal l val ues of WQ and l ar ge values of VQ^ however, even the initial yaw
apgle y/ can r i s e to some 20 and by this /Xy "^'iH he at its maxi mum from the very beginning.
One of the objectives of this investigation is to see which fault is involved by taking/liy
constant at its max. value instead of dependent on V If only a smal l l oss in accuracy i s in-
volved by this simplification then it is possi bl e to pr es cr i be the max. value of/i y and consequent -
ly a specified initial value for the l at er al velocity i s not longer needed.
- 7 3 -
The h o r i z o n t a l f o r w a r d v e l o c i t y at touch down, ent er s the dynamic anal ysi s
in the det ermi nat i on of the friction coefficient /Zjj as shown in fig. 3. 5-5.
VQ i s the t r ue ai r cr af t speed with r espect to the runway, and depends on the landing
speed. The ai rcraft landing speed depends on the equivalent st al l i ng speed, so that VQ depends
for a given landing weight, al so on altitude and t emper at ur e.
Therefore in pri nci pl e a range of horizontal speeds has to be consi dered. According to
FAR-25 this range extends from seal evel conditions at st andard t emp, to max. altitude condi-
tions at st andard t emper at ur e -i- 41 F. This involves a t r ue ai r speed vari at i on of about 25%.
When down wind landings with mor e than 10 kts have to be certified this i ncreased contact
speed should al so be taken into account .
Fr om the st at i st i cal mat er i al of ref. 74 it follows that in general the main landing speed
i s a cert ai n fixed speed i nt erval above the stalling speed. Thi s i nt erval i s somewhat l ar ger
for jet ai rcraft than for piston ai r cr af t but, accordi ng to ref. 73 is near l y the same when ex-
pr essed as a p e r c e n t a g e of the st al l i ng speed. This is due to the higher stalling speeds
of the l ar ge turbojet ai rcraft and to the fact that a higher absolute speed margi n is maintained
at touch down because the pur e jet exhibit a rel at i vel y slow engine r esponse.
( 0- 1
S
z
4
^ "
UI
a.
( r . f . 7 3)
T!ie vari at i on of landing speed ranges, accor -
ding to ref. 73, from 1 to 1 ,6 t i mes the stalling
speed, di st ri but ed as shown by fig. 4- 3. The
mean is 1 .3 V and the variation in landinij
speeds is s mal l er for turbojets than foi' piston
engined ai r cr af t .
The r equi r ement s of FAR-25 specifies a value
of roughly between 1 and 1 ,25 V ( TAS) .
Whether landing impact loads ar e sensi t i ve for
variation in forward speed Vo , so that indeed
the possi bl e range of val ues of VQ has to be
taken into account, is not known. As i s i l l ust r a-
ted by fig. 3. 5-5 the initial value of Mx is r at her
i nsensi t i ve toVoy , when l ar ge VQ val ues ar e
consi der ed. Spin-up t i mes, however, i ncr ease
with i ncreasi ng values of VQ^
As for l ar ge ver t i cal vel oci t i es the spi n-up time is smal l er than the elapsed t i me till
the moment in which the max. ver t i cal t i r e force is reached, a l ar ger spin-up time due to l ar -
ger landing speeds involves a spi n-up coinciding with a l ar ger vert i cal forcr.
Ilow t hese vari ous effects will affect the loads and accel er at i ons experienced in the ai r - -
craft st r uct ur e i s difficult to say. Ther ef or e landing impact caiculation.s will be per-formed
with ^arious values of forward speed VQ ( par . 6. 7 ) so that some information will become
available about the influence of VQ x vari at i on on landing l oads. When the influencf prcu' es to
be so smal l that a single value can be pr escr i bed, a value of 1 ,25 V could be used.
According to fig. 4-3 however, a value of 1 ,3 V. should be mor e in agreement with the experi -
ments I data.
20 (0 60 to
LAN0IN6SPEE0 PERCENT ABOVE STALLING SPEED V5
fig. 4-3
-74-
Fi ni t e values of rolling angular velocity and angle of rol l at touchdown cause asym-
met r i cal landing i mpact s in which one wheel touches down after the ot her. The effects of
both quantities can be t reat ed together because both of them det er mi ne the t i me i nt erval
between the i mpact s of left- and right landing gear, and this t i me i nt erval i s the most
i mport ant par amet er for calculating the loads due to asymmet r i cal landings.
The l oads at a cer t ai n station of the el ast i c st r uct ur e, generat ed by the i mpact on the side
of the first contact,_ can be i ncreased or decr eased by the i mpact on the opposite si de,
depending on the val ue of this time i nt erval . The value of the time i nt erval which will r ai s e
maxi mum loads wi l l differ from station to station and with the type of load ( i. e. bending
moment , torsion moment or shear force ). Therefore it i s i mpossi bl e to define a single
combination of rol l i ng velocity and angle of rol l which i s cr i t i cal with regard to loads in
general . In order to be able to det ermi ne the maxi mum values for all loads at all stations
the t i me interval between both i mpact s has to be introduced as a vari abl e, values of rolling
angul ar velocity and angle of rol l being chosen in such a way that al l rel evant values of the
time i nt erval ar e included in the anal ysi s.
The influence of rol l i ng velocity on the ver t i cal velocity of the wheel i s shown al ready in
fig. 4. 2 and is included in the proposed formula for Z .
Ref. 7 4, summar i si ng al l available r esul t s of measur ed rol l angles and rolling vel oci t i es,
shows that, depending on cross-wi nd and ai rcraft type, the mean rol l angle for a ser i es
of landings vari es from zero to 2, 5 . According to ref. 68 values of about 6 ar e measured
in individuel cases, as shown by the probability distribution of fig. 4-4a.
ROLLING VELOCI TY FOR SMALL AND LARGE AI RPLANES
1-
Rol l ANGLES FOR SMALL AND LARGE AI RPLANES
1
-1
10 A
ROBABILITY
OF 1 0 ^ ^
XCEEDI NG
Ro l l ANGLE
T TOUCH-
)OWN . 1
10
1 - AND2 - ENGI NE
CIVIL AND MI LI TARY
X232 LANDI NGS
t
4 - AND MORE ENGINE
CIVIL AND MILITARY
153 LANDINGS
10
-2
rcf.se.
XB-70
r.f.TS
4-ANO MORE ENGINE \ \ ^
CIVIL AND MILITARY VA
257 LANDINGS ^ \
PROBABI LI TY
OF 1 0 * -
EXCEEDI NG
ROLLING
VELOCI TY AT
TOUCH- - 3
DOWN 10
1 -AND 2- ENGI NE CIVIL
AND MI LI TARY
68E LANDI NGS
10-*-!
XB- 7 0
r f . 75
I ' 1 ' 1 ' 1
0 ( S 12
ROLLING VELOCITY, DEG/ SEC .TOWARD
FIRST WHEEL TO CONTACT
fig. 4-4a fig. 4-4b
The mean rol l i ng velocity for a ser i es of landings i s given as 1 , 5 / s e c at most in
ref. 74. As shown by the probability di st ri but i on of fig. 4-4b val ues of 4 / s e c for l arge
ai rcraft and 10 / s e c for s mal l er one- and two engined ai r cr af t ar e r egi st er ed in individual
cases, the deciding par amet er being the moment of i nert i a about the longitudinal axi s. It
must be borne in mind that the new generat i on of turbojet ai rcraft is not included in the r e -
sul t s depicted in fi gs. 4- 4 with the exception of the l ar ge super soni c bomber XB-70. The
r esul t s with this ai r cr af t ar e fairly well comparabl e with the r esul t s of the older genera-
tion of ai rcraft .
It can be expected that for some of the modern t r anspor t ai rcraft with r ear mounted
jets rel at i vel y l ar ge values of rol l angle and rol l i ng angul ar velocity at touch down will be
found, because moment of i nert i a about longitudinal axi s i s rel at i vel y smal l and rol l con-
- 75-
t r ol is r at her sensi t i ve. However, from the val ues present ed for r ol l angle at touch down
and for rolling angular velocity, as given in fig. 4-4 as well as from t he results as given
in fig. 4-2, it can be derived that initial ver t i cal descent velocity i s a much mor e important
par amet er than the t i me i nt erval between i mpact s of both gear s in determining t ot al loads
due to landing i mpact s.
Yet it will have to be investigated which load i ncrease is possi bl e by these a- s ymmet r i cal
effects. As only the t i me i nt erval is i mport ant , it is possi bl e to vary only one of the two as s ymme-
t ri c vari abl es ( i. e. bank angle and rolling angular velocity) and fix t he other at a cert ai n val ue
It i s the most si mpl e way to assume the initial rolling velocity to be zero, and to vary the i ni t i al
angle of bank to such an extent that for all st r uct ur al loads maxi mum values ar e found.
As, in general , maxi mum values of al l loads due to heavy landing impacts a r e attained
at most 0, 2 sec after the fi rst landing impact, it i s not necessar y to take into account values
of angles of rol l which lead to time i nt erval s between left- and right hand landing gear i mpact
l ar ger than 0, 2 sec. For rolling velocity assumed to be zer o, it was found in the case of the
Fokker F. 27 ai rcraft that angles of rol l of 0, 8 and of 1, 6 lead to t i me i nt erval s between
both i mpact s of 0, 06 and 0, 12 sec. Thus a time i nt erval of 0, 2 sec. would be r eached with
angles of rol l of 2 to 3 degr ees.
It will be cl ear that for ai rcraft with smal l er moment s of i ner t i a about the longitudinal
axis or with l ar ger excent ri ci t y of the landing gear, l ar ger initial angl es of rol l ar e requi red
in or der to obtain the same time i nt erval between both i mpact s.
Anyhow, in general , the requi red range of initial angles of roll , covering a time
i nt erval between both i mpact s of r^0,2 s e c , will be not mor e than a few degrees.
If finite initial rolling angular velocity i s present , the equivalent initial r ol l angle , ,
requi red in or der to ar r i ve at the same time i nt erval between both i mpact s, would be only
little different from the ori gi nal initial rol l angle. A rolling velocity of even 0, 1 r ad/ s ec. ,
which has a smal l probability of occurence even for ai rcraft with r e a r mounted j et s,
r equi r es only an additional initial rol l angle of 1 , 14 if the t i me i nt er val between the
i mpact s on both si des is fixed to 0, 2 sec. and the distance between landing gear s i s 7,2 m.
For smal l er i nt er val s, the angle would be accordingly smal l er .
The pitch angle at touchdown i s, though not of pr i mar y impoirtance for most ai rcraft
loads, a par amet er which can influence maximum landing i mpact loads noticeably in some
par t s of the s t r uct ur e. Thi s i s t rue at l east for cert ai n loads such as , e. g. loads acting
in the landing gear itself, or in a drag stay, when present ,
The pitch angle at touchdown can vary between two l i mi t s. The fi rst is defined either
by the maxi mum angle per mi t t i ng cl ear ance with the ground, or by an angle which does not
exceed to much the st al l angle, whichever i s the l es s er . The ot her i s the pitch angle defining
the most t ai l -up position which the ai rcraft can have at touch-down. For ai rcraft with a nose
wheel gear this pitch angle i s given by the geomet ry of nose and mai n landing gear s when
main gear loads ar e consi dered. For t ai l wheel landing gear s this pi t ch angle i s somewhat
l ess defined though the ai rcraft will very seldom land with a nose-down attitude. Therefore
a level position of the fuselage reference plane can be chosen as the most tail-up position
for tail wheel landing gear s .
In pr act i ce the pi t ch angle at touch-down will be usually t ai l down. However, probability
di st ri but i ons for this quantity ar e not avai l abl e, so that the only approach is to var y the
pitch angle at touch-down in or der to find maxi mum loads due to landing i mpact s. Usually
cal cul at i ons will be per f or med for both ext r eme pitch angles defined above.
- 7 6 -
With r espect to pitching angular velocity it can be r emar ked that since the landing
impact phenomenon i s of very short ( 0, 1 & 0, 2 sec. ) duration it is most unlikely that
appreci abl e changes of pitch angle occur during this very short t i me. Moreover, since
as is al ready said, the pitch angle itself is cf secondary i mport ance, the change of pitch
angle will be st i l l mor e so,
By varying the pitch angle as an initial condition at touch-down between the two
l i mi t s defined above, the effect of possi bl e vari at i on of the pitch angul ar velocity at touch-
down surel y can be neglected.
The initial ai rcraft y a w a n g l e at touch down is by definition zer o. Thi s is due to
the choice of the axes syst em which is coincident with the ai rcraft axes syst em at t = 0.
Hence the t i r e yaw angle with r espect to the runway i s only due to the initial l at er al ai r -
craft velocity with r espect to the runway, which is t reat ed above.
The influence of variation of the l at er al friction coefficient with the t i r e yaw angle will be
investigated in par. 6. 4. If it t urns out that the fault involved by taking ft is constant in-
stead of being dependent on t i r e yaw angle, is smal l , then also the specification of the
initial l at er al ai rcraft velocity i s not needed.
a The contribution of the initial ya w a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y to the velocity vect or of
the t i r e with r espect to the ground is of seco idary i mport ance because yaw velocity is so
smal l .
Moreover, effects of yaw angul ar velocity ar e fully covered by vari at i on of ei t her
yaw angle or l at er al velocity.
It must be emphasi sed that it is proposed to define the initial descent velocity on
the basi s of a cert ai n probability of occurence which seems to be accept abl e for the type
of the ai rcraft under consi derat i on, while for all the ot her i ni t i al conditions, which also
have a cert ai n probability of occurence, it i s proposed to specify val ues resul t i ng in max.
loads ( i. e. bending moment s, t orsi on moment s, shear forces, et c. ). When the anal ysi s i s
based on applying a probability consi derat i on only to the most i mport ant initial condition,
viz. the descent velocity, in fact an additional hidden safety factor is introduced in the
anal ysi s because the c o m b i n a t i o n of the proposed conservat i ve values for the ot her
initial conditions has a ver y smal l probability of occurence.
The
t
friction coefficients between t i r e and runway depend mainly on skidding velocity
and slip rat i o for a given nat ure of t i r e and run-
way sur f aces. The val ues of the friction coeffi-
ci ent s t herefore vary with t i me. The qualitative
nat ure of t hese dependencies has been dealt with
in par a. 3. 5.
In fig. 4-5 the qualitative dependence of the lon-
gitudinal hori zont al friction coefficient y^^
from t i me is sketched.
The quantitative mat eri al available i s s ummar i -
zed mainly in refs. 54 and 63-68. The maxi mum
value very seldom exceeds a value of 0, 8 wliich
is the value pr escr i bed in most ai r wor t hi ness
regul at i ons.
f i g. 4-
- 77-
Fi g. 4-6a s ummar i zes the dependence o f ^ ^ o n the skidding velocity, while fig. 4-(.b
gives the rel at i on between slip r at i o X and /U-^. For slip rat i os between 0, 3 and 1, 0 0 ^ ^
i s al most independent of the slip r at i o when forward speeds ar e low. The decr ease in yi c^
by i ncr easi ng A between values of 0, 3 and 1, 0 at higher forward speeds i s in fact due to
the effect of skidding vel oci t i es as i s cl ear l y shown by fig. 4-6a.
Mx^COEFFI CENT OF FRICTION,
3 r777i 2 25
II111II .
TIRE PRESSURE
ref : NACA TN-4OO8
PRESCRIBED VALUE.
25 50
-SKI0D1N6 VELOCITY "' / s c-
fig. 4-6a
FORWARD SPEED
KI VH
fr-7
It is derived in par a 3. 5 that this effect can also be i ncorporat ed in a dependence
of Mx from A
For A val ues between zero and Ar . the value at which Mx i s a maxi mum, it has been
proposed in par . 3. 5 to pr es cr i be a friction coefficient with a parabol i c dependence on
slip r at i o. It follows from fig. 4-6b that A r ' ^ 0, 3.
For slip 1 at i os between 0, 3 and 1 , 0a l i near
rel at i onshi p between Mx ^"'^ ^ ^^ proposed in
eq. 3. 5-1 4. Fr om fig. 4-6a it can be deduced
that for the high landing speeds of modern
ai r cr af t it can be safely assumed that the initial
value of Mx ' ^- ^- ^he value at the moment of
touch-down^is about half the value ofMx rna
In agreement with pr esent ai r wor t hi ness r equi r e-
ment s and r ef s. 54 and 63-68 the max. value ofMx
can best be pr escr i bed as 0, 8, Tnis dependence
oi ^i -ni romX is sketched in fig. 4-7.
90 ,10
fig. 4-7
Apart from skidding velocity and slip i-atio the friction coefficient has been found to
have some dependence on t i r e pr es s ur e. Ther e is a tendency of lower maxi mum val ues of
Mx with i ncreasi ng t i r e pre.' sure. Thi s i s al so i l l ust rat ed by fig. 4-6a, As this effect is
only smal l it can be neglected.
Mf-asured val ues of the l at er al friction coefficient My have only been found in ref. 64
showing that in pri nci pl e for l at er al skidding t i r es the same val ues uf friction coffficionts
can be found as for the t i r e skidding in foreward di rect i on.
However, as dealt with in par . 3. 5 the l at er al friction coefficient during a landing
impact i s not due to a pure l at er al skidding motion but r esul t s from a rapidly changing
yawed rolling motion. This bri ngs about that di rect l y after touch-down My equals MV
v\here yr is the t i r e yaw angle and M the resul t ant friction coefficient which, dependant on
iniiial skidding vel oci t i es, has val ues of 0, 4 - 0, 6.
- 78-
When t he wh e e l s t a r t s t o r ol l , t i r e yawi ng angl e r a pi dl y i n c r e a s e s br i ngi ng about t hat
t he l a t e r a l f r i ct i on coef f i ci ent b e c o me s c ons t a nt and t a k e s a val ue val i d f or s ki ddi ng t i r e s .
In p a r . 3. 5 t he f ol l owi ng r e l a t i ons hi p bet ween /xy and Vi s pr opos e d for t he c l a s s of a i r c r a f t
to whi ch t he F o k k e r F- 2 7 be l ongs .
^lyJ-fly Cy375(L.i.(i07^V^)V^when V < 2 0 ' '
' ' ma x 27 4"^
^ y = M y ^ a , when V > 20
In t hi s s t udy it wi l l be i nves t i gat ed ( s e e p a r . 6. 4) whe t he r t hi s de pe nde nc e of/Uy f r om
V i s wor t hwhi l e t o t ake i nt o account . When it t u r n s out t o be not , a cons t ant val ue has to be
s peci f i ed which i s equal t o My in eq. 4 - 2 . A val ue of 0, 7 t hen can be us ed, whi ch i s a l s o mo r e
or l e s s in a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he p r e s e n t a i r wo r t h i n e s s r e q u i r e me n t s of FAR- 2 5 p r e s c r i b i n g for
t he l a t e r a l dri ft l a ndi ng c a s e , l a t e r a l f or c e s whi ch a r e 0, 6 and 0, 8 t i me s t he ve r t i c a l f or c e .
Howe ve r , t he c ombi na t i on of Mx =0, 8 and My = 0, 7 i s not l ogi c a l s i n c e M = yMx^^My^ = 1 , 06
i s t oo hi gh a va l ue . Th e r e f o r e a l s o l owe r va l ue s ha ve t o be c o n s i d e r e d . Thi s has to be i nve s t i ga t e d
al s o b e c a u s e t he r e s u l t i n g l a t e r a l f r i ct i on f or c e s ma y i n c r e a s e a s wel l a s d e c r e a s e r e s u l t i n g
l oa ds i n t he a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e ( e. g. bendi ng mo me n t s , t o r s i o n mo me n t s , s h e a r f o r c e s ) .
Summi ng up, t he f ol l owi ng val ues of ilie i ni t i al condi t i ons wi l l be c o n s i d e r e d in t he n u me r i c a l
c a l c ul a t i ons whi ch wi l l be p e r f o r me d in o r d e r t o d e r i ve c r i t i c a l and r e l i a b l e c ombi na t i ons of t h e s e
va l ue s f or t he def i ni t i on of r a t i ona l de s i gn l oad r e q u i r e me n t s .
. a d e s c e n t v e l o c i t y de r i ve d f r om pr oba bi l i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The f ol l owi ng f or mul a
i s p r o p o s e d
Z = 6 f t / s e c . when W^ < 50. 000 l bs
Z = 6-1 - ^^: -^^^-22.xQ80 when 50. 000 < W < 300. 000 l bs
50. 000 ^
Z^ = 1 0 f t / s e c . when W > 300. 000 l bs .
. a l a t e r a l h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y of whi ch t he i nf l uence on l andi ng l oa ds wi l l be
i nve s t i ga t e d.
, a h o r i z o n t a l f o r w a r d v e l o c i t y whi ch wi l l be va r i e d bet ween 1 and 1 , 6 V r
SL g
a r o l l i n g a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y whi ch i s z e r o .
. a r o l l a n g l e whi ch wi l l be va r i e d bet ween c e r t a i n l i mi t s in o r d e r to de t e c t ma x i mu m
' ': l oads .
. a p i t c h a n g l e whi ch wi l l be va r i e d bet ween c e r t a i n l i mi t s in o r d e r t o det ect ma x i mu m
l oads .
. a p i t c h a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y , y a w a n g l e and yaw a ngul a r vel oci t y whi ch a r e z e r o .
, an e x p r e s s i o n f or t he f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t bet ween t i r e and gr ound ( in f or wa r d
di r ect i on ) i s pr opos e d of t he f or m.
My- My . J i _ ( 2 Ar _ A) w h e n A< Ar
" ma x Ar
and
Mx=-Mx j l - Cj CA- Ar ) ! w h e n A^ Ap
wi t h n =0L8 Ar - 0,3 and C, . 0 , 7
' max ' * '
, t he val ue of t he l a t e r a l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t Mv wi l l be va r i e d bet ween 0 and
' max
0. 7 in o r d e r t o det ect ma x i mu m l oa ds . The de pe nde nc e of My f r om t i r e yawi ng angl e V
wi l l be i nve s t i ga t e d a c c or di ng t o t he f or mul e
SV^ V" when V<20
LLy ^ u.^ "' when V > 20
H^J=H,, qD75(l __4_ GiD75V ) V wh e n V<2 0 " '
' ' max 27 ^ o
- 79-
DE T AI L S OF E XAMP L E C AL C UL AT I ONS
5, 1 . CHOICE OF A REPRESENTATIVE AIRCRAFT
In order to show the mer i t s of a rational landing load calculation scheme,
numeri cal calculations have to be performed. Then is it possi bl e to prove by
actual figures the improvement of a rational calculation scheme over the procedures
prescri bed by the existing ai rwort hi ness requi rement s.
The need then ar i s es , however, to choose a calculation example which shows
most cl earl y the i mprovement s to be gained by a rational anal ysi s, when applied to
a conventional ai rcraft .
The most important differences between a rational calculation scheme and a
calculation according to the existing requi rement s ar e :
accurat e calculation of a- symmet r i c loads acting in the landing gear, including
spi n-up- and spring back forces, for real i st i c max. r at e of descent and rea-
listic or conservat i ve values of the other initial conditions.
effects of st r uct ur al elasticity ar e fully taken into account.
Consequently, an example in which st r uct ur al vibrations ar e most heavily excited
by the landing impact will suit our purpose best. This means a large and flexible
ai rcraft and/ or an ai rcraft in which, due to the configuration and the landing gear
position, l arge impact forces and moments are introduced in the st r uct ur e.
This condition is met, for example, by a high wing lay-out with the landing
gear positioned at a r at her outboard wing station, as,for example,the Fokker F. 27
"Fri endshi p", shown in fig. 5. 1 - 1 .
Fig. 5.1 -1 Fokker F., 27 "Fri endshi p".
Though this ai rcraft is not ext remel y l arge, l arge concentrated mas s es like
engines and pylon tanks are connected to the wing and t herefore the wing resonance
frequenties are quite low.
- 80-
Consequently the dynamic effects ar e appr eci abl e. For such a configuration espe-
cially dynamic effects due to wing t orsi on may be l ar ge, due to the l arge nioment
ar m of the spin-up and spri ng-back forces, and due to the l ar ge moment s of i nert i a
around the wing el ast i c axis as conti-ibuted by the engine mas s es far in front of the
wing . Especi al l y the excitation of wing t orsi on will be smal l er for st i l l l ar ger ai r cr af t
because, in general , t hese ai r cr af t have ei t her a high wing configuration with the l an-
ding gear connected to the fuselage, or a low wing configuration with the landing gear
rel at i vel y much cl oser to the fuselage, and a much s mal l er moment ar m for t i r e f r i c-
tion f or ces.
It is thought, t herefore, that in the F. 27 Fri endshi p a calculation example i s
avai l abl e which pr esent s a quite common type of ai r cr af t and which will exhibit l ar ge
dynamic effects due to the landing impact, without having an ext remel y flexible s t r uc-
t ur e. All example calculations ar e performed t herefore for this ai r cr af t . Relevant
geomet r i c- and mas s data ar e present ed in Appendix B.
DYNAMIC SCHEMATISATION OF THE F. 27
For the F. 27 with its slendei' unswept wing, the dynamic represent at i on can be
r at her si mpl e.
In pri nci pl e it can consist of two perpendi cul arl y i nt ersect i ng sl ender beams
r epr esent i ng fuselage and wing, to which ar e connected t ai l pl anes, engines, pylon-
tanks and landing gear s . The connection of t hese par t s to wing or fuselage may al so
be flexible, thus introducing more comple.xity in the dynamic schemat i sat i on.
Only wing loads will be calculated since for tlie F. 27 the fuselage and t ai l -
plane loads ar e not cr i t i cal as far as landing impact loads ar e concerned.
Moreover for this configuration fuselage and t ai l pl ane el ast i ci t y have hardl y
any effect on the dynamic behaviour of the wing. It i s t herefore per mi ssi bl e, to
assume both fuselage and t ai l pl anes as rigid, without any appreci abl e l oss in accur acy.
Of cour se, for configurations where fuselage el ast i ci t y i s mor e i mport ant due to
e. g. r e a r mounted engines this effect has to be, and can be,easi l y taken into account.
The wing beam providing the wing el ast i ci t y is formed by the box consisting
of two, near l y identical s pa r s , skin and s t r i nger s . Up to the ai l eron station the s par s
ar e located at 20% and 60% chord. For this box beam the neut ral axis could be as s u-
med to be located just between the two s par s , i. e. at the 40% chord l i ne.
Although t here is a slight discontinuity in r ear spar location at the ai l eron
station, this 40% chord line is also assumed to be r epr esent at i ve for the neut ral axi s
between the ai l eron station and the wing tip. Then the st rai ght 40% chord line which
is located perpendi cul ar to the ai r cr af t plane of symmet r y can be consi dered the
el ast i c axis of the wing.
A sketch of the wing with engine and pylontank is given in fig, 5. 2- 1 .
Also indicated ar e the two possi bl e wing fuel tank configurations, which ar e called
the "nor mal " wing fuel tank and the "extended" wing fuel tank, r es p,
- 8 1 -
OSS 100 30
normal wi ng
f uel t ank

7300
fig, 5.2-1
In pri nci pl e this continuous el ast i c wing st i l l pos s es s es infinite degrees of
freedom. This can be reduced to a suitable finite number of degr ees of freedom by
assumi ng that the deformation modes ar e known, and applying energy met hods, such
as the Rayleigh-Ritz method, for the formulation of the equations of motion, with
the ampl i t udes of the assumed modes as the general i zed coordi nat es. As shown in
ref. 80 t hi s is equivalent to the use of the Lagrangian equations for the formulation
of the equations of motion, as is done in par . 3, 3.
A ground vibration t est provided the information which el ast i c deformations had
to be taken into account in addition to the 6 rigid body degr ees of freedom.
Besi des wing ver t i cal bending and wing t orsi on, al so hori zont al wing bending proved
to be i mport ant , as well as pitch rot at i on of the engine nacel l e about an axis par al l el
to t he Y axi s. Lat er al motions of the engine proved to be uni mport ant . Due to the pitch-
ing motion of a rot at i ng engine gyroscopi ng damping forces ar e present . Fr om an
investigation into the possi bi l i t i es of propel l er whirl i nst abi l i t i es, it follows that for
the F. 27 t hese forces ar e equivalent to a st r uct ur al damping coefficient of about
g = 0, 005. As this is much l ess than the st r uct ur al damping pr esent in the st r uct ur e
this effect can be negl ect ed. Fr om the r esul t s of ground vibration t est s it has been
concluded mor eover in ref. 83 that one additional degree of freedom has to be taken
into account when pylon tanks ar e connected to the wing, consi st i ng of a horizontal
motion in T di rect i on of the pylon tank with r espect to the wing.
The landing gear itself can, for this ai rcraft , be consi dered rigid. In the fore
and aft di rect i on it forms with the drag stay a very stiff t r i angl e. This configuration
bri ngs about that the landing gear undergoes the same motion as the wing t orsi on bo>,
at this spanwise coordi nat e. The l at er al landing gear stiffness has been measur ed
by jacking the ai rcraft and pulling the left and right wheel axles t oget her. The mea-
sured stiffness of 65 kg/ mm i s, however, sufficiently high in or der to warrant the
assumpt i on of infinite l at er al landing gear stiffness, because l at er al landing gear
- 8 2 -
frequenci es then will be of the or der of 15 cps wher eas the l at er al t i re force t i me
history i s such that mainly frequenci es of the or der of 4 k 5 cps will be excited.
Hence dynami c effects ar e negiigable.
Due to the symmet r y of the ai rcraft , the deformation modes of left and right
wing ar e i dent i cal . However, the ampl i t udes ar e not necessar i l y the same. This i s
due to the asymmet r y of the ext ernal loading. It is possi bl e, of course, to introduce
for left- and for right wing deformation modes, different general i sed coordi nat es.
Another possi bi l i t y, which in fact is chosen for the pr esent investigation, is to split
up left and right wing deformations in a s ymmet r i cal - and in an ant i - symmet r i cal
part . Thus t here ar e general i zed coordi nat es for symmet r i c wing bending, as well
as for ant i - s ymmet r i c wing bending, and the same is t rue for wing t orsi on, pylon
tank hori zont al t ransl at i on and engine pitch rot at i on,
The approxi mat i on introduced in this formulation of the equations of motion,
by assumi ng deformation modes, will be l ess sever e when .he assumed modes ar e
better approxi mat i ons to the true wing deformat i on. For the F. 27 it has been found
that the assumed wing bending modes can be chosen identical to the uncoupled funda-
mental- and fi rst overtone bending modes of the wing, clamped at its root.
For the assumed wing t orsi onal deformation modes, uncoupled modes ar e not accu-
rat e enough due to the effect of the l ar ge concent rat ed engine mas s which is flexibly
connected to the wing. The assumed wing t orsi on mode t herefore, is calculated from
the coupled syst em consisting of wing t orsi on, and engine pitch rotation with r espect
to the wing. The probl em of det ermi ni ng from such a coupled syst em the general i zed
stiffness t er m rel at ed to wing t orsi on, assumi ng the engine pitch stiffness to be known,
i s t reat ed in chapt er 3, par. 3, eq. 3. 3- 1 5.
Appendix B descr i bes in detail the calculation of t hese vibration modes.
It will be cl ear that the deformation modes for a half wing so defined ar e iden-
tical for s ymmet r i c- and for ant i - s ymmet r i cal cases, because both for bending- and
for t or si onal deformation modes the assumpt i on i s made of being clamped at the
wing root . The complete deformation mode however is that of both wing hal ves and
these ar e for the symmet r i cal and ant i - symmet r i cal as sket ched. They ar e both
formed however from the same deformation mode calculated for a half wing clamped
at its root . See fig. 5, 2-2.
s ymmet r i cal ant i - s ymmet r i cal
Fig. 5. 2-2
Summari zi ng the dynamic schemat i sat i on of the ai r cr af t st r uct ur e as t reat ed in this
paragraph and in Appendix B, it follows that the total number of degrees of freedom
taken into account in the investigation is 20, defined as :
6 rigid body degr ees of freedom
7 symmet r i c and 7 ant i - symmet r i c el ast i c degr ees of freedom viz.
2 wing bending modes 1 engine pitch with r espect to the wing
2 wing t or si on modes 1 hori zont al wing bending
1 hori zont al pylontank motion with r espect to
the wing.
5. 3. SOME FURTHER SI MPLI FI CATI ONS
In i he F, 27 a n a l y s i s s o me f ur t he r s i mpl i f i c a t i ons have be e n i nt r oduc e d,
Si mpl i f i cat i ons of whi ch it wi l l be shown t hat t hey do not affect t he a i ms of t hi s
i nve s t i ga t i on, vi z. t he r e a l i s t i c pr e di c t i on of d e s i g n l o a d s due to l a ndi ng i m-
p a c t s .
Th i s me a n s t hat it mu s t be s hown t hat t he s e s i mpl i f i c a t i ons will be qual i t at i vel y
of a c o n s e r va t i ve n a t u r e , and qua nt i t a t i ve l y uni mpor t a nt .
The s i mpl i f i c a t i ons c onc e r ne d a r e :
a) Hor i z ont a l t i r e f r i ct i on coef f i ci ent Mx a s s u me d to be cons t ant unt i l spi n
up t i me t
"^ s
b) Uns pr ung ma s s m a s s u me d t o be z e r o *
c) Fr i c t i o n f or c e s bet ween s hock a b s o r b e r pi s t on and cyl i nder a r e i gnor ed
d) Ae r o d y n a mi c f or c e s due t o mot i ons , r e s ul t i ng f r om t he l andi ng i mpa c t ,
a r e t ot al l y i gnor e d.
ad a.
It h a s been de r i ve d i n p a r . 3. 5 t hat t he de pe nde nc e ofMx on both A and Vgkcan be
a p p r o x i ma t e d wi t h f ai r a c c u r a c y by a de pe nde nc e on A al one as gi ven by e qs .
3. 5- 1 2 and 3. 5- 1 4. To find out how si gni f i cant t hi s de pe nde nc e i s , a c o mp a r i s o n i s
ma d e bet ween a c a s e in whi ch Mx r e ma i n s cons t ant d u r i n g s pi n- up ( i. e. bet ween
A = 0 and A = 1 ) and a c a s e in whi cn Mx i s a pa r a bol i c function of A ( eq. 3. 5- 1 2 )
bet ween A = 0 and A = Ar , and r e ma i n s cons t ant be t we e n Ap and A = 1 . Fi gs .
5 . 3 - 1 and 5 . 3 - 2 p r e s e n t s o me r e s u l t s of t h e s e c a l c ul a t i ons , va l i d f or the c a s e of
s y mme t r i c a l l andi ng i mpa c t wi t h a de s c e nt vel oci t y of 1 0 f t / s ec of t he F. 27 conf i -
gur a t i on wi t h f i l l ed, l a r g e ( ext ended ) wi ng fuel t a nks a s i ndi cat ed i n fig. 5. 2 - 1 , and
50% fi l l ed pyl ont anks , at a l andi ng wei ght of 35700 l b s . / / '-
F o r wi ng l oa ds at ot he r wi ng s t a t i ons c ompl e t e l y s i mi l a r r e s u l t s we r e obt ai ned.
15 r
WING LOADS AT ENGINE STATION
10 -
TON
- Ux CONSTANT Uxrnax
fi g. 5. 3. 1.
ops 0,10
fi g. 5. 3- 2
Thi s me a n s t hat m i s a s s u me d t o be z e r o f or t he c a l c ul a t i on of t he ve r t i c a l
l oa ds act i ng in t he l andi ng g e a r .
F o r t he s ubs e que nt c a l c ul a t i on of wi ng l oa ds and s pi n- up and s p r i n g - b a c k l oads ,
m ha s fully been t aken i nt o account a s a ma s s .
- 8 4-
It will be cl ear that the differences between the calculations with constant Mx
and with a fi ^ dependent on slip rat i o A ( for the A range A = o and A =Ar,
see eq. 3. 5-1 2 ) ar e ext remel y smal l .
Thi s is mainly due to the fact that the dependence on slip rat i o begins to act only
after the moment of max. Mx( i- e. at A r ) which i s very near to the moment of
spi n-up. Therefore much influence on max. loads could not have been expected.
As t her e is no reason to believe that this r esul t should be different for other
ai rcraft configurations, it may be concluded in general that it is not justified
to i ncr ease the complexity of the anal ysi s by taking into account the dependence of
Mxfrom A as given by eq. 3. 5-1 2 for 0>A>Ar
Thi s i s different with the dependence of Mx from A for 0, 3>A>1 , 0 as given by
eq, 3, 5-1 4, of which the influence i s felt during the whole impact peri od. Actual
experi ence l ear ns that by taking into account this effect the calculated landing
gear - and wing loads ar e somewhat reduced which makes introduction into the
calculation scheme worthwhile.
This effect, however, is mainly of a quantitative nat ur e.
The qualitative behaviour of loads due to landing impact, as a function of t i me,
is hardly affected by the l i near dependence of fi ^ftrom A for 0, 3>A> 1 , 0.
In the pr esent investigation this dependence has not been taken into account
because the comput er memor y capacity was too smal l .
It may be expected however that this simplification i s conservat i ve as now at
any moment until spin-up t i me the maxi mum value of Mx i s used.
ad b,
Assuming the unsprung mass to be zero is a r at her important simplification
in the anal ysi s of landing impact l oads. It is a conservat i ve assumpt i on since
the wheel axle loads are always lower than the ground r eact i ons, due to the
fact that the i nert i a forces due to the unsprung mas s always work against the
ground react i ons,
Quantitatively the influence of the unsprung mass in landing gear loads is quite
smal l , as has been shown in r ef s. 1 1 , 51 , and 58.
The influence of the unsprung mas s in the case of the F, 27 is shown in fig. 5, 3- 3,
i 1 1 1 1
0 Ops m 0)5 ojio
*sec.^
fig, 5, 3-3
- 85-
Except for the very beginning of the impact, the difference between Ky^ andK,
z ' a
is indeed only a few percent of K^ at the most. Therefore, by neglecting m
the qualitative and quantitative behaviour of the landing impact loads is hardly
changed.
Anyhow, this change is conservat i ve and t herefore cert ai nl y allowed.
ad c.
The i nt ernal friction between shock absorber beari ngs and cylinder wall i s
dealt with fairly extensively in ref. 51 . In first approximation this friction has
to be consi dered as a kind of dry friction and as such it has been formulated
accordingly in eq. 3. 5- 42,
However, al so in ref, 51 this effect has been neglected in the actual cal cul a-
tions present ed in that r epor t . The same i s t rue for nearl y all other published
calculation exampl es. Fr om the calculations in which this effect has been taken
into account it can be seen that indeed it decr eases the calculated landing gear
forces, but only by a few percent ,
The fact that it l owers the calculated forces is underst andabl e since these
friction forces always work against the shock absor ber load and dest roy some
of the landing impact energy. Thus neglecting these forces is a conservat i ve
meas ur e. Moreover the influence on m a x i m u m vert i cal landing impact loads
is smal l because this friction force is proportional to the t i r e drag force,
which general l y becomes very smal l just before maximum ver t i cal forces
ar e attained.' " Fur t her mor e, the friction coefficient is quite smal l , somewhere
between 0, 05 and 0, 1 0.
A landing gear manufact urer mentions a value of 0,08. Thus,when the ground
to t i r e friction coefficient is e. g. 0, 8 this friction force i s, according to eq,
3, 5-42, at the most 0, 064 { --r - 1 ) t i mes the vert i cal force. Moreover,
2h ^ ^
the factor ^ \ decr eases when | , the shock absor ber defl ect i on,i ncreases,
As an or der of magnitude of this friction force, perhaps 10% of the shock absor -
ber force can be est i mat ed for the spin-up phase. After spin-up this effect is
l es s i mport ant because then the wheel axle force K^ osci l l at es.
Thus it can be concluded that this friction effect l owers the shock absor ber
force slightly, but only during the spin-up phase.
Therefore it has only a very slight influence on maximum landing impact loads
and this i s the reason why it has been neglected also in the present investigation,
In mor e modern comput at i ons, performed on digital comput ers with sufficiently
l ar ge capacity, this effect i s general l y taken into account.
ad d.
In chapt er 3,6 it has been derived that the general i sed aerodynamic forces
resul t i ng from landing impact motions can be split into a contribution f SJ to
the general i sed stiffness mat r i x F C ^ and a general i sed viscous damping
mat r i x TD"] . Thus when the aerodynami c forces due to landing impact motions
ar e ignored, it has to be proved that PSHcan be ignored with respect to FC"]
and that FD"! is of sufficiently smal l magnitude in or der to warrant its
exclusion.
* Thi s i s not valid for l at er al t i r e forces.
-86-
In ref. 37 the influence of these aerodynami c forces on the landing load t i me
hi st or i es is studied experi ment al l y by means of si mpl e drop t est s with el ast i c
wing model s with a simplified landing gear in a wind tunnel ai r s t r eam,
Compari son of drop test t i me hi st or i es obtained inside and outside the wind
tunnel ai r s t r eam shows that the aerodynami c damping forces tend to damp out
osci l l at i ons rapidly,
Ther e i s, however, very little effect on maxi mum values of the first response
peaks. Therefore it is concluded in ref. 37 that in general it is justified not to take
into consi derat i on aerodynami c damping, because mostly the first peaks coincide
with the moment of the highest l oads.
This experi ment al l y obtained conclusion can also be derived by simple t heor e-
tical reasoni ng. The decr ease of vibration amplitude with t i me, for a single
degree of freedom syst em, governed by the equation of motion
AX+ B: ! : + C X = O
is given by the factor
Though the dynamic syst em of the calculation example with its elastic wing i s
a c o u p l e d syst em of sever al degrees of freedom, it i s possible to obtain a
first indication of the amount of damping introduced by the aerodynamic forces
by studying the damping char act er i st i cs of the u n c o u p l e d motions of this
syst em. Then the diagonal el ement s of the general i sed damping mat ri x QD| ]
r epr esent the values of B for the different degr ees of freedom, whereas the
diagonal el ement s of the general i sed mass mat r i x [ " MJ r epr esent the values
of A, The numer i cal values of these el ement s have been calculated for a sym-
met r i c landing impact case, assumi ng the st r i p theory to be valid, and ignoring
unsteady aerodynami c effects, as well as the contributions of the drag froces.
For the different degrees of freedom taken into account in the present i nvest i -
gation, the following table gives the amplitude rat i o at t = 0, 1 sec and t = 0, 2 sec
with r espect to the ampltude at t = 0.
e
( t= 0, 1 s e c )
idem t = 0, 2 sec
Z
0, 990
0, 975
0
1, 000
0, 998
V,
0, 860
0, 741
V2
0, 740
0, 549
^\
1 ,000
0, 994
X2
0, 985
0, 970
It is seen that damping effects ar e only due to the wing bending degrees of
freedom, as only these amplitudes ar e reduced in 0, 1 sec to any extent. Hence
landing-loads t i me hi st ori es ar e only affected to the extent that the wing bending
degrees of freedom ar e contributing to the total load under consideration,
Moreover, for this cases in which not the fi rst , but a successi ve peak pr esent s
maxi mum loads, the neglect of aerodynami c damping is conservat i ve, because
these peaks will be lower al ready due to the damping.
- 8 7 -
That the aerodynami c stiffness mat ri x Fs ^c a n be ignored with r espect to the
general i sed stiffness mat r i x Qc J also follows from the r esul t s of ref. 37. For
the pr esent calculation example this can be furt her i l l ust rat ed by compari ng
the numer i cal values of both mat r i ces as given below, valid for a configuration
with filled l ar ge ( extended) wing fuel tank, as indicated in fig. 5. 2- 1 , 50%
filled pylontank and a landing weight of 35700 l bs.
'c^
1^1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
z
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
315 00
- 27000
8400
1800
19300
75 00
0
0
0
6400
0
0
0
0
^,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15 224
0
0
0
^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10^
0
0
^1
20700
14300
8000
2400
10000
7000
0
'
0
0
0
0
0
2,3x10^
0 0,
X2
12330
75 00
7000
2700
7000
6000
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
275 xl0^_
IT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
A di rect compari son is not possi bl e because Tc Hi s a diagonal mat r i x and r s " ]
is a complete mat r i x. Still some r emar ks can be made :
It will be noticed that the wing t orsi on diagonal el ement s of the Fs Hmat r i x
amount to only a few percent of the correspondi ng elements of the FC I
mat r i x.
The coupling t er ms due to the ai rcraft pitching degr ee of freedom in the
vari ous equations of motion will be of little i mport ance because ai rcraft
pitch r emai ns very smal l ( ,~^ 1 ) during the fi rst 0, 1 sec of the landing
i mpact .
Ai rcraft pitch will become even smal l er by taking into account the Ts"]
mat ri x because the 0 diagonal t er m of the Fs Hma t r i x r epr esent s the st at i c
stability of the ai rcraft , which opposes pitch.
Influence of wing t orsi on on ai rcraft t ransl at i on and pitch ( fi rst two rows
of r s ~] mat r i x) i s also smal l because wing t orsi on amplitude i s smal l ( l ess
than 0, 01 rad ) and thus t hese products ar e smal l compared with the di rect
landing l oads.
There is some aerodynami c coupling between bending and t orsi on, and
between the two t or si onal degrees of freedom. When the resul t i ng landing
impact motion is assumed to contain a single frequency, viz. the high
frequency t orsi onal motion of about -^ 20 c. p. s. , it is possible to compare
this aerodynami c coupling with the i nert i a coupling. It then follows that
these aerodynami c coupling t er ms amount to only 1 0 to 20% of the inertia
- 8 8 -
couplings. The coupling between the two t orsi onal degr ees of freedom is very
smal l as compared with the diagonal t e r ms of ^C^ and thus will have a very
mi nor influence on the resul t i ng motion.
Hence again, in accordance with the experi ment al evidence of ref, 37, it can be
concluded from t hese r emar ks that the influence of aerodynami c stiffness on peak
values of resul t i ng landing impact loads will be smal l , and t herefore it is reasonabl e
to ignore the aerodynamic forces due to resul t i ng landing impact motion al t oget her,
5.4. THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR THE F. 27 CALCULATIONS
The equatir.is of motion of an el ast i c st r uct ur e subjected to a landing impact, fie rived
in chaiiter 3 in a general way, and collected in par. 3,7, have to be applied to the
dynamic syst em of the F. 27 as defined in par. 5. 2. With the fui' ther simplifications
introduced in the equations of motion as t i eat cd in par. .. 3 only the following t r a ns -
formation mat r i ces have to be defined :
H
expressi ng the rel at i on between general i sed el ast i c coordi nat es and
d i s p l a c e m e n t s of a mass part i cl e i in the ai rcraft axes systeni X,
Y and Z ( eq, 3.2-1 )
and
M.
- expi-essing the rel at i on between general i sed el ast i c coordi nat es and
r o t a t i o n s of a mas s part i cl e i in the ai r cr af t axes syst em X, Y and
Z ( eq. 3. 2- 2) .
For the el ast i c general i sed coordi nat es q , taken into account, vi z.
i
symi net r i cal wing bending - /s
ant i - symmet r i cal wing bending
symmet r i cal wing t orsi on - Xe
ant i - symmet r i cal wing t orsi on
symmet r i cal engine pitch - ^
ant i - symmet r i cal engine pitch - ,_,.
symmet r i cal hori zont al pylontank motion with r espect to the wing
ant i - symmet r i cal hori zont al pylontank motion
\7.
A n
with r espect to the wing
symmet r i cal in-plane wing bending
\ .
ant i - symmet r i cal in-plane wing bending
A ,
\
th e mat r i ces p j | and FRgc 1 for wing, engine and pj'lon tank re.sp. take the form
p
wi ng
^jy.)
f s' ^i ' x. g ( y, ) o
f h. ' yi '
f . ( yi ) - x , g ( y ) o
-89-
'S. -
engine
O c^. g, ( - V^) - c^ O f hj y^^' O c ^ g^ ( y ^ ) - c ^ O f ^^{ y^)
<^mfsf^m) O O
fstVm) - x^g^{ y, , ) l ^
"c3 ~1
s -
pyl ont ank
0 cpg, ( yp) 0
- Cp^l Y p) 0 0
f s( yp) -Xpg^(yp)o
% X^ s
O o
'rcJ^^W o
^AlVm) - ^m%f ^r n) ' m O O
fh' yp' l
cpg^cY p) o
cpf ; (yp) o
o o I f^(yp) -^pSA'Y p) o
^ P s ' ^ h, ^A
^TA
o
A
V"^p'
PA
o
in which f (y) ar e t.he assumed wing bending modes (ff^{y) in-plane wing bending)
and g( y) the assumed wing t orsi on mode.s.
The t ransformat i on mat r i ces for rotation, R^ , likewise, take the following form :
H -
wi ng
N
engine
'S -
pyl ontank
-fsCVi) 0
g^ (vi) 0
0 0 (
-fsCVm) 0 C
0 ^^i^) -1
-fhs' y' p' 0 0
0 g5(yp) 0
0 0 0
fhj^''
0 f'hs'Vn.'
0 fh^(yp)
f ; (Vi ) 0
g^' yi) 0
0 0
0 g^tym)
0
0
- ^ y p ) 0
0 gA(yp) 0
0 0
0 fh^^^i)
0 fhjym)
0 . 0 f ' ^( 7p:
The val ues of f (?) and q(y) ar e given in t abl es B-5 and B-6 while values of c m - ^m
Cp ' ^n ^nd x ^ ar e provided by fig. B. 2. The x values of the wing and
fuselage st at i ons follow from Xj "p^pj^ as given in t abl es B-1 and B-2of Appendix B.
These mat r i ces can be i nser t ed in the expressi on for the Rj . and R/^ . mat r i ces
as given by eqs, 3, 2-25 and 3, 2-29, and then finally, the g e n e r a l i s e d m a s s
m a t r i x _M can be formed accordi ng to eqs, 3. 3-6 and 3. 3-7.
-90-
The i nt egrat i on over the st r uct ur e lias to be performed by one of the many numer i -
cal i nt egrat i on methods available, the si mpl est of whicli is summat i on,
In mat r i x notation t hi s integration pr ocedur e i s defined by
[M] = [ZRJ[TT,][W] KKi:R;,]'["'-il[w][rR^]
where PWJ is a weighting mat ri x, t he definition of which depends on the i nt egrat i on
method used ( summation, t rapezoi dal rule, Simpson rul e et c. ), In the case of
simple summat i on the ] W1 " f t | the unit mat r i x,
The [ZR-[] and [ZRjg] mat r i ces ar e column mat r i ces consi st i ng of as many FR^JI
an'! ("RJl mat r i ces as el ement s as the number of st at i ons i s, in which the
masses of the continuous st r uct ur e ar e assumed to be concent rat ed.
Thus :
ff"^]-
( R, , 1
and
[i ^^]-
V
' j er,
r
The mas s mat r i x m is si mpl y a diagonal mat ri x the el ement s of which ar e dia-
gonal s ubmat r i ces defined by
h]
r^\ 0 0
m-, 0
0 0 m,
where m. is the mas s concentrated in the i th station,
In order to avoid very l arge mat r i ces , in pract i ce eq. 5. 4-3 is very often split up
in such a way that ZR is written
["]
ZR^
XR,
and
['"]
h]
0
0
0 0
rny 0
0. ^
z _!
so that eq, 5. 4-3 can be written as :
1 _ \
[ M] -[ rRj [ mJ[ w] [ zRj +[ l R, ] [ my] [ w] f Rg+| l Rj [ -. ] [ w] [ zRj
where F^x "" M" yj ~ M^ ZJ '
which a r e defined as ; [^"^x.yz^'
-f.
5. 1-4
m.,
and L TxJ , an element of the [ZR-r j mat ri x, i s a row mat r i x identical to the
upper ruw of the " i j mati-ix.
Likewise Ty. ani T^. ai''2 defined as row mat r i ces identical to the second and
third row of the [Rj: | mat ri x,
- 9 1 -
Having chosen as el ast i c general i sed coordi nat es the ampl i t ude of uncoupled defor-
mation modes of par t s of the st r uct ur e between which no el ast i c coupling i s assumed
to exist, the g e n e r a l i s e d s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x I c j i s a diagonal mat r i x.
The el ement s of l cj ar e, according to eq. 3.3-1 3 defined by Cji " \)j M,! , in which
Mjj ar e the diagonal el ement s of the general i sed mas s mat r i x and' j); the r es o-
nance frequenci es of the uncoupled deformation modes,
The value of \ ). can be found in t abl es B-5 and B-6of Appendix B.
For wing t orsi on the pr ocedur e defined by eq. 3. 3-1 4 has to be followed. The engine
stiffness is defined in table B-4of Appendix B.
For the calculation of the g e n e r a l i s e d f o r c e s Q^ accordi ng to eq. 3. 4-1 7
mor eover the t r ansf or mat i on mat ri cesfRr 1 and[R^~l have to be defined. As the
[_TwJ [ J l ,
landing gear is assumed to be rigid in itself and rigidly fixed to the wing, R^ is
i dent i cal to the RgM mat ri x for the wing station at which the landing gear i s connected
to the wing.
The
[tv,]
mat r i x of the wheel axle W i s, in accordance with eq. 5. 4- 1 , defined by
wheel axl e
0 cy,94y^) 0
-^w4'V 0 0
y y w ) - xwgs( yw) o
0 f,^(Vw)| CWQA' ^W) fh^fyw)
0 0 i - cwyv 0
0 0 I y y ^ ) -x^g^Vy,) 0 0 0
5. 4-5
The neces s ar y data for defining this mat r i x is contained in t abel s B-5 and B-6 and
fig, B, 2 of Appendix B,
As the unsprung mas s is not taken into account, the forces acting at W a r e defined
at once by eqs. 3. 5-4 and 3. 5-5. The moment s I^Wg and Myy follow from
I T X Z
eq. 3, 5- 1 assumi ng 1 yVn ^nd 1 yy to be zero.
x z
M^f, i s given by 3. 5-26 but in the pr esent investigation this smal l contribution
has been negl ect ed,
The force deflection char act er i s t i cs of the F. 27 t i r e i s, in accordance with eq. 3, 5-4,
defined numer i cal l y by
K^ (kg) = -1 55000. i^tm)
A constant value ofMx has been assumed up till the moment of spin-up, which is
defined by eq. 3. 5-1 7, The numer i cal constants in this expressi on are given by
3 = 0, 54 kg/ m/ s e c ^ j R = 0, 421 m and V^ = 40 m/ s e c .
In some cal cul at i ons, however, Mx ^s dependent on slip r at i o A accordi ng to
eq. 3. 5- 1 2, the value of Ar then is 0, 3.
Finally the shock absor ber force F according to eq, 3. 5-43 has to be defined
numer i cal l y. The pneumat i c force char act er i st i c of the F, 27 shock absor ber is
-92-
present ed in fig. 3. D- 1 2 . The numer i cal approximation by means of a power s er i es
accordi ng to eq. 3. 5-38 is defined I y the following val ues of the const ant s A^ - A . :
AQ = 3309,4 kg A,.^ = - 79, 679, 625 kg/m'^
A^ = 4058,0 kg/ m A^ = 60,1 54,375 kg/m"^
Ag = 56024,0 kg/ m^
The hydraulic r esi st ance force is defined by the coefficient N, for which the following
values ar e provided by the landing gear manufact urer :
N = 2783 kg secern' ^ when > 0
N = 1 7823 kg s e c " m' ^ i < 0
As the friction forces between cyl i nder and piston ar e ignored, no further data is
requi red for a numer i cal anal ysi s,
5. 5. THE EQUATIONS FOR THE CALCULATION OF WINC; LOADS
The equations for the calculation of loads and accel er at i ons can now be formul a-
on the basi s adopted in par. 3.8 for the load calculation, viz. the load summat i on
method. Because it haa been di scussed in par . 5. 3 that the aerodynami c forces due to
the landing impact can be totally ignored, eq. 3. 8-1 , which expr es s es the pri nci pl e of
the load summat i on method, reduces to :
L ( x.y.zA I- I I.q.-l- Lj t ) 5. 5r l
i-i I I G
where L ( x . y. z, t ) = total load at a cer t ai n point ( x, y. z ), at a cert ai n t i me t. L
may be a shear force, a bending moment , a t orsi onal moment ,
or just an accel erat i on, at some station,
1. = i nert i a load at a point ( x, y, z ) due to a unit accel er at i on of the
i th general i sed coordi nat e q. (t),
L(t ) = forces or moment s at a point ( x, y- z ) due to the forces and
moment s acting at the Idnding gear s at the t i me (t),
Wing loads ar e char act er i sed adequately by spanwise di st ri but i ons of ver t i cal
shear foi-ces, bending moment s and t orsi onal moment s. These quantities therefcjre
have been calculated in five spanwise st at i ons,
Fig, 5,5-1 shows t hese wing st at i ons, together with the positive signs adopted
for wing l oads. At two of t hese st at i ons, viz. st at i ons 3600 and 8585, concent rat ed
loads ar e i.ntroduced.
At station 3600 the landing gear loads ar e introduced in the wing togetlier with the
i nert i a loads from the localised mas s es of engine, nacel l e, watei' methanol tank, and
landing gear. Therefoi-p at this wing station the wing loads have been calculated on
both si des ( - and + ) of the station at which the loads ar e introduced into the wing.
The same has been done at station 8585 at which the pylontank i nert i a forces ar e i nt r o-
- 93-
o
to
m
00
m
OD
in
u>
ir>
(O
o
o
U}
m
o
>*
o
'~
o
J
o
o
o
(O
m
m
u>
in
U}
m
o>
m
OD
O
Fi g. 5, 5- 1
duced in the wing.
Some ot her quant i t i es which have been calculated ar e the horizontal accel er a-
tion at the pylon tank c. of g. , and the ver t i cal accel er at i ons of the engine c. of g. ,
and wat er met hanol tank c. of g. These quantities ar e important for designing the
connecting s t r uct ur es between t hese heavy mass i t ems and the wing.
For the dynamic schemat i sat i on as adopted in par . 5. 2, with the wing defined
by a st rai ght el ast i c axi s and the mas s pr oper t i es of st r eamwi se wing segment s
concent rat ed at the c. of g. of t hese segment s, the expr essi ons for s h e a r f o r c e s
d u e t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s ar e given by
tip
5 ( y ) - - I m
y
i =^i'
tip
,-I m: R,
q
5.5-2
The column mat r i x of shear forces in all wing stations of i nt erest then can be
wri t t en, in accordance with eq. 5. 4-4, as
{s(y)].-[G][m.][rR,J(Q]
in which I G , - the so-cal l ed "escal at or mat r i x" - i s the actual summing opera-
t or, being defined by
w
wing segment s
I
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
I
0
0
0
I
I
T
I
0
0
0
0 I I I I I
0 0 0 0 I I
load stations
1 040
3600'
3600"^
6565
8585'
8585"^
1 2660
engine
P. t
- 94-
The number of columns of G cor r esponds with the total number of wing st r i ps
at one wing half, i ncreased by the number of localised mas s es possessi ng separ at e
degrees of freedom. In the present case the engine- and pylon tank ar e such l ocal i -
sed mas s es and thus ar e taken into account in the definition of the G- mat r i x, The
number of rows equals the number of st at i ons in which shear forces are cal cul at ed.
As al so for the calculation of wing loads a si mpl e summat i on procedure has
been applied, the G mat ri x contains only figures one.
The expressi on for S ( y ) is valid for both left- and right wing halves, the
difference between both wing halves being found in the numeri cal values of the
respect i ve R~ mat r i ces as defined by eq, 5. 4- 1 . This difference is due to different
signs of y coordi nat e values and mode shape values foi' i dent i cal st at i ons in both win
halves.
The mat r i x expressi on for the b e n d i n g m o m e n t s B d u e t o i n e r t i a
f o r c e s can be formulated accordingly as
i^'^'l- H&]-f]HlH["Tj{^ 5. 5-3
in which theJYjmatrix is a diagonal mat r i x containing the y coordi nat es of the wing
stations in which the bending moment s ar e cal cul at ed.
As r ot ar y i nert i a cont ri but es to bending moment s, expressi on 5, 5-3 has to be
expanded with t er ms taking this effect into account,
Again in accoi-dance with eq, 5. 4-4, eq. 5. 5-3 then becomes
(^'^'!-[HH-WH][H&''*a[-JW
5. 5-4
Because y coordi nat es have opposite si gns for the right wing half, also the sign of
the bending moment is the opposite from that of the left wing half. But as for both
left and ri ght wing downward bending moment s ar e defined positive in fig. 5, 5- 1 ,
r V 1
expressi on 5. 5-4 has to be multiplied by - i -
liy|.
For the present calculation example the el ast i c axis is perpendi cul ar to the
plane of symmet r y of the ai rcraft ,
The mat r i x expressi on for the t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s T ( y) around the el ast i c
axis, d u e t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s , then t akes the si mpl e form
{^'1-H MH[ - TJ - [ - QMW
5, 5-5
.2
The quant i t i es m i ar e defined by
m i ^ = I y m^Xj '
in which ly. is given in tables B-1 and B-2 of Appendix B and define the mas s moment
of i nert i a of wing segment s, and l ocal i sed mas s es , like engine and pylon tank,
around the el ast i c axi s. The position of segment s c, of g. is defined by
Xj = -
mi
in which m- and s. ar e present ed in t abl es B-1 and B-2 of Appendix B,
The accel er at i ons of vari ous st at i ons, finally, follow di rect l y from eq. 3. 2-25.
H-M'l
- 95-
Cont ri but i ons of l a n d i n g g e a r f o r c e s to wing l oads can be denoted by
JS( | , 1 B| I , and }T[ . They contribute only to the wing l oads inside
the landing gear st at i on; so that for this calculation example S. (y) . Bi (7) ^nd
T| (y ) ar e defined as
f Si dOi O)'
S, (3600)
S,(y)-^ 0
0
0
0
6,(1040)]
B, (3600)1
B,{y)-
0
0 } and T|
0
0
0
The values S B. and T. at the st i t i ons 1 040 and 3600 have to be derived
from the force and moment vect or s K^ and M acting at the wheel axl e.
Though the landing gear i s assumed to be rigid in itself, the di st ance between
the wheel axle and the wing load station i s al so t i me dependent due to wing di st ort i on
and shock absor ber deflection. When time dependent coor di nat es of wheel axle and
load station ar e named x , v ,
w - w
\ ' and x^^, y^ z . respect i vel y, the rel at i on
between the wing loads and the landing gear load vect or s is given by
S,(y).R,
w,
5. 5. 6
B,(y)=Kwy (z^-f^)+Rw ( y w - V i ^ r ^ w ^
|' W-' A|
Ti (y)=-%Zw-A' ^' <^3' Xw->' A>-' ^Wy
Fi g. 5. 6- 2
The expr essi ons for x - x , , y
^ w A w
y. and z
'A w
z . depend on
geomet ri c difference in coordi nat es of points A and W, denoted by
( xw( o)-x^( o)).[7 w' '-yA ' )]
[^{0)-2f,{0)]
and
-96.
shock absor ber deflection | with components
-a g ,-b 5 and-c I ( eq. 3. 4- 6)
difference in el ast i c deformation between st at i ons A and B ( station at
which landing gear, assumed to be rigid in itself, is connected to wing),
This i s given by
rotational deformation at B causing di spl acement s at W.
In accordance with eq. 3. 4- 9 this is expressed by
A^ w. = ( B W- ^ )
0 . c. - b
- C O . d
b. -a- 0
in which B W is the length of the landing gear between the point B and W,
It is mor eover assumed that the shock absor ber deflection is in the
di rect i on of B, W,
Combiningthe vari ous cont ri but i ons toJx - X. I the expressi on becomes ,
I^W-XAH
+ (BV/-|)
0. c - b
c 0- a
>-a- o_
-
R-.
\
B r
5,5-7
Expr essi ons 5. 5-6 and 5. 5-7 ar e valid for both left and right landing gear s ,
The differences between the two landing gear s ar e in the values of the coordi -
nat es y, the mat r i ces Rrp I and [ RVH , shock absor ber deflection 5 and
coefficient b.
-97-
6. THE I N F L U E N C E OF CONSTITUTIVE P A R A M E T E R S ON LANDING
IMPACT LOADS
6. 1 . REFINEMENTS IN STRUCTURAL SCHEMATIZATION
The i mport ant question of how sophisticated the dynamic schemat i zat i on of the
st r uct ur e has to be, in or der to predi ct "t r ue" landing l oads, has been investigated
by compari ng r esul t s of landing i mpact load cal cul at i ons for vari ous degr ees of
sophi st i cat i on in the dynamic schemat i zat i on. As t reat ed in chapt er 5, the dynamic
schemat i zat i on in the pr esent investigation consi st s of a rigid fuselage and t ai l , to
which a sl ender el ast i c wing without sweep is connected. The rigid landing gear is
rigidly connected to the wing in the same wing station as the engine.
It is mor eover assumed that the engine pod can pitch with r espect to the wing,
and that the pylontank is connected el ast i cal l y to the wing with a horizontal spri ng in
the wing plane. Wing el ast i ci t y is adequately descri bed by both the first two bending
and t orsi on modes, as well as by a single i n-pl ane bending mode.
For this dynamic syst em the influence of the degree of sophistication on calcu-
lated loads has been studied for the case of s y m m e t r i c a l landing impact with a
descent velocity of 10 f t / sec. , the value accordi ng to the FAA r equi r ement s.
Ai rcraft attitude at touch-down is assumed to be 10 tail down without initial pitching
velocity. Another quantity to be defined is the value of Mx which, again in agreement
with FAA r equi r ement s, is pr escr i bed as 0,8 until the moment of spin-up, after
which it i s zer o. Finally VQ has been chosen as 40 m/ s e c .
The investigation has been performed by calculating complete t i me hi st or i es
of loads and accel er at i ons for dynamic syst ems in which the number of general i zed
coordi nat es taken into account, var i es between only two rigid body degrees of freedom
i. e. vert i cal t ransl at i on and pitch, and the number according to the "compl et e" sche-
mat i zat i on as descri bed above.
The ai rcraft configuration for which t hese comparat i ve calculations have been
performed, i s defined by a landing weight of 35, 700 l bs, and a completely filled extended
wing fuel tank. For a fuselage loading which is in accordance with the operat i onal
weight empty condition, the pylontanks then can be only 50% filled at the landing.
Fi r s t of al l the maxi mum landing gear forces, wing loads and accel erat i ons ar e
compared for the different schemat i zat i ons. These r esul t s ar e collected in table 6. 1 -1 ,
Fi g. 6, 6-1 mor eover shows for a single wing station the complete time hi st or i es of these
loads for the vari ous number s of degr ees of freedom taken into account.
It will be i mmedi at el y obvious from t hese r esul t s that the rigid body concept i s
inadequate for predi ct i ng wing l oads.
Taking into account only fundamental wing bending 7}., as el ast i c degree of freedom,
the r esul t s of shear force and bending moment s al ready i mprove considerably, though
t he peak bending moment s and shear forces st i l l ar e up to 10 and 20% l ess than ar e
found with the "compl et e" dynamic schemat i zat i on.
Wing t orsi onal moment s however a r e st i l l reproduced ver y poorly,
They ar e overest i mat ed inside the landing gear station and seri ousl y underest i mat ed
outside the landing gear . These quantities, and the same is t rue for the engine-,
wat er met hanol t ank-, pylontank-,
and Z accel er at i ons, can only
be predi ct ed with a reasonabl e
accuracy when the "compl et e"
dynamic schemat i zat i on is used.
Fr om this it can be concluded
that s t r e s s e s which ar e heavely
dependent on wing t orsi on, such
as the s t r es s es in the connecting
st r uct ur e of wing and heavy ex-
t er nal concent rat ed mas s es , will
be ser i ousl y in e r r o r if wing
t orsi onal flexibilty is neglected
in the anal ysi s of the landing
impact l oads. This conclusion
is i l l ust rat ed in pract i ce by s e-
ver al incidents of aii' craft losing
ext ernal st or es at heavy l andi ngs.
Sh(?r forces and bending moment s
ar e not so st ri ngent with r espect
to the requi red sophi st i cat i on of
the dynamic schemat i zat i on.
Without hori zont al wing bending
77. and pylon tank motion A ,
t hese loads ar e al ready pr edi c-
ted with such an accuracy that
in gener al it is allowed to speak
of "t r ue" l oads. Ther e ar e two
exceptions in the pr esent case,
viz. the shear forces inside the
landing gear, which ar e l owered,
however.by addition of t hese
ext ra two degr ees of freedom,
Finally it is quite obvious from
table 6. 1 -1 that the ai rcraft
pitch degr ee of freedom (f> can be
safely ignored,
The fact that at cert ai n wing
st at i ons the t orsi onal moment
var i es r at her i r r egul ar l y with
the number of el ast i c degr ees
of freedom taken into account,
is mainly due to the fact that
the rat i o between the pri nt i ng
i nt erval ( / t = 0,05 sec ) and
the period of wing t orsi onal
osci l l at i ons, which var i es
s
kg
T
kgm
B
kgm
de
Z
Z
Z
z
Z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
grees of fre
9
9>
QJ
< ?
< ?
g
<;
( ;
( ?
<?t
(j
( ?
9>
<?
^
g
<?
9
'Jl
n^
n>
n,
n,
n,
n,
n,
n,
V,
n,
n,
'Jl
n,
n,
n>
^1
n,
n2
n2
ni
ni
V2
nz
Vl
m
nz
ni
'?2
nz
wing
edom
X,
^,
Xi
X,
X,
X,
X,
X|
X,
x^
Xt
X,
V
X2 V
Xz V
V
X2 V
X2 V
V
Xz V
X2 V
st a t ion
% ^
% ^
fh />
1040
- 5 001
- 5 830
- 5 910
- 6167
- 8078
- 8087
- 7049
235 33
2695 5
24191
22406
17860
23733
18349
8025
24468
24149
27227
3165 7
29140
30479
3600"
- 5 799
- 6721
- 6813
- 7319
- 8918
- 8477
- 8090
23862
27245
245 49
21836
16602
21103
17183
21609
295 44
29036
28175
32060
31767
31162
3600'^
6296
6680
6618
7048
8474
7842
785 7
- 408
- 217
- 340
- 3126
- 75 22
- 2791
8227
21609
2885 3
28667
27884
31906
31438
31392
65 65
35 18
4828
4798
4718
5 211
5 171
5 096
- 173
- 15 9
- 107
- 175 3
- 4390
4186
6775
6970
11471
11425
11765
115 99
11640
11642
85 85 "
1920
3061
3048
3030
3102
315 8
3465 -
- 192
- 225
- 230
- 15 16
- 365 1
3609
4492
15 49
3435
3433
3922
3925
425 7
3921
85 85 "^
1110
1943
1936
2040
2007
2070
2020
- 5 7
- 117
- 118
- 290
- 739
- 837
2472
15 49
3320
3317
3771
3795
405 8
375 9
12660
90
25 1
25 2
326
305
395
35 9
- 7
- 20
- 20
- 28
- 75
- 88
- 224
77
228
229
303
280
35 7
341
m/sec
25 ,0
- 20, 1
- 20, 1
+28,5
- 63.4
+89. 7
- 125 .4
- 109.0
+67. 1
- 115 ,0
- 15 495
- 145 70
- 14724
- 14648
- 14836
- 145 48
- 14636 1
0
0
0
+ 0,42
+10,95
+ 9, 71
+ 6,47
m/sec
" W M }
18,0
- 20. 1
- 20, 5
+ 36,4
- 61,5
+86,0
- 111,3
- 165 ,0
+ 115 ,5
- 132. 3
K
z
kg
m/sec
"p
0
0
0
+ 25 .8
- 25 .3
0
61.6
+ 86.2
- 75 .1
- 6147
- 6371
- 6097
- 6306
- 6102
- 635 3
- 6347
1 - 19,21
- 21,45
- 21,69
- 22,5 0
- 30,41
- 29,98
1
- 26,08
K
X
kg
7A
Configuration II : Landing weight 35. 700 lbs . Fi l l ed extended wing fuel tank, Pylontank 50% filled.
<
1
I- -
0
c
Ui
o
o
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(1)
1
(0
r+
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CD
CD
Symmet ri e 10 tail down landing case. .Mx= 0,8 Descent velocity 10 f t / s ec.
load
^kg
T
kgm
B,
kgm
pylontank
i
with
without
with
without
with
without
wing st a t ion
1040
- 9141
- 10894
21917
- 1735 0
19113
- 15 876
24946
15 764
3600"
- 9039
- 11406
19630
- 1445 9
16777
- 13049
2765 1
17208
3600"^
9273
75 48
4023
- 3484
8170
- 7245
28098
17286
65 65
45 04
235 8
445 4
- 3871
3709
- 4214
10487
5 812
85 85 "
2925
1298
4324
- 3803
1806
- 2227
4077
3346
8585"^
1213
1298
349
- 5 68
1806
- 2227
385 5
3346
12660
499
442
97
- 75
298
- 35 3
480
430
acceleration
m/sec^
- 5 8, 2
- 224,5
72,6
- 112,5
83.4
- 125 ,6
160,0
15 1,0
n
P
m 1

"WM}
%
- 14907
- 15 317
"kg
- 6105
- 6425 1
Configuration : landing weight 35700 l bs, normal wing fuel tank, 10 taildown ai rcraft attitude, Mx = 0. 8
^kg
T
kgm
B,
kgm
filled
5 0% filled
without
filled
5 0% filled
without
filled
5 0% fiUed
without
- 8297
- 905 4
- 8312
23073
- 19821
23740
- 21923
17343
- 1345 6
35 748
28421
20414
- 835 9
- 9421
- 9191
20476
- 16703
21063
- 18761
17297
- 13042
35 816
31138
23164
8169
75 60
6815
4035
- 495 7
2046
- 2867
5 215
- 4495
35 464
30765
235 24
605 6
5 085
3722
45 79
- 4072
4001
- 3921
3340
- 2890
13620
11238
9009
3994
305 9
1901
4434
- 35 70
3629
- 3692
1742
- 1678
45 24
4268
4214
215 8
2002
1901
476
- 5 75
702
- 799
1742
- 1678
425 1
4079
4214
447
411
425
45
- 66
62
- 85
189
- 190
428
393
404
43,7
61, 3
136,6
68.2
- 113,9
67,8
- 108,6
61.9
- 97.7
142,4
- 162,0
79.7
- 105 ,3
n
P
-
n t
m
f
"WM 1
\ )
- 14666 1
- 14879
- 15 196
t^ z
1 kg
1 K
"kg
- 635 3
- 6384
- 4336
Configuration: landing weight 37500 l bs, extended wing fuel tank, 10 taildown ai rcraft attitude, Mx* 0. 8.
- 1 01 -
between O, 10 and 0,05 s e c . , is too l ar ge so that between two printed calculation
r esul t appreci abl y hi gher t orsi onal moment s may be experi enced. *
Since comput er capacity was a cr i t i cal item in the present investigation, most
of the cal cul at i ons dealt with in the following have been performed without the degr ees
of freedom hori zont al wing 7j L. bending and pylontank motion A .
The general conclusion to be drawn from this set of calculations i s that the
dynamic schemat i zat i on of the st r uct ur e .has to be fairly compl et e in or der to predict
"t r ue" landing impact loads for given initial conditions.
This conclusion can be further i l l ust rat ed by compari ng the calculated wing
loads of an F-27 without- and with a pylontank connected to the outer wing. Such a
configuration change not only bri ngs about a localized mass at a cert ai n wing station
but al so involves a fundamental influence on the dynamic char act er i st i cs of the ent i re
st r uct ur e.
The influence of the pr esence of a pylontank on wing loads and accel erat i ons has
been studied for two different ai rcraft configurations viz. one with the filled normal
wing fuel tank and a landing weight of 35. 700 lbs (configuration III) and the ot her with
filled extended wing fuel tanks and a landing weight of 37. 500 lbs ( configuration IV
II and I ) .
Initial conditions for both configurations ar e the same, viz. a descent velocity
of 10 f t / sec. , Mx = 0, 8 and 10 t ai l down symmet r i c landing i mpact . As sever al fuel
contents of the pylontank ar e compared with each ot her at a constant landing weight,
in or der to gener at e nearl y constant landing gear forces in the wing, fuselage weight
has to be i ncreased with the same amount as the decr ease of the pylontank weight.
Thi s meas ur e i s accept abl e si nce the amount of fuselage weight has only a smal l
influence on wing loads and nacel l e accel er at i ons. The calculated max. values of
shear forces , bending- and t orsi on moment s, landing gear loads and accel erat i ons ar e
col l ect ed and compared in table 6. 1 -2.
It will be difficult to draw gener al conclusions from t hese r esul t s. Some of the
differences in wing loads can be understood from the rigid body effects of concentrated
mas s es .
With ot her words, the t rend of t hese differences would be the same when no dynamic
effects would be taken into account. This i s true e. g. for the observat i ons that :
Bending moment s ar e everywhere lower when the pylontank is more empty.
The same is t rue for shear forces outside the landing gear station.
Inside the landing gear station shear forces ar e also influenced by fuselage
weights ( compari ng with and without pylontanks they ar e then l argest for the
case without pyl ont anks) . For the second configuration they were found however
to be l ar gest for the 50% filled pylontank,
However the two following observat i ons can only be explained from an important
change in dynamic char act er i s t i cs of the wing due to the pr esence of the pylontank :
a. Outside the pylontank t or si onal moment s i ncr ease consi derabl y when the pylon-
* In l at er cal cul at i ons this i nt erval t herefore has been reduced.
-1 02-
b .
tank i s removed. Thi s t rend is r ever sed inside the pylontank though the l ar gest
t or si onal moment s inboard the landing gear ar e found for the 50% filled pylon-
tank.
Horizontal accel erat i on of the pylontank is consi derabl y smal l er for the filled
pylontank.
The change in dynamic char act er i s t i cs which causes the observat i on mentioned
under a) is al ready cl ear from the uncoupled wing t orsi on modes as present ed in App, B
fig. B-4, showing a dr ast i c change of the shape of the second mode.
The deformation of the wing outside the pylontank is very much reduced as compared
with the cas e without pylontank.
The heavy pylontank i s maski ng the wing outside the pylontank in such a way
that the out er wing i s prohibited to deform like the wing inside the pylontank. In
this way the high frequency t orsi onal osci l l at i ons, which ar e in par t i cul ar excited by
the spin-up forces, ar e suppr essed outside the pylontank. That inside the pylontank
the t or si onal moment s ar e i ncr eased, can be explained di rect l y from the l ar ge l oca-
lized i ncr eas e in mas s moment of i nert i a from the pylontank.
These phenomena ar e cl ear l y i l l ust rat ed by fig. 6. 1-2 showing t orsi onal moment
t i me hi st or i es at the pylontank
location for ai rcraft both with-
and without pylontanks.
It will be cl ear that as soon as
the configuration do change, the
dynamic char act er i st i cs of the
syst em ar e changing as well, and
so careful anal ysi s as to the in-
fluence of such changes on lan-
ding impact loads is needed.
Since, as shown above, a pr o-
per dynamic schemat i zat i on is
of ut most i mport ance for the
prediction of rel i abl e landing
impact loads, different types
TORSIONAL MOMENTS AT PYLONTANK.
-WITH PYLONTANK. WITHOUT PYLONTANK.
0.20
fig. 6, 1 -2
of ai rcraft have to be schemat i zed differently in accordance with t hei r individual fea-
t ur es. For the present calculation example wing el ast i ci t y i s especi al l y i mport ant .
For r ear engined jet ai rcraft however the dynamic represent at i on of the r ear fuse-
lage, engi ne-t ai l combination deser ves attention.
Fusel age el ast i ci t y may also become important in the case of very long, sl ender
fuselages. Crudely speaking, it can be concluded from the numer i cal r esul t s of the
present investigation that the dynamic schemat i zat i on of the ai rcraft st r uct ur e has
to be so sophi st i cat ed that nor mal modes and frequencies of the ai rcraft up to at
least'-vy20 cps ar e r epr esent ed fairly accurat el y.
6.2. LANDING GEAR SCHEMATIZATION
The probl em of how sophi st i cat ed the landing gear behaviour has to be r e pr e -
sented in t he anal ysi s involves s ever al separ at e quest i ons which a r e al ready par t l y
- 1 03-
dealt with in par . 5. 3. It has been concluded t her e that general l y it is allowed to
assume the unsprung mas s to be zer o.
Also the friction forces between shock absor ber piston and cylinder were found to
have only a very sniall influence on the resul t i ng loads, and t herefore can be ignored.
Ther e is however a common opinion in the l i t er at ur e that the other char act er -
i st i cs of the ol eo-pneumat i c landing gear shock absor ber s have to be represent ed
fairly accurat el y, because they det er mi ne to a l ar ge extent the time hi st or i es of the
ver t i cal landing gear force. Thi s involves a hydraulic damping proportional to the
shock absor ber deflection velocity squared ( with a met eri ng pen present the damping
coefficient is mor eover dependent on shock absor ber deflection ), and a pneumatic
shock absor ber spri ng char act er i s t i c which i s descri bed by an exponential dependence
from the shock absor ber deflection ( eq. 3.5-37 ) which, in the current computation
pr act i ce, very often is approxi mat ed by a power s er i es of the deflection.
On the other hand, accordi ng to ref. 51 , a very si mpl e, l i near , deflection-force r e -
lationship may be assumed for the t i r e.
Another question, not st r i ct l y belonging to the probl em of schemat i zat i on,con-
cer ns the influence of ai rcraft st r uct ur al r esponse on landing gear loads and whether
this influence has to be taken into account. It has been common pract i ce in the past
to neglect this i nt eract i on between st r uct ur al response and landing gear loads because
computational possi bi l i t i es were too limited for dealing with the complete combined
anal ysi s, and because by neglecting t hese i nt eract i on effects drop test r esul t s can be
used as input for st r uct ur al r esponse cal cul at i ons.
Although the computational r est r i ct i ons ar e no l anger present , this procedure still
may be at t ract i ve as it si mpl i fi es the anal ysi s. Hence the question i s, how much
conser vat i sm i s involved when the i nt eract i on effect is neglected.
The t er m "Conser vat i sm" i s used because the energy taken up by the elastic
st r uct ur e, following a landing i mpact , has to be subt ract ed from the energy to be
st ored in the landing gear . For the present example only a smal l amount of conser-
vat i sm was found when the ver -
t i cal landing gear forces were
calculated for the rigid and the
el ast i c ai rcraft , as is shown in
fig. 6. 2- 1 . The el ast i c ai rcraft
was schematized as descri bed
above but without the pylontank
degree of freedom and the in-
plane wing bending degree of
freedom. The difference in ma.x.
value of Kj is only 6. 5%. Also
the shape of the t i me hi st ory of
K^ i s very much the same in
both cas es . Hence, this i nt er-
action effect is smal l . It varied
somewhat for different ai rcraft configurations but the difference in max. val ues ofK^
never exceeded this 6. 5%. Ther ef or e it can be concluded that t here is no objection
against the procedure of splitting up the anal ysi s in this way when a smal l amount
16 r
12 -
10 I kg
0.20
ELASTIC WIN6.
RIGID WING.
fig. 6. 2- 1
-1 04-
of conser vat i sm is accept ed.
Though her e, and in most ot her cas es , the i nt eract i on with wing el ast i ci t y
bri ngs about somewhat lower landing gear forces, in pri nci pl e al so a smal l i ncr ease
i s possi bl e when fundamental wing bending period i s smal l as compared with the t i me
needed for the landing impact (^^y . 2 sec ). Looking fig. 6. 2- 1 a wing bending period
of about 0, 15 sec. could possibly produce some i ncr ease inK^ due to el ast i ci t y. Thi s
r equi r es a fundamental wing bending frequency of at l east 7 cps, a value which will
not be easi l y found on cur r ent t r anspor t ai rcraft desi gns.
In modern computation pr act i ce t her e i s no objection however against si mul t -
aneously solving the non-l i near landing gear equations and the l i near equations of
motions of the el ast i c syst em. Therefore, this has been done in all cal cul at i ons per -
formed in the present anal ysi s. By doing so the i nt eract i on effect i s taken into ac-
count anyhow- and so the calculated loads ar e a few percent near er the ul t i mat e goal
of the present anal ysi s of predi ct i ng "t r ue" l oads.
For still mor e flexible wings than those of the calculation example ( F. 27) this
i nt eract i on effect between wing el ast i ci t y and resul t i ng shock absor ber load can be
mor e pronounced, and t herefore should be taken into account in the anal ysi s.
A l ast argui-nent for fully taking into account t hese i nt eract i on effects is that
by neglecting t hese effects the el ast i c r esponse of the st r uct ur e is under est i mat ed.
Due to t hese i nt eract i on effects, landing gear load t i me hi st or i es, acting as ext ernal
loading of the el ast i c st r uct ur e, contain smal l components of frequencies of the el as -
tic modes of the wing. These ar e absent in the landing gear load t i me hi st or i es in
which the el ast i c effects ar e negl ect ed. When t hese l ast load t i me hi st or i es would
act at the st r uct ur e, the el ast i c modes would be excited to a l es s er degr ee.
When a - s ymmet r i cal or rebound landings ar e dealt with another probl em
ar i s es however when drop t est r esul t s ar e used as input for landing cal cul at i ons.
In that case the sinking speed of the second landing gear at the moment of touch-down
is not known beforehand, and depends on the dynamic behaviour of the ai r cr af t . Then
the predi ct i on of the ver t i cal landing gear force t i me hi st ory for the second landing
gear or the second impact becomes much mor e difficult, because for that resul t i ng
sinking speed the landing gear force t i me hi st ory has to be det ermi ned as well.
LONGITUDINAL DRAG FORCES
In the introduction it has al ready been argued qualitatively that wheel drag forces
play an i mport ant rol e due to the rapidly changing magnitude during the spi n-up and
spri ng-back phase, t hereby exciting st r uct ur al vi brat i on.
In par . 5. 3 it has been shown mor eover that quantitatively conservat i ve but qual i -
tatively cor r ect r esul t s ar e obtained when constant values of Mxare applied, i. e.
neglecting the dependence of Mx from slip rat i o A and skidding velocity V5. . Therefore,
and for lack of comput er memor y capacity, a fixed value of Mx " 0. 8, is used in the
cal cul at i ons of the foregoing par agr aphs, a value which may be consi dered as t he
upper bound of the measur ed val ues.
But as t reat ed in chapt er 4, val ues of Mx'^^'^y widely with the nat ure and the
condition of the runway, as well as with the hori zont al speed at touch-down.
- 1 05-
T A B L E 6 . 3 - 1
Influence of longitudinal friction coefficient Mx '^^ maxi mum values of loads and
accel er at i ons due to a s ymmet r i cal landing i mpact ,
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- 1 0 6 -
INFLUENCE OF FRICTION COEFFICIENT Mx ON WING LOADS AND ACCELERATIONS
CONFIGURATION^ LANDING WEIGHT 37500lbs
FILLED EXTENDED WING FUEL TANK
FILLED PY LONTANK
Z = l Of t / sec, G=! 0
I 0 i
15-
' tonm
i
10
5
o^
- 5
-10
-15-1
-20
41-
- * J -
- ^ span (m)
m
i l OB
5
t
^ 6 5 ^ 8 5
AlOT
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4
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10'
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e
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r
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15
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0
Fi g. 6. 3- 1
-1 07-
Although for design loads the use of maxi mum values of fj.)( i s justified it is st i l l
i mport ant to know the influence of l ower values of Mx o" landing impact l oads. This
knowledge is cert ai nl y needed when measured and calculated landing i mpact loads
have to be compared, because during act ual landings Mx can var y considerably, de-
pending on runway, t i r e and landing conditions.
Resul t s of calculated max. values of loads and accel er at i ons for four constant
val ues of Mxtherefore ar e summar i zed in table 6. 3- 1 and fig. 6, 3- 1 .
It follows that the dependence of loads and accel er at i ons on fi ^i s far from
l i near . This is due to the fact that wing loads ar e not only dependent on the drag
force, but al so on the nor mal force, which i s nearl y independent of friction coeffi-
ci ent . The l ar gest dependence onMxis found for the t or si onal moments T, and for
engine- and wat er - met hanol tank accel erat i on n ^p and l^Y^f^ . It is found that these
quant i t i es ar e much s mal l er for Mx ' 0, as compared with the values for Mx - 0,25.
However, the vari at i on withMx^s much smal l er when Mx is vari ed between 0,25 and
0, 80. This can be explained by the fact that forMx " ^ t her e a r e no spin-up and spring
back phenomena. Ther ef or e high frequency t orsi onal wing vi brat i ons ar e not excited.
But once drag forces ar e present , whatever the value oi fi yi nay be, the max. variation
of the shear , bending and of the inboard t orsi onal moment s with MX i^- about 30%. *
Thi s resul t has a pr act i cal aspect for the compari son of calculated- and measu-
red l oads. When the value ofMx ^^ unknown, or is varying, duri ng the t es t s , as is
often the case, at most a difference of 30% between measur ed and calculated values of
t hese loads can be attributed to the fact thatMx ^s undefined. Thus, if measur ed val ues
of loads ar e smal l er than 70% or l ar ger than 100% of cal cul at ed values with MX ' 0, 8,
one can expect that besi des the uncert ai nt y of the value of Mx . t her e ar e al so some
ot her ( unknown) r easons for the a di screpancy between t est r esul t s and cal cul at i ons,
If, however, experi ment al r esul t s ar e between 70% and 1 00% of cal cul at ed r e -
sul t s, no such conclusion can be drawn because the difference may be due to a diffe-
r ence in value of Mx
The gener al conclusion i s that i ncorporat i on of drag f or ces in the anal ysi s is e s -
sent i al . Quantities which ar e pr i mar el y dependent on dynamic effects excited by the
dr ag f or ces, such as ri ^^ and n^p and some outboard t or si onal moments, a r e in par t i cu-
l ar sensi t i ve forMx vari at i on. The ot her loads ar e much l es s sensitive to variation in Mx
* For accel er at i ons n^^^ and 0 ^ and some outboard t or si onal moments t he influence of Mx
i s much mor e i mport ant . These quantities ar e pr i mar el y dependent on liigh frequency
wing t or si onal osci l l at i ons excited by the drag f or ces.
6.4. LATERAL DRAG FORCES
Two questions ar e to be t reat ed in connection with the influence of l at er al friction
forces on loads due to landing i mpact s.
They can be formulated as :
, What is the influence of the m a g n i t u d e of the l at er al friction forces on
landing impact loads ?
. How accur at e has the l at er al friction force to be represent ed in the analysis
in or der to cal cul at e with sufficient accuracy maxi mum design load values,
If the influence of the magnitude of the l at er al forces on landing i mpact loads
is smal l , then an accur at e physical schemat i zat i on of the l at er al friction forces
becomes l es s i mport ant .
-1 08-
With the lateral friction forces pointing outboard at the left landing gear, and
inboard at the right landing gear, it may be expected that the wing bending moment
inboard of the left landing gear increases with smaller values of My > and decreases
at the right wing inboard of the landing gear, since the bending moment due to the late-
ral friction forces act against the bending moment due to the inertia forces outside of
the landing gear. It is furthermore possible that some influence of lateral friction
forces will be found on outboard wing shear forces and bending moments due to a
reduced excitation of wing bending vibrations with smaller lateral friction forces.
Due to the fact that lateral friction forces do not introduce considerable wing torsio-
nal loads, a significant influence on quantities related to torsional wing excitation is
not expected.
The influence of the ma gni t ude of the lateral friction forces has been studied
by calculating wing loads and accelerations for an asymmetrical 10 tail down landing
with an initial roll angle 0 = -0, 8 for three c ons t a nt values of the lateral friction
coefficient My , viz. My = 0 . 0, 25 and 0,70. Lateral friction forces are pointing out-
board at the left landing gear and inboard at the right landing gear. These calculations
have been performed for configuration II, defined by a landing weight of 35, 700 lbs,
50% filled pylontanks and filled extended wing fuel tanks. The descent velocity has
been assumed to be 6 ft/sec and the (constant) longitudinal friction coefficient My = 0, 8,
Table 6. 4-1 compares max. values of loads and accelerations for M y =" 0/0, 25 and
0,70,
It follows from these results that qualitatively the influence of varying My is as ex-
pected. Especially the influence on torsional moments and accelerations is small. On
the other hand, the influence of lateral friction forces on bending moments inboard of
the landing gear is large. Not so large, but still significant, is the influence on shear
forces and outboard bending moments, as well as on K
It should be pointed out that for the present calculation example, the influence
of lateral friction forces on inboard bending moments is rather large due to the high
wing lay-out of the F-27. For low wing aircraft this influence will be much smaller,
Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the influence of the magnitude of the
lateral friction forces is important enough to justify a more detailed investigation
with respect to the question whether the lateral friction coefficient My can be assumed
to be constant, or whether a dependence of My on V J the instant value of tire yaw angle
with respect to the runway, has to be taken into account in order to predict more accu-
rate ma xi mum values of design loads due to landing impacts.
This has been done by repeating the calculation with a MyWhich is the following
function of tire yaw angle
^ymax
( eq. 3.5 - 25 )
li y=Hsj X 0,075 V^j Li . ( 0,075 V^)^l t or V^<20'
' ymax ) 27 J
My = My
max
= 0.7 tor V^>20
-1 09-
T AB L E 6 . 4 - 1
Influence of l at er al t i re friction coefficient on max. values of landing impact loads and
accel er at i ons,
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^kg
kgm
p
kgm
^kg
T
kgm
^kgm
1040
0
- 6421
0
- 7011
0
- 6993
15 792
- 13631
15 895
- 13278
17301
- 125 91
20779
- 8728
26193
- 10442
26789
- 5 95 9
315 9
- 4133
3772
- 385 2
3746
- 4135
19109
- 17022
21661
- 18670
19644
- 17893
12040
- 17085
17402
- 15 784
165 07
- 17183
3600"
0
- 65 77
0
- 705 4
0
- 7081
165 06
- 12062
17026
- 115 92
1845 4
- 12394
26940
- 4279
3325 8
- 4602
33649
- 4048
2803
- 4201
375 0
- 3829
3695
- 4060
18717
- 165 95
215 44
- 18272
19846
- 17911
7807
- 10744
10145
- 9384
9741
- 10075
3600"^
4362
- 1670
4688
- 2179
4183
- 2389
1846
- 1987
2660
- 3124
25 49
- 2975
17277
- 3888
1715 8
- 6005
1685 3
- 5 765
635 0
- 15 5 4
65 24
- 1070
6466
- 1339
2670
- 275 2
245 7
- 2841
2185
- 2609
19403
- 10626
19416
- 975 4
18989
- 10023
65 65
3149
- 814
2981
- 1396
2832
- 135 7
2893
- 2368
3876
- 2984
3804
- 3060
6378
- 3480
6238
- 3785
65 14
- 4448
3720
- 2046
3697
- 15 5 3
35 67
- 15 89
3361
- 2682
3126
- 3008
2990
- 3176
745 4
- 7040
7089
- 6606
6948
- 6338
85 85 '
165 7
- 5 87
1817
- 145 6
1795
- 932
2600
- 2197
3417
- 2727
335 6
- 2790
4141
- 295 7
45 70
- 3124
5 075
- 4284
1675
- 15 43
1837
- 145 6
1774
- 1437
2916
- 2460
2704
- 2684
2604
- 2839
45 36
- 3877
45 36
- 3944
4211
3660
8585^^
115 5
- 730
1206
- 1244
1163
- 920
5 33
- 5 13
632
- 5 43
625
- 5 60
4029
- 2692
4449
- 285 5
4833
- 4027
1230
- 1283
1206
- 1244
1191
- 1189
5 5 4
- 5 06
5 30
- 5 76
5 07
- 614
4369
- 3714
4333
- 3749
4279
- 3490
12660
5 5 3
- 411
626
- 45 4
673
- 5 84
70
- 68
81
- 5 5
83
- 70
5 47
- 411
621
- 423
667
- 5 82
5 75
- 438
5 75
- 45 4
5 67
- 423
72
- 5 7
63
- 69
60
- 76
5 65
- 447
5 65
- 448
5 5 7
- 417
accelerations
m/sec^
" m
A
" WM
n
P
"m
i
f
^WM
1
n
P
49,88
- 70,07
49.88
- 67,77
5 1,71
- 69, 25
87,64
- 100, 5 9
93, 37
- 103,97
93, 10
- 105 ,34
48,07
- 39, 93
66, 5 3
- 49,75
65 , 27
- 5 0,96
5 1,07
- 63,16
5 2,63
- 67,12
5 2, 12
- 67,86
73, 20
- 90, 15
76, 63
- 91,70
83, 81
- 96,44
5 6, 5 3
- 45 ,05
5 2, 5 1
- 48,42
5 0, 67
- 5 1,33
K
z
kg
K
y
kg
Kx
kg
Kz
kg
K'
y
kg
K
X
kg
- 8042
- 815 0
- 8213
0
- 5 182
3407
- 5 622
0
- 5 666
- 3810
+ 1425
- 385 7
+ 1478
- 3928
+ 145 6
- 8421
- 8339
- 8484
- 5 809
0
- 5 75 2
+ 27
- 5 85 3
0
- 3935
+ 1492
- 3925
+ 1444
- 3931
+ 15 04
c tr'
Conf. II : Filled extended wing fuel tank.
(^ = 0, 8 e = 1 0 Mx= 0,
Pylontank 50% filled. Landing weight = 35700 l bs. Descent velocity 6 f t / sec.
8 A :My (V^ ) B
Voy = 2 m/ s e c .
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3
p
X
<
p
I'
c
to
My= 0, 7 C : My =0, 7 and YQH O.
VQW = 2 m/ s e c . Vg = undef i ned
>
ta
r
H
-1 1 1 -
As explained in fig. 3. 5- 7, V depends on the instant value of l at eral velocity VQ
Therefore, in or der to be able to pei' form calculations with V , a new degr ee of
freedom, i . e. the l at er al c. g. di spl acement , has to be introduced,and a cer t ai n ini-
t i al l at er al velocity Vg has to be specified.
An upper limit for VQ is 15 m/ s e c (-^^ 30 kt s) , defined by the maxi mum cr os s
wind component. In that case V(o) is mor e than 20 so that in such extreme cases the
assumpt i on Mv " Mv is cert ai nl y valid.
In or der to have smal l initial values of yr r epr esent i ng mor e common cases of
smal l val ues of VQ , a value of VQ =2 m/ s ec has been assumed.
As in the foregoing par agr aphs the landing impact cal cul at i ons with My " My
ar e performed without l at er al e. g. displacementYQ as a s epar at e degree of freedom,
t her e is besi des the difference in the value of My also anot her difference between both
cal cul at i ons. The influence of this degr ee of freedom on cal cul at ed landing impact loads
can be det ermi ned by compari ng cases with and without this degr ee of freedom^and a s -
suming for both cases u^, = Uv
' ' max
Hence t hr ee cas es ar e to be compared, viz. case C of MU " Mv '0,7 without
' 'max
the YQ degr ee of freedom, of which the r esul t s ar e given in t abl e 6. 4-1 , and the two
cas es with the YQ degr ee of freedom, case A with My(V) and cas e B with My= My
The r esul t s of these t hr ee cases ar e compared in table 6. 4- 2.
' max
The main conclusion from table 6. 4-2 is that it is vi rt ual l y impossible to draw
gener al conclusions from t hese r es ul t s . For most loads case B produces highest l oads,
for ot hers it is case C or even case A.
In par t i cul ar the differences between case B and case C, showing the influence of the
rigid body degree of freedom ; l at er al di spl acement YQ , ar e in the case of the F-27
for the design cr i t i cal val ues of the loads so smal l that it can be concluded that this
degr ee of freedom need not to be taken into account for i t s own mer i t s in a rational
landing i mpact anal ysi s,
The question whether the introduction of this degr ee of freedom is needed in or der
to cr eat e the possibility of l at er al friction coefficient My to be calculated mor e accur a-
tely by taking into account the dependence of MyOn yr , the t i r e yawing angle, can be
studied by compari ng cas es A and B. In general case A gives lower loads than case B,
although t her e ar e except i ons. The l ar gest influence of the assumption My(i/'') against
My =My is found in r at her l ar ge reductions for bending moments and shear forces
inboard of the landing gear .
LATERAL TIRE FORCES FOR ONE WHEEL LANDING
ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT SIMPLIFICATIONS
cose B UyConstont.( ^7 Voy-2m/sec
CQ SeCtJy.q,? YoiO " - - - - ' - - Voy undeterminec)
Fi g. 6. 4- 1
A compari son of the l at er al t i re forces
i s present ed in fig. 6. 4- 1 . The maxi-
mum val ues a r e nearly the same. The
influence of the dependence of My onyr
i s indeed r est r i ct ed to the initial part
of the impact when max. val ues ar e not
yet reached. How this phenomenon af-
fects the t i me history of an inboard
wing bending moment can be seen in
fig. 6. 4- 2. As follows from table 6. 4- 2
this bending moment is t he wing load
showing the l ar gest differences be-
tween the t hr ee cases.
-1 1 2-
30
20
10
RI GHT WI NG BENDI NG MOMENT I NSI DE LANDI NG
GEAR STATION ( 3600)
'^\ A.
B
Ion m
coseA My(y) -ay-to ,.., ^^
Py. const ont =1^7 VoJto2 m/sec
Voy.2 m/sec
=a7Vo'to2 m/sec
, 0 Voy untJeterminetl
Fig. 6.4-2
10
TIME HISTORY OF LATERAL FRI CTI ON COEFFI CI ENT
1
spin_up
> y
"sec^ ^-
Fig. 6. 4- 3
The introduction of the complication
My (V) > t herefore would be justified
for loads which ar e design cr i t i cal .
However again it should be taken in-
to account that for low wing ai r cr af t s
t he influence of l at er al friction forces
on wing l oads, is much s mal l er than
in our cas e.
Moreover it has to be consi dered that
l ar ge descent vel oci t i es r at her often
combine with l arge l at er al vel oci t i es.
Then becomes the initial value of V
so l ar ge that during the whole impact
Mv has to be used.
' max
As heavy landings ver y often occur
j ust due to l ar ge crosswi nd compo-
nent s, a cer t ai n cor r el at i on between
t hese two initial conditions is pr esent .
Ther ef or e in par t i cul ar for design
load conditions it is justified to con-
si der a combination of maxi mum
val ues of descent velocity and of M y
Thi s l eads in most cases to cons er -
vative val ues of design cr i t i cal for-
ces and loads, and only in few cases
to somewhat underest i mat ed val ues.
For this reason it is thought that in
rat i onal r equi r ement s the as s ump-
tion of My = Mv_ mav be used
' "max
and that both the refi nement s :My(V)
and the l at er al c. g. di spl acement as
a separ at e degree of freedonijCan be
omi t t ed. In some cases however, es -
peci al l y for high wing ai r cr af t , it is
advi sabl e to take into account t hese
refi nement s.
Finally a r emar k with r espect to the value of Mres =V Mx + My : the combination
of a longitudinal friction coefficient Mx = 0, 8 and a l at er al friction coefficient My = 0, 7
would resul t in a resul t i ng friction coefficient of Mres = 1, 06 which i s a too l ar ge value.
Fi g. 6. 4-3 shows the t i me hi st ory of Mres ^^ the case that My is a function of y/ and Mx
= 0, 8. Only during a very short t i me i nt erval of about 0, 01 sec. the value of Mres ^'>^-
ceeds 0, 9. Except for this short i nt erval Mres ^^ before spi n-up about 0, 8 and after
spi n-up 0, 7. These ar e all very nor mal val ues. For the compl et eness also the t i me
hi st ory of My is added to fig. 6. 4- 3.
- 1 1 3-
INITIAL ROLL ANGLE
Besi des the a- s ymmet r i cal effects of l at er al t i r e friction forces due to an
i ni t i al l at er al velocity of the ai rcraft , which ar e t r eat ed in par . 6. 4, anot her a- s ym-
met r i c effect is the i ni t i al angle of r ol l of the ai rcraft . The influence of t hi s par a-
met er on loads due to landing i mpact s may be quite i mport ant so that in any rat i onal
anal ysi s it will be neces s ar y to i nvest i gat e for each wing l oad, ( i . e. shear , bending,
t orque at al l wingstations ) individually which value of the rol l angle produces highest
val ues of the load concerned,
In or der to i nvest i gat e the influence of this par amet er , a descent velocity of
6 f t / sec with a 10 t ai l down attitude has been assumed. In accordance with the r e -
sul t s of the previ ous paragraph, the effect of ai rcraft drift with respect to the runway,
has been taken into account by assumi ng l at er al friction forces between t i r e and run-
way to be independent from l at er al velocity. They ar e pointing outboard at the left
landing gear and inboard at the right landing gear, or, saying it in a different way,
the ai rcraft is drifting to the right with respect to the runway. This has been assumed
in or der to define a landing impact in which the effects of initial l at er al vel oci t i es and
of initial r ol l angle both ar e causi ng clockwise rol l i ng vel oci t i es, and, hence, ar e
supplementing each ot her in creat i ng asymmet r i c conditions. The fact that the Y
component of the ver t i cal force \<2Q r ot at es anti clockwise and i s acting t herefore in
opposite sense as My K^ ,does not cont radi ct this because sin 0 is negiigable with
r espect to My
The numer i cal values of the initial conditions for t hese calculations ar e col l ect -
ed in table 6. 5-1
XQ ( O) = 0
Y o (oLo
Zo ( OLO
0
/ a( o) =- 0, 8
-1.6
-2,0
ea(o)=10
V^a(o)-o
qe' o) =o
XQ( o) =o
Y o ( o) . o' * '
Zo(o)=6f^sec
)^a(o)=o
a(o)=o
Va(o)=o
qe( o) - o
XQ ( O ) = O
Y o ( o) - o
Zo( o) =o
ja(o) = o
a( o) . o
V>a(o)=o
qe(o) = o
Mx - 0.8
My - OJ
Vo, - ^Ony^ec
Tabl e 6. 5- 1
*) Since in this investigation the l at er al force i s assumed to be independent of the
l at er al velocity YQ the l at er al accel erat i on is independent of YQ(0).
The longitudinal friction coefficient has been assumed constant during the whole
spi n-up phase and zero after t he moment of spi n-up. What has been calculated ar e the
t i me hi st or i es of general i zed coordi nat es and of wing l oads. Some exampl es ar e
shown in fig. 6. 5-1 for 0 =-0, 8 . It follows that the react i ons of left and right wing
can be quite different. The main i mpressi on however is the strong osci l l at ory beha-
vi our of t he load t i me hi st or i es. The frequency of the osci l l at i ons i ndi cat es that es -
pecially wing t orsi on is heavily excited.
Load t i me hi st or i es for ot her val ues of (^^ show the same behaviour, though t her e is
a l ar ger t i me i nt erval t^i between the i mpact s of left and right landing gear ,
Thi s t i me i nt erval i s, for vari ous val ues of (/> , given in t abl e 6. 5-2.
-1 1 4-
^ a
t 3i ( s e c )
0
0
- 0, 8
0, 055
- 1 , 6
0, 1 1 0
r 3, 0
0, 21 7
- / '
Table 6. 5-2
The question can be posed whether this near proport i onal i t y between 0 and t ,
a SI
is due t o a constant rolling velocity or, just the opposite, is due to a very smal l rol l i ng
rot at i ons and a near l y constant sinking speed during the t i me i nt erval of i mpact s of both
landing gear s . For heigh descent vel oci t i es the l at t er assumpt i on proves to be t r ue, as
follows from fig. 6. 5-2, showing for the F-27 rol l angle (^ as a function of t i me. ( How-
ever as will be shown in par. 6. 8 the opposite i s t r ue if the descent velocity is low ).
The total rol l angle i s caused by both the l at er al t i r ef or ces and the one wheel
impact. Curve 1 gives the rol l angle for a landing with zero initial rol l angle.
This cur ve gives the roll angle due to the l at er al t i r e forces alone. For l ar ger i ni -
tial r ol l angl es,as r epr esent ed by curves 3 and 4,the resul t i ng r ol l angle due to the
one-wheel impact is shown to be as i mport ant as the rol l angle due to the l at er al
t i r e f or ces.
However, the rol l angle developed between the two i mpact s is shown to be only a
smal l par t of the initial roll angle.
The influence of the rol l angle on
max, values of wing loads, ver t i cal
landing gear loads and accel er at i ons
et c. is shown in table 6. 5- 3. It will
be cl ear that some of t hese max,
val ues vary quite i r r egul ar l y with
the initial rol l angle while ot her s
do not show quantitatively too much
vari at i on with . It will mor eover
^a
be observed when looking at fig.
6. 5-1 and at t abl e 6, 5-3, that no
definite preference for ei t her wing
half exi st s, when max. loads in left
and right wing halves ar e compar ed.
It depends on the quantity concerned and on the wing station whet her left or right wing
half exper i ences hi gher loads. But as compared with (^ = 0, the influence of finite
values of 0 i ncr eases the max. values of some quant i t i es consi derabl y. Differences
ranging from 10 - 50% ar e found in the pr esent investigation. The rol l angle cer t ai nl y
should be taken into account as a vari abl e in any anal ysi s aimed at predi ct i ng design
landing i mpact l oads.
Fr om the t i me hi st ory of Kz as shown in fig. 6. 5- 1 , it follows that for the F-27
ai rcraft for JJTQ =-0,8 the fi rst impact ends after,'^^ 0, 3 sec.
According to table 6. 5-2 a t i me i nt erval of 0, 3 sec. cor r esponds with an initial rol l
angle of about-4, 5 . Then the second impact would take place after the fi rst one i s
already finished.
This val ue of 0Q =-4, 5 can in al l cases be consi dered as an upper limit of the i ni -
tial rol l angle which need to be consi dered because it may be expected that then the
i nt eract i on between both i mpact s becomes very smal l .
2.0
9
O
1,5-
1.0
o
0,5
1 ifa() =0
2 0o(o) 0.8
3 0 Q ( O) = J , 6
^ ^ato) =-3,0
/
^ ^ ^ ^ 1 1
^
/Z
y//
^ s e c ^
i 1 1
,04 ,08 .12 .16 ,20 ,2U ,28
fig. 6.5-2
1 wing^
1 station
%
T
kgm
B,
kgm
^a
0
0.8
1.6
3. 0
0
0.8
1. 6
3,0
0
0.8
1.6
3.0
0
0.8
1,6
3, 0
1 left w i n g i m p a c t i n g first
|l2660
272
- 289
5 67
- 423
3 49
- 5 16
3 87 .
- 210
71
- 61
60
- 76
5 4
- 62
5 7
- 5 2
268
- 283
5 75
1 -417
336
- 5 06
382
- 216
8585'^
1328
- 729
1191
- 1189
1301
- 1476
1271
- 66
634
- 609
5 07
- 614
5 08
- 5 13
45 8
- 484
2693
- 2335
4279
- 3490
3199
- 4133
3180
- 978
K
Xkg
1343
- 4000
15 04
- 3931
1495
- 3904
15 24
- 3918
85 85 "
2120
- 1066
1774
- 1437
1907
- 1735
185 1
- 181
3006
- 2944
2604
- 2839
2736
- 25 04
2494
- 2429
2826
- 2375
4211
- 3660
3231
- 45 82
3169
- 1116
m/sec"
5 4,40
- 5 2,68
5 0, 67
- 5 1.33
5 3, 00
- 45 ,99
48,87
- 45 ,29
65 65
3612
- 1405
.3567
- 15 89
3487
- 1876
35 60
- 237
3333
- 3206
2990
- 3176
3110
- 2739
2832
- 2667
75 67
- 4284
6948
- 6338
7362
- 7711
7246
0
\ .
- 5 387
- 5 85 3
- 5 746
- 5 446
3600"^
5 820
- 1897
6416
- 1339
5 811
- 718
6184
- 414
2325
- 2725
2185
- 2609
2682
- 2041
2213
- 2695
21434
- 795 6
18989
- 10023
205 74
- 11261
20779
- 112
" W M
m/sec
5 4,37
- 111,04
83,81
- 96,49
82,64
- 105 ,81
82,69
- 98,94
3600
35 85
- 3415
3695
- 4060
2317
- 5 168
385 5
- 465 5
17685
- 16843
19864
- 17911
17672
- 1845 0
19337
- 16437
95 45
- 10885
9741
- 10076
12123
- 11145
8964
0
^kg
- 75 79
- 8484
- 85 87
- 85 91
1040
3846
- 2760
3746
- 4135
2904
- 4962
405 5
- 4436
19366
- 18748
19644
- 17893
17242
- 17986
18695
- 17894
15 139
- 12917
165 07
- 17183
16861
- 13803
17177
- 12866
m/sec
39,92
.-74, 83
5 2, 12
- 67,86
5 6,68
- 70,14
47,28
- 67,89
1 righ t wing |
1 1040
1147
- 7071
0
- 6993
410
- 6708
45 5
- 615 4
15 269
- 14407
17301
- 125 91
22111
- 17312
17310
- 115 38
28020
- 25 47
26789
- 5 95 9
23990
- 6430
245 18
- 6366
3600"
1100
- 735 5
0
- 7 081
211
- 6410
267
- 6198
14201
- 125 96
1845 4
- 123 94
23 7 83
- 187 15
17466
- 103 06
3 3 43 4
0
3 3 649
- 4048
3 3 814
- 5 269
3 1093
- 63 88
" m
m/sec
5 1,65
- 68,82
5 1,71
- 69,25
5 3,61
- 70,30
29,31
- 44,40
3600"^
4010
- 286
4183
- 23 89
4440
- 83 9
47 60
- 123 7
1628
- 2469
25 49
- 297 5
2622
- 3 029
23 02
- 2164
15 43 8
- 2664
1685 3
- 5 7 65
17 007
- 6624
16063
- 5 915
^^kg
- 8805
- 8213
- 7 5 09
- 7 485
. 65 65
2430
- 483
,2832
- 135 7
2902
- 125 5
2667
- 1186
2685
- 3011
3804
- 3060
3211
- 3461
2613
- 2339
665 2
- 1077
65 14
- 4448
7227
- 4111
9477
- 3407
^WM
m/sec^
87,65
- 97,79
93, 10
- 105 ,34
77, 72
- 86,66
63. 94
- 65 , 5 9
,85 85 "
15 69
- 338
175 9
- 932
1762
- 1088
2104
- 792
2396
- 2738
335 6
- 2790
2814
- 3086
2262
- 2103
3289
- 1100
5 075
- 4284
3785
- 2221
5 025
- 2284
" " ' > . .
- 625 9
- 5 666
- 5 025
- 4745
,8585"^
1210
- 25 4
1163
- 920
1317
- 803
1676
- 619
465
- 5 39
625
- 5 60
5 5 6
- 611
432
- 381
315 7
- 1075
4833
- 4027
3487
- 1903
4875
- 2247
m/sec
45 .97
- 5 0,40
65 ,27
- 5 0, 91
5 3, 5 4
- 5 7,42
45 ,88
- 39,30
12660
367
- 177
673
- 5 84
398
- 302
5 78
- 390
5 1
- 5 7
83
- 70
62
- 65
5 6
- 5 6
35 6
- 177
667 1
- 5 82
3 87
- 3 04
5 62
- 393 1
"kg
15 61
- 4012
145 6
- 3928 1
1331
- 3 5 83
1328
- 325 7 1
Configuration II Extended wing fuel tank, pylontank 50% filled, 1 0 taildown ai r cr . attitude, landing weight = 35700 l bs,
Mx= 0. 8, My= 0. 7.
a
m
o
(B
<
1'
n
o
H"
l-t-
^
o
>H
03
IH,
tn
(S
o

PJ
rn
D>
H"
u
o
o
3
O
->
!-
2.
v
H-"
(U
ri
orq
H-
CD
0
t-h
cr
3
?r

<
>-t
r+
O
9)
CD
o
"
*
p
p
a
^
^
3
n
e-r
ET
W
3
Q
H-
<
c+
o
o
0
I-!
a
w
t
tn
^
M
CD
O
3
(m
*-' 3
Xi
03
O
r+
^
3-
|U
><
<:
0)
c
to
in
O
<!
r+
1-,
O
H-
t-u
!U
3
a-
3
orq
orq
CD
IHl
0
i-J
O
n
CO
^
3
OfQ
, .
0
S)
a
u
v;
H-
o
3
(U
3
IV
3-
0
't
w
o
w
CD
3
oq
3
ft)
H
>
to
r
w
cn
cn
1 1 6-
Fi gur e 6. 5- 1
-1 1 7-
Now that the contributions of the two asymmet r i c aspect s of the landing impact,
viz. initial rol l angle and l at eral friction forces, have been separat el y analysed quan-
titatively, the rel at i ve importance of both t hese aspect s can be compared. With respect
to the t orsi onal moments it is cl ear from tables 6. 4-1 and 6. 5-3 that the i ncr eases as
compared with an impact with zero initial rol l angle ar e mainly due to the initial roll
angle. The same is t r ue for the pylontank accel erat i ons.
For the other quantities considered, shear forces and bending moment s, it fol-
lows from inspection of tables 6. 4- 1 and 6.5-3 that in general the effect of the l at er al
friction forces is mor e important than the effect of the initial rol l angle.
Hence both l at er al friction forces and an initial roll angle ar e important and
t herefore need to be taken into account in any analysis which will be called a r at i o-
nal anal ysi s.
6.6. PITCH ATTITUDE
The pitch attitude can vary between the horizontal one and a tail down attitude.
In the existing requi rement s both t hese ext r emes have to be t reat ed.
For a rational analysis it has to be investigated how sensitive the resul t s ar e
for this vari abl e. Is it necessar y to cover both ext remes as is prescri bed in the ex-
isting r equi r ement s, or is one of t hese attitudes producing cl earl y higher loads ?
This question has been t reat ed by comparing r esul t s of landing impact calculations
performed for both the level and the t ai l down pitch attitude for configuration V
( landing weight of 41 , 000 lbs, filled extended wing fuel tanks, and the absence of a
pylontank). Symmet ri cal landings ar e investigated with a descent velocity of 7,5
ft / sec. and a constant value of My " 0, 8. Results are present ed in table 6. 6- 1 .
The figures of table 6. 6-1 show that the t ai l down attitude produces in most
cases the highest loads and thus has to be t reat ed as the cr i t i cal attitude. Yet, also the
level attitude has to be checked, as table 6.6-1 shows that some wing loads ar e slight-
ly l ar ger for that attitude. Hence, the same can be said as with r espect to the roll ang-
e = 0
a
V =
0
X
5 2,8
m/sec
3.
^0 =
X
42,2
m/sec
wing
station
\E
T,
kgm
^kgm
^kg
T,
kgm
kgm
1040
3696
-8825
17940
- 16767
185 02
-17941
415 4
- 9292
28083
-15231
20110
- 18774
3600"
3586
- 945 0
17824
- 16105
15 870
-7333
405 8
- 10216
27485
- 15 293
16212
- 8380
3600"^
5 118
- 2468
6390
-6136
16433
- 7344
5 200
- 2730
6924
-6379
16377
- 8000
65 65
2628
-1159
4033
- 3947
65 30
- 2482
2604
- 125 4
4621
-4349
6810
-2685
85 85
1364
-585
2192
-2176
3606
- 2244
1433
-640
2499
-2420
3917
-2361
12660
401
-272
243
- 25 0
386
-282
452
-331
285
-281
441
-343
ace, 2
m/sec
92,55
- 100,99
101,10
- 110,5 0
96,86
-111.05
114,35
-128,35
n
m
<
"wM,
V I
1
" WM ,
Table 6. 6- 1
-1 1 8-
l e, viz. t hat the pitch attitude influences the calculated r esul t s to such an extent that it
has to be vari ed when looking for maxi mum l oads.
The forward speeds VQ in table 6. 6- 1 , ar e consi st ent with the pitch angles
concerned. In or der to separat e properl y the influence of pitch angle and forward
velocity, the influence of forward velocity has to be investigated separat el y. Thi s can
be done by compari ng the figures of table 6. 6- 1 with those of table 6.7-1 of the next
paragraph.
In t abl e 6. 6-1 it is found that the t ai l down landing with the lower value ofVQ
produces the highest loads and accel er at i ons. It follows from table 6. 7- 1 that for al l
stations outboard of the landing gear, the loads vary ver y little with forward speed,
and if they do so they ar e somewhat higher for lower values of VQ^ . Therefore it can
be concluded that for t hese wing st at i ons the influence of pitch attitude as found from
table 6. 6- 1 , is part l y due to the different values of VQ . The same is t r ue for bending
moment s inboard of the landing gear.
The t orsi onal moments and shear forces for wing st at i ons inboard of the landing
gear, however, i ncr ease with i ncreasi ng values ofVo , while in table 6.6-1 the pitch
attitude with the lower value ofVo^show higher values of t hese l oads. Hence, for t hese
loads at t he inboard stations the influence of pitch attitude is still l ar ger than shown by
table 6. 6- 1 . The same is t rue for wat er methanol tank accel erat i on n,,,,,. Therefore
WlVt
the conclusion that in most cases t ai l down landing is cr i t i cal , st i l l holds t r ue.
FORWARD VELOCITY
As dealt with in par . 3. 5 and chapt er 4, initial forward velocity vari at i ons influence
the moment of spi n-up, and the initial value of the friction coefficient Mx
La r ge r landing speeds bri ng about l ar ger spin-up t i mes. When the ver t i cal force
Kz st i l l i ncr eases at the moment of complete spin-up, this involves l ar ger hori zon-
t al forces since Kj< = Mx Kz_. The effect of the phenomena on resul t i ng wing l oads,
ground f or ces, and accel erat i ons, has been studied by compari ng landing i mpact s for
four val ues of the forward velocity, viz, 35, 40, 45 and 50 m/ s e c .
The cal cul at i ons have been performed for configuration II, viz. a landing
weight of 35, 700 l bs. , filled extended wing fuel tanks and 50% filled pylontanks,
As initial conditions ar e used 6 ft / sec symmet r i cal 10 t ai l down landing with a
constant value of 0,8 of the friction coefficient Mx . A constant value of Mx has
been applied in or der to separ at e the effects of forward velocity WQ on spi n-up
time t and on initial value of Mx Thi s simplification is acceptable anyhow, as
the influence of VQ on Mx ^^ much smal l er than the influence of tg on K^g
Results of t hese calculations in table 6. 7-1 cl earl y show that forward velocity is :'of
secondary i mport ance for most l oads. Engine ver t i cal accel erat i on is vi rt ual l y inde-
pendent of V Q . Pylontank horizontal accel erat i on decr eases somewhat with i ncreasi ng
VQ . The influence on wat er methanol tank ver t i cal accel erat i on n ^ ^ is l a r ge r :
a decr eas e of the or der of 1 5% is observed when ^^ is i ncreased from 35 m/ s e c
to 50 m/ s e c .
As the ver t i cal landing gear force is near l y independent on Vg and the spin-
up force var i es only 6% with the VQ vari at i on between 35 and 50 m/ s e c , the sen-
sitivity of n ^ ^ for VQV vari at i on must be due to specific dynamic effects, e, g. a
smal l er excitation of wing t orsi on as a r esul t of l ar ger spi n-up t i mes,
-1 1 9-
T AB L E 6 , 7 - 1
Influence of forward velocity VQ on symmet r i cal landing impact l oads and
accel er at i ons,
CM
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-1 20-
Such an explanation i s in line with the observat i on that outboard wing t orsi onal
moment s, which ar e pr i mar i l y det ermi ned by dynamic effects, al so decr ease with in-
creasi ng VQX . while t orsi onal moment s inboard of the landing gear, which ar e mor e
or l ess proport i onal with spin-up force, i ncr ease with i ncreasi ng VQ
As could be expected, bending moment s and shear forces ar e l ess influenced by
forward velocity. As some loads i ncr ease with i ncreasi ng values of VQ and some
others decr eas e with VQ , the whole range of possi bl e forward velocities at touch
down should be considered when looking for maxi mum values of loads. According
to chapt er 4, a range of 1 to 1, 6 V then has to be consi dered, while also the
influence of altitude and t emper at ur e on Vg has to be taken into account.
On the other hand it follows from chapt er 4 that a very l ar ge percent age of all
landings i s performed in a much s mal l er velocity range. According to fig. 4-3 nearl y
all landings for modern ai rcraft ar e performed between 1 , 2 and 1 , 4 V5 . As mor e-
over the probabi l i t y that a high descent velocity combines with an unfavorable forward
speed for a par t i cul ar design load is ver y smal l indeed, and because it follows from
this par agr aph that VQ,, is of secondary i mport ance for most loads, it seems justifiable
to pr escr i be only a single value of the forward speed, viz. 1, 3 Vg in rational r equi r e-
ments for landing impact design l oads.
DESCENT VELOCITY
In the foregoing paragraphs the influence of a number of vari abl es on landing
impact loads has been studied. As it i s shown in paragraphs 6 , 3 - 6 . 7 that the des-
cent velocity is the most i mport ant initial condition and because for smal l er ai rcraft
the st at i st i cal l y derived limit descent vel oci t i es ar e lower than the pr escr i bed values
in the exi st i ng r equi r ement s, it i s i mport ant to know how landing impact loads ar e
dependent on descent velocity.
Besi des the influence of descent vel oci t i es on wing loads, al so t hei r influence
on time hi st or i es of ext ernal loading, ( i. e. the ver t i cal and horizontal landing gear
loads ) i s an i mport ant question, and well not only for the s t r es s anal ysi s of the
landing gear st r uct ur e itself, but also because the t i me hi st ory of the ext ernal loading
det ermi nes to which degree dynamic effects ar e excited.
The influence of descent velocity on wing loads and accel erat i ons due to sym-
met ri c 1 0 tail down landing i mpact s, has been studied for t hr ee different configu-
rat i ons.
The fi rst ( conf. IV) i s char act er i zed by both e x t e n d e d wing fuel tanks
and pylontanks completely filled, and a landing weight of 37, 500 l bs.
Cal cul at i ons have been performed for descent vel oci t i es of 10 f t / s e c
and 6 f t / s ec.
9
- 1 21 -
T AB L E 6 . 8 - 1
Influence of descent velocity on wing and landing gear loads, and accel erat i ons, due to
a symmet r i cal 10 t ai l down landing i mpact .
1 *
|ft/sec.
10
6
10
6
10
6
Wing
station
^kg
T
kgm
B,
kgm
1040
35 6
- 7 048
125 7
- 43 07
20887
- 17 263
1483 7
- 12814
3 2669
- 107 40
19120
- 65 43
3 600"
13 42
- 805 8
1117
- 4896
19145
- 14648
13 7 97
- 115 86
3 5 3 67
- 0
193 64
- 0
3600"^
8064
- 0
47 17
- 0
5 869
- 3 3 83
4249
- 3 062
3 47 19
- 0
19068
- 0
65 65
5 83 6
- 0
3 292
- 0
7 640
- 3 445
4998
- 267 4
13 194
- 0
7 5 93
- 0
85 85 "
443 5
- 0
23 02
- 0
6265
- 3 293
4297
- 23 84
423 6
- 7 27
27 69
- 43 7
8585"*'
2428
- 371
1341
- 5 2
1843
- 1860
884
- 103 3
3 93 1
- 5 5 1
2606
- 3 28
12660
3 89
- 119
229
- 75
15 9
- 15 5
77
- 86
3 69
- 147
215
- 77
ace.
m/s
5 8, 5
- 111, 9
33, 4
- 78, 5
125 , 6
- 134, 8
67, 5
- 64 1
44, 3
- 34, 9
35 , 9
- 30,8
n T
m
f
1
"WMI
n
P
- 14638
- 8014
\. t
""kgil
25 94
- 6346
1420
- 4134
Configuration IV: landing weight 37500 l bs, filled extended wing fuel tank, filled pylon t anks Mx= 0. 8,
10
3
10
3
10
3
'kg
T
kgn
B|
kgm
0
- 10894
0
- 4603
19113
- 15 876
12883
- 12066
10118
- 15 764
1891
- 8225
0
- 11406
0
- 5 036
16777
- 13049
125 82
- 115 20
17208
- 0
5 097
- 0
75 48
- 775
2271
- 0
8170
- 7245
2020
- 1936
17286
- 0
45 08
- 0
235 8
- 0
719
- 0
3709
- 4214
1016
- 1089
5 812
- 35
1987
- 91
\ /
\ /
Y
/ \
/ \
/ \
1298
- 274
432
- 121
1800
- 2227
5 00
- 5 74
3346
- 488
1187
- 460
442
- 15 6
179
- 108
298
- 335
90
- 97
430
- 171
177
- 116
83, 4
- 125 , 6
37, 7
- 48,0
134, 4
- 15 0, C
38, 4
- 45 , 9
-1
k
"wM
1
1
- 15 317
- 4497
IK 11
''kg
2715
- 6422
|789 1
1 - 245 3 1
Configuration III: landing weight 35700 l bs, filled nor mal wing fuel tank without pylon tanks Mx'^ 0, 8.
10
5
2
10
5
2
10
5
2
kg
kgm
kgm
35 07
- 8089
2429
- 4489
1209
- 2482
1885 3
- 15 171
16742
- 15 312
135 39
- 12624
25 781
- 18421
135 93
- 10047
6821
- 5 931
3426
- 8973
25 89
- 5 235
1338
- 2991
19084
- 145 40
16225
- 145 86
13184
- 11810
24821
- 125 79
125 49
- 5 869
7167
- 45 74
75 5 5
- 35 97
3833
- 2001
225 9
- 1318
75 74
- 7394
4498
- 4389
2794
- 2739
24945
- 1285 3
12475
- 5 386
6776
- 3744
3989
- 1960
195 2
- 789
1036
- 5 88
4797
- 4769
315 6
- 305 0
1726
- 1711
9600
- 4909
4809
- 1728
2636
- 1897
\ /
\ /
\ /
\
1
/\
/ \
/ \
/ \
2075
- 1182
105 5
- 45 2
5 5 9
- 402
2621
- 2619
175 4
- 1696
919
- 924
4282
- 2865
2334
- 1132
1167
- 1047
402
- 320
239
- 188
147
- 139
287
- 292
197
- 192
102
- 102
378
- 331
233
- 195
146
- 138
98, 80
- 114,04
69,67
- 75 ,62
36,38
- 39, 72
111,91
- 133,85
73, 11
- 86, 16
47,83
- 5 1, 39
13,09
- 28,78
9, 47
- 16, 61
4, 78
- 9,29
4
"m I
4
"wM

- 14712
- 65 93
- 3714
^ k g l]
1 '''^H
2607 1
- 6343
1168 1
- 35 72
1 658 1
1 - 2005 1
Configuration I : landing weight 34000 l bs. filled extended wing fuel tank without pylontanks Mx= 0, 8.
-1 22-
. The second ( conf. Ill) is rel at ed to an F-27 without pylontanks, with filled
n o r m a l wing fuel tanks and a landing weight of 35, 700 l bs. Descent vel o-
ci t i es investigated for this configuration ar e 10 ft / sec and 3 f t / sec.
The third ( conf. I) configuration again is without a pylontank but now with
filled extended wing fuel tanks and an LW of 34, 000 lb. Descent vel oci t i es
assumed ar e 10 , 5 and 2 f t / sec. Thi s i s the configuration of the ai rcraft
for which, as descri bed in chapt er 7, the experi ment al det ermi nat i on of
landing i mpact loads has been performed.
For t he fi rst configuration the cal cul at i ons have been performed for the com-
plete el ast i c schemat i zat i on. For t he ot her configurations hori zont al wing bending
has been deleted as a degree of freedom because no pylontanks ar e present , and it
i s this degree of freedom which i s par t i cul ar l y rel at ed to t he pr esence of pylontanks,
Spin-up forces ar e calculated by assumi ng a constant value of Mx = 0, 8 up t i l l the
moment of compl et e spin-up, after which Mx - 0 i s assumed,
Resul t s of calculated max. val ues of loads and accel erat i ons for the t hr ee dif-
ferent descent vel oci t i es ar e collected in t abl e 6. 8-1 for al l t hr ee configurations. -
As expected it appear s that all loads ar e strongly dependent on descent velocity but
of cour se t her e is no proport i onal i t y, of the loads to the descent velocity.
Thi s is furt her i l l ust rat ed by table 6. 8- 2 showing the rat i os of loads and accel er at i ons
as calculated for configuration IV, for descent vel oci t i es of 10 f t / sec and 6 f t / sec.
The deviation of t hese rat i os from the value 1, 67 show the non-proport i onal i t y of
loads and descent vel oci t i es.
z
. o
ratio
1,67
1,67
1,67
Wing
sta.
S
T
B
1040 3600" 3600'^ 65 65 85 85 ' 8585"^ 12660
( 0,28)*( 1,20) 1,71 1,77 1,90 1,81 1,70
- 1,64 - 1,65 -- -- -- (-7,15) - 1,5 9
1,41 1,39 1,38 1,53 1,46 2,08 2,06
- 1,34 - 1,27 -1,11 - 1,29 - 1,38 - 1,80 -1,81
1,71 1,83 1,82 1.74 1,53 1,51 1,71
- 1,64 -- -- -- (-1,66) (-1,68) -1,91
ace.
1,75
- 1.43
1, 86
- 2, 10
1, 24
- 1,13
"^WM
n
P
Tabl e 6.8-2
Configuration IV : Landing weight : 37500 lbs with filled pylontanks
* figures between br ackt es ar e rel at ed to val ues which ar e much smal l er
than correspondi ng unbracket ed figures and t her ef or e ar e inconclusive.
, Thi s way of studying the influence of descent velocity on landing impact response
quantities makes it also possible to i l l ust r at e once mor e the extent to which the r e -
sul t s of rat i onal landing load anal ysi s ar e due to descent velocity, and to which ex-
tent they ar e al so due to the t ypi cal asymmet r i c aspect s of a landing, viz. due to l a-
t er al friction forces and a one-wheel landing i mpact .
Ther ef or e load rat i os of table 6. 8-2 need only to be compared with the cor -
responding load r at i os of a 10 f t / sec symmet r i cal landing impact to a 6 f t / sec a-
symmet r i cal landing impact, the l ast one char act er i sed by an initial roll angle of
- 0, 8 and by a l at er al friction coefficient of 0, 7. These l ast rat i os ar e .^jiven in
table 6. 8-3.
- 1 2 3 -
K
ratio
1,67
1,67
1,67
Wing
sta.
S
T
B
1040
0,5 7
- 1,15
1,07
- 1,13
1,04
- 0,62
3600"
0,47
- 1,15
0,89
- 0, 98
0,94
- 0
3600"^
1,22
- 0
0,60
- 0,92
1,5 1
- 0
65 65
1, 43
- 0
1,05
- 1,21
1, 23
- 0
85 85 "
1.49
- 0
1,08
- 1,27
0,84
- 0, 19
85 85 "^
1,24
1,11
- 1, 36
0,83
- 0, 18
12660
0,5 9
- 0,23
0, 77
- 1,16
0,5 4
-0,-23
ace.
1,22
- 1,46
1,43
- 1,44
0, 93
- 1.07
n 4
m
"WM|
n
P
Configuration II Landing weight : 35700 lbs, 50% filled pylontanks
Tabl e 6. 8- 3
Though the configuration to which tables 6. 8-2 and 6. 8-3 ar e devoted ar e not
completely i dent i cal ( table 6. 8-3 is rel at ed to a LW of 35, 700 lbs with 50% filled
pylontanks ), it can never t hel ess be concluded that the 6 f t / sec rat i onal asymmet r i c
landing case is much mor e sever e than the 6 ft / sec rat i onal symmet r i cal one.
All val ues of table 6. 8-3 ar e consi derabl y smal l er than the correspondi ng val ues of
t abl e 6. 8- 2, indicating that the subst ant i al i ncr ease of r esponse quantities i s due to
the asymmet r i cal aspect s of the landing.
In or der to study the dependence of the ext ernal loading of the dynamic syst em,
on descent velocity, fig. 6. 8-1 shows for configuration I the t i me hi st or i es of vert i cal
impact force and the shock absor ber deflection, together with the moment of spin-up,
for the t hr ee descent vel oci t i es.
VERTICAL LANDING GEAR FORCES AND SHOCK ABSORBER
DEFLECTION TIME HISTORIES FOR THREE VALUES OF
DESCENT VELOCITY
w. 34000 l bs
cof g 40%
Vu- 40 m/sec
10toi l down
syrnmefri col
v^hout pylontank-
moment of spin-up
Fi g. 6. 8- 1
-1 24-
The i mpr essi on is that the force t i me hi st ory for 10 f t / sec has a mor e osci l l -
atory nat ur e than the curves for 5 f t / sec and 2 f t / sec. Thi s would indicate that dyna-
mic effects ar e mor e heavily excited by higher descent vel oci t i es. Another obser va-
tion from fig. 6. 8-1 i s, however, that the moment s of compl et e spin-up for the t hr ee
descent vel oci t i es, do not vary as much as the difference in descent velocity would
suggest ( 0, 035/0, 053 and 0, 083 sec. r e s p. ) . As the spi n-up t i me is rel at ed to the
highest st r uct ur al frequency which is excited by spi n-up and spri ng back phenomena,
it may t her ef or e be concluded that also for low descent vel oci t i es resonance frequen-
cies up t i l l 20 cps as mentioned in par. 6. 1 have to be r epr esent ed in the dynamic mo-
del of the st r uct ur e.
It al so follows from fig. 6. 8-1 that, for the range of descent velocities between
2 ft/sec and 5 f t / sec, the shock absor ber is fully extended again after viz. 0, 3 and
0, 6 sec. As this is the range of descent velocities occuri ng in daily operation of the
kind of ai r cr af t dealt with, it follows for this type of shock absor ber that r e b o u n d
l a n d i n g s in nearl y al l cases can be consi dered as landings with fully extended
shock abs or ber s , because, depending again on the descent velocity, rebound landings
generally occur at l ar ger t i me i nt erval s after the fi rst impact than 0, 3 k 0, 6 s e c . ,
needed for reelongation of the shock absor ber .
At l east for this type of shock abs or ber s , it then can be expected that rebound
landings will not pose mor e sever e initial conditions for landing i mpact s than those
for pr i mar y i mpact s.
The curves from fig. 6. 8- 1 finally l ear n something about the influence of des-
cent velocity on the t i me i nt erval between the i mpact s of left and right landing gear
when i ni t i al roll angles ar e pr esent . Fr om par. 6. 5 it i s l earned that for a descent
velocity of 6 ft / sec the rol l angle does not change substantially during the impact so
that t i me i nt erval between left and right impact is mainly det ermi ned by the deflection
speed of t i r e and shock absor ber .
However, for the low descent velocity of 2 f t / sec the situation is different.
Then i s, accordi ng to fig. 6. 8- 1 , the shock absor ber deflection for symmet r i cal l an-
dings about 0, 03 m and the t i r e deflection about 0, 02 m ( t i r e stiffness being 1 55 t on/ m
and Kzj^ = 3, 8 t on) so that the total deflection is about 0, 05 m. For an one-wheel i m-
pact it then will be of the or der of 0, 10 m, assumi ng that the initial accel erat i on of the
shock absor ber is twice as much as at a symmet r i cal landing, and that the total deflection
i s proport i onal to the initial shock absor ber accel erat i on. With an initial rol l angle of 3
and a di st ance between both landing gear s of 7, 20 m as valid for the F- 27, the di st ance to
the ground of the second gear i s 0, 37 m, so that for low descent vel oci t i es, the i nt erval
between i mpact s is mainly det ermi ned by the rol l angle t i me hi st ory. This in cont r ast with
the situation for h i g h descent vel oci t i es when the t i me i nt erval mainly depends on the
vert i cal velocity t i me hi st ory. Hence, as soon as due to low descent vel oci t i es al so r ol l
angle vari at i on is essent i al for det ermi ni ng the t i me i nt erval between i mpact s of left and
right landing gear, this time i nt erval becomes much l ar ger due to the fact that accordi ng
to figure 6. 5-2 the rol l velocity developing after a one wheel impact is smal l even for
high descent vel oci t i es.
- 1 25-
This low rol l velocity is due to the l ar ge ai rcraft moment of inertia around the
longitudinal axi s.
It can t herefore be concluded that besi des pr i mar i l y det ermi ni ng the magnitude
of the loads due to landing i mpact s, the initial descent velocity i s al so strongly r e s -
ponsible for the way in which asymmet r i c landing ar e performed.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
In the foregoing chapt ers and par agr aphs it has been found that for predicting "t r ue"
loads due to landing impact - "t r ue" in the sense as defined in par . 1 .4 -, the follow-
ing assumpt i ons and simplifications may be introduced in the anal ysi s.
, Since pract i cal l y all landings ar e asymmet r i cal , the anal ysi s of symmet r i c
landings can be omitted. A formulation i s requi red taking into account an one-
wheel fi rst impact and l at er al forces on the landing gear due to a l at er al motion
of the ai rcraft with respect to the runway.
, The dynamic schemat i zat i on of the ai rcraft st r uct ur e has to be so sophisticated
that the nor mal modes and - frequencies of the st r uct ur e up to at least ' ^ 20 cps
ar e r epr esent ed accurat el y.
, Char act er i st i cs of oleo-pneumatic landing gear shock abs or ber s have to be r e-
present ed fairly accurat el y. This involves a hydraulic damping proportional
to the shock absor ber deflection velocity squared ( possibly modified by met er -
ing pin act i on) , and a polytropic pneumatic shock absor ber spri ng char act er i s -
tic which can be descri bed by a power ser i es of the deflection.
Ti r e deflection char act er i st i cs ar e adequately descri bed by a linear force de-
flection rel at i onshi p.
, Horizontal friction forces det ermi ned by a value of the friction coefficient Mx "
0, 8, t oget her with an adequate descri pt i on of spin-up phenomena have to be in-
cluded in the anal ysi s.
, Lat er al friction forces have to be included in a rat i onal anal ysi s in or der to
si mul at e the effects of l at er al motion of the ai rcraft with r espect to t he runway.
. It is allowed to assume the unsprung mass to be zero for t he calculation of the
ver t i cal landing impact force.
. At the moment of touch-down it can be assumed, in agreement with pr esent r e-
qui r ement s, that aerodynami c lift forces equal ai rcraft weight.
Aerodynamic forces due to landing impact motion can be ignored.
, A rat i onal value of the most i mport ant par amet er in landing impact anal ysi s,
ver t i cal velocity at touch-down, i s 6 - 10 f t / sec. The s mal l er value r ef er s to
smal l and medi um sized piston engined and t urboprop ai r cr af t , whereas the
l ar ger value is found to be r epr esent at i ve for l arge turbojet aircraft able to
follow automatic landing pr ocedur es.
. Physi cal evidence is also in cl ose agreement with existing r equi r ement s with
r espect to forward speed at touch-down. A value of V to 1 , 25 V i s pr e s c r i -
bed wher eas val ues between 1, 2 and 1, 4 V ar e derived from a large number
of l andi ngs.
-1 26-
. More sophisticated and l ess conservat i ve r esul t s will be obtained when the
following refi nement s ar e taken into account :
a) the i nt ernal dry friction forces between shock absor ber beari ngs and cylin-
der wall.
b) the dependence of the horizontal friction coefficient Mx on skidding velocity.
c) the actual value of the unsprung mas s , not only for the spi n-up phenomena.
but al so for ver t i cal forces.
With r espect to the rel at i ve i mport ance of the vari ous par amet er s , the following
conclusions could be derived from the landing i mpact anal ysi s of the F-27 ai rcraft
, The ver t i cal velocity at touch-down is the most i mport ant par amet er . But also
the initial r ol l angle is fairly i mport ant , i ncreasi ng in the case of the F-27 the
calculated quantities valid for zero rol l angle with 10 to 50%. The value of the
initial rol l angle producing highest loads depends very much on the load station
and whether shear forces, bending moment s or t orsi on moment s ar e consi dered.
. The introduction of l at er al friction forces in the anal ysi s i ncr eases the loads
produced in the ai rcraft st r uct ur e by the landing i mpact s. For the present cal -
culation example it was found that wing shear forces and bending moment s ar e
somewhat i nsensi t i ve to the value of the initial rol l angle and very much depen.-
dent on the value of the l at er al friction coefficient, whereas for wing t or si onal
moment s, more or l ess the opposi'^e i s t r ue. The simplification of assumi ng con-
stant values of//y and ignoring the rigid body degree of freedom of l at er al di spl a-
cement, proves to be justified when some conser vat i sm in resul t i s accepted.
, An account of the short duration of the most i mport ant phase of the landing impact
('^ 0, 2 sec ) and of the l arge ai rcraft moment of i nert i a about the l at er al axi s, the
ai rcraft pitch degr ee of freedom can be safely ignored,
This bri ngs about a pract i cal l y i nsensi t i vi t y of the r esul t s of landing impact
cal cul at i ons to ai rcraft c.of g.position,
, Dependence of landing impact loads from an initial angle of pitch is such that
for the F-27 the tail-down attitude near l y always produces the highest l oads.
As t her e ar e exceptions, the l evel ai rcraft attitude has also to be consi dered.
, The vari at i on of landing loads with the value of the hori zont al t i r e friction co-
efficient Mx > depends very much on the load consi dered. When MX i^ vari ed
between the pr act i cal l i mi t s of 0, 25 and 0, 80 the quantities rel at ed to t or si onal ,
osci l l at i ons, such as engine ver t i cal accel er at i ons and wing t or si onal moment s
ar e st rongl y dependent on MX The vari at i on of the ot her quantities with Mx
is l es s . It amounts to 10 - 30 %.
, Increasi ng forward touch-down speed VQ l owers some wing l oads, has l i t t l e
effect on many loads, and i ncr eases ot her s. In par t i cul ar t or si onal moment s
and shear forces inboard of the landing gear i ncr ease with i ncreased values of
VQ . Therefore it depends on the load concerned, which forward speed is
cr i t i cal . However, because the combination of an unfavourable forward speed
( for a cert ai n load) and a high descent velocity, has a ver y smal l probability
of occurence it is proposed to pr es cr i be a single value of 1 , 3 V for forward
velocity.
- 1 27-
Descent velocity i s, as said before, the most important par amet er .
It det er mi nes not only the load l evel s, but influences al so heavily the way in
which as ymmet r i c landings ar e performed.
- 1 28-
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND MEASURED LANDING IMPACT QUANTITIES
To get an i mpr essi on whether the anal ysi s, applied in the pr esent investigation, is sufficiently
sophi st i cat ed to predi ct "t r ue" r esul t s, ( i. e. r esul t s which ar e predi ct ed with such an accu-
racy that all rel evant physical effects ar e included and the used approxi mat i ons ar e of a
secundary nat ure and conservat i ve, though not too conservat i ve) , compari son of the cal cul at ed
quant i t i es with measur ed r esul t s for the same initial conditions i s r equi r ed.
A maj or problem i s that during landing impact t es t s an accur at e det ermi nat i on of friction
coefficients is ver y difficult. The ot her initial conditions can be measur ed accurat el y. On
dry surfaces it may be assumed that val ues of friction coefficients can vary between about
0, 25 and 0, 80, depending on surface condition and i ni t i al skidding velocity. Fr om the r esul t s
as present ed in chapt er 6. 3 it follows that whith such a vari at i on in value of friction coefficient,
a consi derabl e vari at i on in response quant i t i es is connected, which var i es with the specific
quantity concerned ( e. g. wing bending moment , t orque, shear etc, ), Consequently when the
value of the friction coefficient i s unknown' and when the cal cul at i ons have been performed
for a value ofMx" 0,80, measured values will have to be between the calculated val ues of the
r esponse quantities for Mx " 0, 25 and Mx ' 0, 80.
Notwithstanding t hi s inherent difficulty of being unable to compar e di rect l y measur ed and
cal cul at ed values when friction coefficient is not accur at el y det ermi ned, very useful r esul t s can
be obtained from such experi ment s. Ther ef or e a limited pr ogr am of landing impact meas ur e-
ment s has been per f or med. Thi s contains two set s of meas ur ement s .
In the fi rst set only max. val ues, both positive and negative, of cert ai n accel er at i ons and st r ai ns
have been measur ed, t oget her with the value of the descent velocity.
In the second set complete time hi st or i es of engine c, g. ver t i cal accel er at i ons have been
measur ed. Descent velocities however, could in this set be est i mat ed only, by lacK of accur at e
measur i ng equipment.
The ai rcraft used for the f i r s t set of measur ement s is an Fai rchi l d F-27A without pylon-
tanks and equipped with extended wing fuel t anks. Eleven landings have been performed
with descent vel oci t i es ranging from 1 ,68 to 3,99 f t / sec. Table 7. 1 contains some par t i cu-
l ar s of the ai r cr af t and its condition during the eleven landings performed.
The quantities measur ed ar e r est r i ct ed to nacel l e, landing gear and the ai rcraft c.of g.
accel erat i on. Fi g. 7. 1 i ndi cat es the quant i t i es measur ed on nacel l e and landing gear . The
measur ed quant i t i es ar e :
. engine c. of g. ver t i cal accel erat i on
wat er-met hanol tank vert i cal accel erat i on
main gear ver t i cal load
ai rcraft c. of g. ver t i cal accel erat i on
*
If it can be proved for t hese quantities that cal cul at i ons and measur ement ar e in agr ee-
ment, within the l i mi t at i ons imposed on this compari son, it can be assumed that also the
calculated s t r e s s e s would be cor r ect ,
Maximal values of the measur ed engine c. of g. ver t i cal accel erat i on, wat er-met hanol tank
ver t i cal accel erat i on, ai rcraft c. of g. ver t i cal accel erat i on, and main gear ver t i cal load ar e
col l ect ed in table 7. 2. Both the maxi mal positive and negative val ues ar e given, t oget her with
the t i me after touch-down at which t hese val ues occur,
-1 29-
Fig. 7.1
By compari ng right and left landing gear maxi mal val ues, and the moment at which
t hese val ues occur, it is possi bl e to check pilots i mpr essi on as to which landing
gear was touching down fi rst . Thi s i mpressi on proves fai rl y accurat e though it i s
cl ear l y indicated by the r esul t s of table 7-2 that "symmet r i cal ", or "nearl y s ymme-
t r i cal " landings do not exi st . They ar e in fact a- s ymmet r i cal landings with only much
s mal l er i nt erval s between the impact moment s of both landing gear s .
For compari son with calculated val ues, the measur ed accel erat i ons from table 7. 2 have
been plotted in fig. 7-2 against descent vel oci t i es. By al so plotting the calculated r esul t s
for symmet r i cal taildown i mpact s with Mx ' 0, 80 and a landing weight of 34. 000 lbs it
can be checked whether all measur ed r esul t s ar e within t he calculated boundari es.
To get an idea of the influence ofMx also the calculated r esul t s for Mx = 0, 25 a r e plot-
ted in fig. 7-2. The boundary for Mx " 0, 25, however, is not calculated exactly. Resul t s
for bothMx ' 0, 25 and 0, 80 had been calculated for a somewhat different configuration vi
one with a landing weight of 37. 500 lbs, filled pylontanks and ZQ = 10 f t / sec. The boundar;y
for Mx " 0, 25 in fig. 7-2 has been established by assumi ng that for the configuration with
34000 lbs the rat i o between withMx" 0, 25 andMx= 0, 80 will be the same as for 37500 lbs,
In compari ng measur ed and calculated r esul t s it has to be taken into account that t here
ar e differences in configuration and landing condition between the ai r cr af t used for the
exper i ment s and the calculation exampl e.
Fi r s t of al l t her e is the fact that calculated r esul t s ar e valid for symmet r i cal landings
wher eas table 7-2 shows that symmet r i cal landing have not been made. From t abl e
6. 5- 3 follows that max. val ues of the accel er at i ons consi dered, whet her left or right,
ar e not too sensi t i ve to the initial rol l angle. In par . 6-4 the same i s found for the
dependence of the l at er al friction coefficient so that t hi s r est r i ct i on to symmet r i cal
landings as a basi s for compari son with measur ed r es ul t s is allowed.
Landing
nr.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
Loading vari at i on
during
t est s
weight
lbs
34050
to
33770
33560
to
33250
34740
to
33420
c. of g.
% mac
28,0
to
27,9
27,8
to
27,7
30, 2
to
30,0
.W/M
tanks
filled
filled
empty
right
inboard
wheel
speed
kts *
,67,8
79.5
93,5
73,4
73,9
71 ,5
76,7
77,6
76,7
77,6
76,7
wind
speed-kt s
and
direction
15 kts
50
right
20 kts
30
right
8 kts
varying
from
headwind
to
c r os s -
wind
touch-down
speed
kts-LAS
80
to
1 1 5
83
to
87
82
to
86
flap
setting
40
40
0
-
-
Pi l ot s
i mpr essi on
right wheels fi rst
nearl y symmet r i cal
right fi rst
symmet r i cal
right, rebounce,
then left, right again
symmet r i cal
right wheels fi rst
symmet r i cal
nearl y symmet r i cal
idem
i dem, left fi rst
symmet r i cal
r at e of
descent
f t / sec.
^0
.2,30
3,1 7
2,65
1 ,68
2,98
2,71
3,70
2,44
2,52
1 ,98
3, 99
*) Wheel speeds after the moment of complete spin-up, measur ed by means of tachos ar e a measur e for
true ground speeds.
W/M = wat er-met hanol tank IAS = indicated ai r speed
-1 31 -
TABLE 7. 2
.Max, values of engine e g . vertical acceleration, water methanol tank vert, acc.aircraft
c.of g.acceleration and main gear vertical loads as measured during 11 landing impact tests.
T3
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- 1 32-
CONFICURATION
FILLED EXTENDED WING FUEL TANKS
WITHOUT PVLON TANKS
T.o.ws 1 4000 Las
Vp u 1,0 n</e
10 TAIL DOWN ATTITUDE
Fi g. 7-2
Another difference between meas ur e-
ment s and calculation is the weight di s-
tribution of the ai r cr af t . Ther e ar e dif-
ferences with r espect to fuselage loading
and amount of fuel car r i ed. It has been
calculated for a configuration with a filled
wing fuel tank that a total ai r cr af t weight
vari at i on between 31 . 885 lbs and 35. 700 lbs
gives an engine accel erat i on vari at i on of
l es s than 1% wher eas the wat er - met hanol
tank accel er at i on var i es a little mor e than
1% for the positive values and about 1 ,5%
for the l ar ger negative val ues.
Thus, smal l differences in weight and
weight di st ri but i ons as occuring between
t hese t hr ee different flights and the cal -
culation example, will pract i cal l y not
affect the validity of this r at her crude
compari son between measur ed and cal -
culated accel er at i ons.
The same can be said with r egar d to the
amount of fuel car r i ed. Resul t s of cal cu-
lations show that the accel er at i ons consi -
dered her e vary at most 1 5% when a filled
and an empty extended wing fuel tank ar e
compared.
Although it i s not specifically known how
much fuel was car r i ed during the t est s, it
follows from the total take-off weight of
about 34000 lbs and the fact that during
the t est flight a very smal l amount of
fuselage load was car r i ed, that the wing
fuel tanks must have been al most compl e-
tely full.
Thus, for the filled wing fuel tanks as
assumed in the calculation, the difference
between calculation example and ai r -
craft condition during t est is very smal l
and t herefore can be responsi bl e for
only a few percent difference in accel er a-
tion between calculation and t est r esul t .
Finally it has to be mentioned that for an
accur at e calculation of the wat er - met hanol
accel erat i on Oy^^i^ the dynamic schemat i -
sation may be insufficient.
In the pr esent schemat i sat i on the wat er-
methanol tank is assumed to be rigidly
-1 ,33-
flxed to the wing, wher eas in fact t he connection between r e a r nacel l e and wing i s
far from rigid, so that additional overshoot effects ar e possi bl e. The rel i abi l i t y of
the compari son of nyy^ becomes st i l l mor e questionable by the fact that the landings
7-1 1 ar e performed with empty wat er-met hanol tanks wher eas with the other landings
they wer e filled.
Looking at fig. 7-2 it will be cl ear that the calculated values of engine- and wat er-
methanol tank accel er at i ons ar e an upper boundary for the measur ed values, as in-
deed they should be. Some measur ed values ar e fairly close to t he calculated boun-
dar y so that it can be concluded that calculations ar e not unduly conservat i ve.
It can be f ur t her mor e concluded that the measur ed values ar e general l y in the region
where they should be i . e. between the calculated values forMx = 0,8 and fi ^ - 0, 25.
Ai rcraft c. of g. accel erat i on s eems to be underest i mat ed by the t heoret i cal anal ysi s.
As the measur ed accel er at i ons ar e fairly smal l , one might think that the accur acy
of the measur ement s is r esponsi bl e for l ar ger experi ment al val ues. Measuring
accur acy i s, however, far bet t er than t hese differences amount t o. Another expla
nation t her ef or e i s needed. Thi s could be rel at ed to the dynamic schemat i sat i on.
As the engine accel er at i ons al l fell within the calculated boundari es it seems that the
wing, nacel l e, and pylontank dynamic schemat i sat i on is sufficient,whereas for r e-
producing fuselage accel er at i ons accurat el y the dynamic schemat i sat i on seems to be
insufficient.
fig. 7-3
Thi s may be t r ue as in the dynamic sche-
mat i sat i on the whole st r uct ur e inside
wing station 1 040 i s assumed to be rigid
with the el ast i c wing clamped at station
1 040.
In real i t y the fuselage is connected to the
wing r at her flexibly as is shown in fig. 7-3.
Thi s means that t he actual fuselage acce-
l erat i on i s not det ermi ned by ZQ only but
al so by dynamic wing bending deformation
overshoot effects and possibly also by
l ocal fuselage deformation inducing addit-
ional accel er at i ons at the fuselage floor
where the accel er omet er was located.
Thi s could explain the higher measured
posi t i ve and negat i ve val ues.
The s e c o n d set of meas ur ement s , in which complete time hi st or i es of engine ver -
t i cal accel er at i on ar e det ermi ned, has been performed with a Fokker F-27 equipped
with nor mal fuel t anks. Unfortunately, descent velocity at touch-down is not measur ed
so that only a qualitative compar i son with calculated r esul t s i s possi bl e.
In fig. 7-4a a compari son of calculated and measur ed time hi st or i es is given. The
cal cul at ed one i s rel at ed to a configuration with filled nor mal wing fuel tanks, empty
pylontanks and a total weight of 35700 l bs.
The measur ed t i me hi st ory r ef er s to the same configuration and a landing weight of
37500 l bs. Qualitatively the agr eement is nearl y perfect . The act ual landing has been
descri bed as "s ymmet r i cal " and the calculated t i me hi st ory is al so for this condition.
- 1 34-
VERTICAL ENGINE ACCELERATION.
empty pyl on t ank
col cul ated > z,.aft/sec.
measured i,m^^.5^^/sec.
Vo- ^0 n/ sec
Fi g. 7-4a
As the actual moment of touch-down i s
difficult to det er mi ne from the r ecor di ngs,
the fi rst pos. peaks of both the calculated
and the measur ed t i me hi st or i es ar e made
to coincide in fig. 7-4a.
Compari ng both cur ves, it can be est i mat ed
t hat the descent velocity of touch-down for
the measur ed recordi ng must have been
about 1 , 5 f t / sec,
The second engine ver t i cal accel erat i on
t i me hi st ory as shown in fig. 7-4b i s
rel at ed.t o the same ai rcraft configuration
but now with filled pylontanks. Again qua-
litatively the agreement between measur ed
and calculated accel er at i ons is sat i sfact ory,
taking into account that the actual value of
descent velocity as well as that of t i r e f r i c-
tion coefficient ar e unknown for the meas u-
red t i me hi st ory.
20-
VERTICAL ENGINE ACCELERATION
f i l l ed pyl on t anks ;
A n cal cul at ed wi t h wi ng t orsi on f i l t er ed out
-20
Fi g. 7-4b
The high frequency oscillation in fig. 7-4b can be identified as the wing overtone t orsi on
frequency. The slight difference in measur ed and calculated wing t orsi on frequency as
shown by fig. 7-4b proves the act ual wing t orsi onal stiffness to be somewhat l ar ger than
assumed for the cal cul at i ons.
Another phenomenon shown by fig. 7-4b is that the high frequency oscillation ( ~20 cps)
is excited to the same amount in the t est and in the calculation, whereas the low frequency
osci l l at i on of about 6 cps is cl ear l y mor e heavily excited in the calculated cur ve.
- 1 35-
Thi s l ast observat i on will be due to the difference in descent velocity, as excitation i s
mor e or l es s proport i onal with descent velocity. Compari ng max. val ues of the fi rst posi-
tive peak, which has been made to coincide in t i me, it then can be concluded from the ca
culated r es ul t s for 4 f t / sec. that the measur ed r esul t s ar e due to a descent velocity of
about 2, 5 f t / sec.
High frequency (-^20 cps ) wing t or si on on the ot her hand i s excited pr i mar i l y by the
spi n-up phenomenon. The amplitude will be r at her sensi t i ve to the ground friction force
t i me hi st or y. That wing t orsi on amplitude ( at' *' 20 cps) is relatively l ar ge in the t est
with 2, 5 f t / sec. descent velocity, t herefore will be due to a specific friction force t i me
hi st or y containing a l ar ge 20 cps component,
Fr om t hi s compar i son of measur ed and cal cul at ed t i me hi st or i es, it can be concluded
again that the act ual landing i mpact phenomema can be predicted fairly well, provided
an adequate dynamic schemat i sat i on is defined and /iy is known.
Toget her with the measur ed max. val ues of accel er at i ons as present ed in fig. 7-2, which
could be cor r el at ed with accur at el y measur ed descent vel oci t i es, sufficient experi ment al
evidence has been collected to show the power of the rat i onal analysis of landing impact,
as present ed in the precedi ng par agr aphs.
Strictly speaking this has been shown only for quant i t i es which ar e i nsensi t i ve for a- sym
met r i c effects and t herefore it i s uncert ai n whet her this conclusion holds also for the
r epr esent at i on of a- s ymmet r i c effects. This r est r i ct i on had to be accepted however, be-
cause t he r el at i ve contribution of a- symmet r i c effects to measured quantities which ar e
sensi t i ve to a- s ymmet r i c effects, cannot be det ermi ned experi ment al l y.
It may be expected however that a- symmet r i c effects can be equally well predi ct ed as sy
met r i c ones. Thi s is due to the fact that symmet r i c and a- symmet r i c st r uct ur al schema
tisation i s equally accur at e, and that l at er al t i r e and landing gear phenomena ar e l ess
compl i cat ed than the symmet r i c ones but ar e taken into account with the same degree
of accur acy,
Ther ef or e the experi ment al evidence i s sufficiently convincing in or der to t ry a reformu-
lation of exi st i ng r equi r ement s with r espect to landing i mpact phenomena on the basi s
of a rat i onal anal ysi s as outlined in t hi s study. Thi s attempt will be the subject of the
next, and l ast chapt er.
-1 30-
P R O P O S AL FOR RA T I ONAL R E Q U I R E ME N T S F OR T HE P R E D I C T I O N
OF LANDI NG I MP AC T DESI GN L O AD S .
8. 1 . PROPOSALS FOR RATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
8, 1 - 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
When aiming at the formulation of rat i onal r equi r ement s for the calculation of
design loads due to landing i mpact s, t hr ee aspect s have to be consi dered. They
can be formulated as :
a) which combination of i ni t i al conditions has to be pr escr i bed ?
b) how sophisticated the anal ysi s has to be performed so that it can be consi dered
as a "rat i onal anal yses " ?
c) which ai r cr af t configurations have to be subjected to the initial landing
conditions ?
A rat i onal anal ysi s to be understood as an anal ysi s which predi ct s "t r ue" loads
as defined in paragraph 1 . 4, viz.
"loads which ar e predicted with such a degr ee of accuracy that all rel evant
physi cal effects ar e r epr esent ed and ar e such that the differences with exact
l oads, due to the approxi mat i ons introduced in the calculation scheme, ar e of
a secondary nat ur e only, and mor eover ar e conservat i ve".
In the actual formulation of the r equi r ement s, which ar e present ed in the next
paragraph, t hese t hr ee aspect s form the framework of the proposed ar t i cl es .
In accordance with the pract i ce of existing r equi r ement s, "l i mi t " loads will be
defined, i. e. loads the st r uct ur e must be able to withstand without suffering de-
t r i ment al permanent deformation.
The proposed rat i onal r equi r ement s ar e intended for repl acement of par agr aphs
25-471 to 25-483 of the existing FAR-25 r equi r ement s as they ar e descri bed in
par . 1 .3, and reproduced in Appendix A, or correspondi ng r equi r ement s of ot her
count ri es.
According to t he existing r equi r ement s t he limit load conditions for the landing
gear s itself have to be subst ant i at ed by drop t est . It has mor eover to be shown
by drop t est with 1, 20 t i mes (USA) and 1 , 1 8 t i mes (Britain) the l i mi t des -
cent velocity that the landing gear will not fail, demonst rat i ng the r es er ve energy
absorption capacity at design landing weight. It was consi dered to be outside the
scope of the present investigation to reformul at e also t hese drop t est r equi r ement s.
Resul t s of the foregoing chapt er s, as summar i zed in par . 6. 9, reveal ed that
asymmet r i cal landings including l at er al friction forces, in which the pitch angle
and the initial r ol l angle ar e t r eat ed as vari abl es, have to be investigated in or der
to be able to detect the most cr i t i cal l oads.
Rational r equi r ement s t her ef or e have to be based on t hese types of landing.
It must be emphasized once mor e that, in the foregoing investigation, only the
pr i me vari abl e, viz. the descent velocity, is deri ved from st at i st i cal consi de-
rat i ons, while for most ot her i ni t i al conditions like rol l angle, angle of pitch,
l at er al friction forces and value of friction coefficients, such values have been
chosen which a r e expected to produce highest l oads.
-1 37-
It i s thought that the same policy, which, accordi ng to the calculated r es ul t s .
i s not unduly conservat i ve, can be applied for formulating a si mpl e set of
landing conditions sui t abl e for i ncorporat i on in a rat i onal r equi r ement .
In formulating such r equi r ement s, in some cases formulations of the Amer i can
FAA or Bri t i sh ARB r equi r ement s can be used,
8, l,-2 F o r m u l a t i o n of r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
1 , GROUND LOADS
1 . 1 . General
The r equi r ement s of this chapt er apply to aeropl anes and landing ge a r s
which do not depart radi cal l y from nor mal desi gns ; in part i cul ar, t he
r equi r ement s ar e framed on the assumpt i on that the landing gear con-
si st s of two main wheel units and a nose wheel - or t ai l wheel unit. Supp-
l ement ar y or modified r equi r ement s may be necessar y to provide appr o-
pr i at e design cr i t er i a for landing gear s of unorthodox desi gn.
1 .2. Loads due to landing conditions
1 .2. 1 . G e n e r a l
Loads due to landing conditions, as pr escr i bed in par . 1 . 2. 2. ,
will have to be det ermi ned by means of a rat i onal analysis
exhibiting the following char act er i s t i cs :
All dynamic effects due to the application of t he time hi st o-
r i es of the landing gear loads to the ai r cr af t st r uct ur e have
to be pr oper l y taken into account.
Effects of st r uct ur al flexibility have to be taken into account
in such a way that ai rcraft st r uct ur al r esonance frequencies
and - modes ar e r epr esent ed up to at l east 20 c . p . s .
Actual t i r e ver t i cal force-deflection char act er i s t i cs must be
adequately r epr esent ed. The application of an approxi mat ed
l i near force deflection char act er i st i c i s allowed.
Shock absor ber char act er i s t i cs have to be adequately de s c r i -
bed. For ol eo-pneumat i c shock absor ber s this involves at
l east a hydraul i c damping proport i onal to the shock absor ber
deflection velocity squar r ed, and a pr oper non-l i near pneu-
mat i c shock absor ber spri ng char act er i st i c. Metering pin
action has to be properl y accounted for.
For the calculation of the ver t i cal impact force unsprung ma s s
effects may be neglected.
Fr i ct i on drag forces between t i r e and runway, together with an
adequate anal ysi s of spin-up phenomena have to be included in
the anal ysi s.
Lat er al friction forces between t i r es and runway have to be
included in the anal ysi s.
- 1 38-
The asymmet r i e effects of impacting with one landing ge-ar be-
fore the ot her have to be properl y taken into account.
Aerodynami c forces due to landing impact motion can be
ignored.
1 . 2. 2. L a n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s
1 . 2. 2. 1 . Main landing gear s
At the moment of i mpact a t ot al lift equal to the aeropl ane
weight,and acting through the cent r e of gravi t y,may be
assumed.
Landings at all rel evant landing weights and weight di s t r i -
butions and c. of g. positions have to be i nvest i gat ed.
Landings with design take-off weight conditions have to be
investigated for a descent velocity which is 0, 6 t i mes the
l i mi t descent velocity as specified for landing weight con-
di t i ons.
The aeropl ane i s assumed to contact the ground at a for-
ward velocity component par al l el to the ground equal to
1 . 30 V where V ( T. A. S . ) is the stalling speed or mi ni -
mum steady flight speed with wing flaps in the landing po-
sition and without sl i pst r eam effects, at the appr opr i at e
weight and altitude on a hot day t emper at ur e of 41 F
above st andard. The effect of i ncr eased contact speeds
must be investigated if approval of downwind landings ex-
ceeding 10 kts is request ed.
Limit descent velocity i s a function of design landing weight
W (lbs) accordi ng to the expressi on
W^ - 50.000
Z = 6 -F X 0, 80 f t / s ec.
50.000
but not l ess than 6 f t / sec and not mor e than 10 f t / s ec.
Pi t ch at t i t udes will be ei t her t ai l down or level without fi-
ni t e pitch r at es at touch down.
For nose wheel type aer opl anes t hese attitude ar e defined
as :
l evel - main wheels ar e assumed to contact the ground with
t he nose wheel just cl ear of the ground.
taildown - attitude i s assumed to be correspondi ng with
ei t her the st al l i ng angle or the maxi mum angle permi t t i ng
cl ear ance with the ground by all par t s of the aeropl ane
ot her than the main wheels, whicliever is the l es s er ,
For t ai l wheel type aeropl anes t hese definitions ar e :
l evel - the aeropl ane horizontal, reference line i s assunaed
to be hori zont al .
aildown - main and tail wheel .'ire assumed to be j ust
cl ear of the ground.
-1 3 9 -
Initial rol l angle has to be vari ed from zero to such a value
that the maxi mum values of landing impact response quanti-
t i es ar e det ermi ned. Thi s vari at i on has to be performed at
l east for those combinations of pitch attitude and landing
weight which produce maxi mum val ues of landing gear and/ or
wing loads in an attitude with zero initial roll angle.
Fri ct i on drag forces due to skidding velocity between t i r e
and the ground ar eO. 8 t i mes the ver t i cal t i re react i on until
the moment of spi n-up. after which the value of friction
coefficient can be assumed to be zer o. It is acceptable to
est abl i sh the coefficient of friction between t i r e and ground
by consi deri ng the effects of skidding velocity.
Lat er al friction forces between t i r e and ground have to be
assumed, which ar e 0, 7 t i mes the ver t i cal t i r e react i on
during the whole landing i mpact .
8. 1 -3 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s
A few r e ma r ks have to be made with r espect to t hi s formulation of a rat i onal
r equi r ement for main wheel landing loads. The r equi r ement s for a rat i onal
anal ysi s as pr esent ed in 1. 2. 1 follow di rect l y from the r esul t s of the example
calculation as summar i zed in par . 6. 9. An "adequat e descri pt i on of spin-up
phenomena" means an accur at e prediction of the moment of spin-up, after
which a zero value of Mx i s allowed. As deri ved in par . 3. 5 this moment t
can be deri ved from the expressi on 3. 5-1 7.
Some of the landing conditions, formulated in 1 .2-2 follow directly from the
existing r equi r ement s, e. g. the condition that lift equals weight at touch-down.
That the forward speed at touch-down is changed from 1 , 25 to 1, 30 V is due to
the fact that t hi s is in bet t er agreement with t he landing speed st at i st i cs. As
explained at the end of par . 6. 7 and in par. 6. 9 it is not necessar y to i nvest i -
gate a range on forward speeds at touch-down as is pr escr i bed by the FAA
r equi r ement s.
Also the definitions of level and tail-down pitch at t i t udes ar e in agreement with
pr esent r equi r ement s, as is the value ofMx ~ 0- ^
The expressi on for Z , depending only on ai rcraft landing weight, also needs
some elucidation because, as has been explained in chapt er 4, the descent
velocity i s al so dependent on wing loading, di st ance of the pilot forward of the
landing gear, hori zont al speed at touch-down and the el evat or effectiveness,
wher eas aerodynami c char act er i s t i cs of individual ai r cr af t designs with regard
to ground effects ar e al so known to have a cert ai n influence on measured des-
cent vel oci t i es.
The ci r cumst ance that the expressi on for Z , as pi-oposed in chapter 4 and
used in 1. 2-2 of the pr esent chapt er, is only dependent on landing weight is
not only due to the highly desi r abl e si mpl i ci t y of such a requi rement , but is
-1 40-
al so due to the i mpossi bi l i t y of taking into account properl y effects like the
above mentioned, as well as due to the fact that t her e is a fairly st rong i nt er de-
pendence between the above mentioned var i abl es and landing weight. A l ar ger
ai r cr af t nearl y always has a l ar ger di st ance between pilot and c. of g. , very often
a l ar ger hori zont al speed, and in many cases a smal l er el evat or effectiviness.
Ther ef or e it is thought to be justified that descent velocity is only dependent on
landing weight in the manner proposed, which agr ees as closely as possi bl e with
the st at i st i cal data present l y avai l abl e.
As said in t he introduction ( par . 1 .1 ),this investigation and the proposal s
for new r equi r ement s ar e r es t r i ct ed to t he main landing gear ,
Using the experi ence gained with r espect to mai n gear l oads, however, may
help in the future to formulate rat i onal r equi r ement s for nose- and t ai l
wheel landing gear loads as well.
8. 2, COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF RATIONAL LANDING IMPACT LOAD CALCULATIONS
AND CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO EXISTING REQUIREMENTS
When new r equi r ement s ar e proposed for cert ai n load cases, as is done in the previ ous
paragraph for loads due to landing i mpact s, a most i mport ant aspect is the rel at i on be-
tween loads calculated on the basi s of the existing r equi r ement s, and the loads follow-
ing from the application of the proposed r equi r ement s.
To which degr ee differences occur when the existing and the proposed r equi r ement s ar e
applied to an existing ai rcraft design is the subject of this l ast par agr aph. The ai rcraft
used for t hi s compari son ( the Fokker F-27 ) is build on the basi s of the existing r equi -
r ement s and has proven in millions of landings in all par t s of the world under s ome-
t i mes very rough conditions, that i t s st r uct ur e and the landing gear ar e fully qualified
for t hei r dut i es.
It would t her ef or e plead against the proposed r equi r ement s if the loads due to them
would become subst ant i al l y l ar ger than the loads due to the existing ones. In that case
the proposed r equi r ement s would appear cert ai nl y to be too conservat i ve.
But also in the opposite case that when the loads due to the proposed r equi r ement s become
subst ant i al l y smal l er then due to the existing r equi r ement s, t her e would be reason
for being cautious with adopting the proposed new r equi r ement s. The value of past
experi ence with the existing r equi r ement s which served during many year s as a basi s
for developing many ver y succesfull ai rcraft is too i mport ant for being neglected,
notwitlistanding the fact that it has been t ri ed to take into account properl y all physi -
cal phenomena involved in the proposed new r equi r ement s.
The existing r equi r ement s ar e t reat ed in det ai l in par . 1 .3. It was shown that the
var i ous set s of r equi r ement s ar e built up along i dent i cal l i nes, defining some combi -
nations of constant, t i me independent, ver t i cal and hori zont al landing gear forces which
have to applied to the st r uct ur e. They ar e to be deri ved ei t her from landing gear shock
absorpt i on t est s or from anal ysi s. Thi s r equi r es al ready a compl et e dynamic anal ysi s.
The application of t hese loads to an ai rcraft the st r uct ur e of which is assumed to be rigid is
obvious. All resul t i ng loads ar e in phase with each ot her and resul t i ng max, loads such as
shear forces, t orsi onal moment s and bending moment s ar e at the same moment at t hei r
maxi ma and ar e compatible with each ot her. Hence when compl et e t i me hi st or i es of
landing gear forces a r e available, the forces accordi ng to the different cases specified
in e. g. figs. 1 . 3-1 and 1 .3-2 ar e defined completely.
- 1 41 -
A r eal probl em exi st s however in the application of the existing r equi r ement s when,
as is al so requi red, dynamic loads due to t ransi ent deformation have to be pr oper -
ly t aken' i nt o account. When compl et e t i me hi st or i es of the vari ous loads have been
cal cul at ed for an el ast i c st r uct ur e, it i s found that t hese loads ar e at t hei r maxi ma
at quite different moment s. The probl em is then, whether we have to read the r esul t -
ing wing force and moment s at the i nst ant s at which the loading cas e is specified
( e. g. t i me of max. drag force or max. ver t i cal force ), knowing that at that t i me the
loads have not yet achieved, or have al ready surpossed, t hei r max. val ues.
The only al t ernat i ve is to i nt er pr et e the existing r equi r ement s quite l i beral l y and look
for absol ut e max. val ues. In that case liowever a di scussi on is possi bl e about the value
of the friction coefficient. Has this value to be Mx =0 . 8 as specified for the max. drag
cases in the Amer i can and Bri t i sh r equi r ement s ?
Another possi bi l i t y is to take the val ues of Mx specified for K^ , which is 0, 25
for the FAR-25 and 0, 40 for the Bri t i sh regul at i ons. One may expect that this would
give l ower l oads.
In the example cal cul at i ons for el ast i c ai rcraft accordi ng to the exi st i ng r equi r ement s,
this probably most conservat i ve value forMx ( ^^- Mx " 0, 8 ) i s used.
Thi s i s not unduly conservat i ve, as follows from t he r esul t s of the quantitative i nvest -
igation of the influence of the value of the friction coefficient on t he calculated l oads, as
present ed in par . 6. 3. In or der to cover for the el ast i c ai rcraft the objectives of the
FAR-25 regul at i ons as cl osel y as possi bl e, complete load t i me hi st or i es due to t hr ee
of the specified landing i mpact conditions ( i. e. symmet r i c landing, one wheel landing and
l at er al drift landing without longitudinal drag forces ) have been cal cul at ed, and the max.
val ues of the individual loads a r e col l ect ed,
Due to the r equi r ement s it has to be assumed that the one wheel maxi mum ver t i cal
force is equal to the max. ver t i cal force resul t i ng from a 10 f t / s ec. descent velocity
in the symmet r i c landing case. It will be shown in our numer i cal example that this
r equi r ement i s r eal i st i c, as K-, = 1 4773 kg and K_ u i "
^ ' Zmaxs ymm. = z max. one-wheel
1 4506 kg, differing l ess than 2%.
The same kind of difficulty al so exi st s with the l at er al drift landing. According to the
existing r equi r ement s the value of the ver t i cal ground react i on force has to be equal
to half the val ues as found for the symmet r i cal landing case with a descent velocity
of 10 f t / sec. As the cal cul at i ons st ar t with a cert ai n ver t i cal velocity, so that the
ver t i cal ground react i on force becomes one of the calculated r es ul t s , the ver t i cal
velocity has to be chosen in such a way that the pr oper ver t i cal ground react i on force
r es ul t s .
A ver t i cal velocity of 5. 5 f t / sec al most meet s t hi s r equi r ement , as is shown by the
following calculated v
example cal cul at i ons.
following calculated val ues for K^ , valid for the configuration used in t hese
Symmet r i cal landing case
descent velocity 10 f t / sec.
Lat er al drift landing with ai r cr af t
drifting to the right
descent velocity = 5.5 f t / s ec.
Kz
max.
K
max.
K
max.
1 4.773
7.695
6.81 2
1 4.507
kg
kg
kg
kg
Tabl e 8.2-1
- 1 42-
5 o
3
<
feil 2
) ^ Z f l
2 ^ i n ^ Q * -
i SSi !'
i C
H
n ^

\
!
f 3
^jf
o o < - ! ^ ^ ei
WOOCUQ ; *5
T ' _ j UJ Z Q , a . O U,
~; o iJ I: ; Cl o 3 p ^ s
IJl z <-> * z o c i "
1 - 5 < < _] < o : " - " ^
-9
> C O X
- J ^ z<->
rj lu -o < t
> ^ X " *-
. o o* U- u.
^ o: o o
z z
a
9
. (j.iS/iu oil""
l 1
^
(
u_
)_..

\
(
T I I
T 1 1 I L-
1 1 r-
-(Hot)s-
-(iu)i,oi)a -
f
: s
t 7
M
}
\ V
> J
'v
T ' V
-( ' '0^ol)l-
- ( "" V' "-
3
o 2
- ^I H
,--''
'--,,___
C ^''
ODs' i ' ' ' ' '
~~~;
I
co'
ei
rH

. .
- ( 0 - ^
o"
\ X ,
oiia
X
^
{ ui'itO O a-
t .
1
(
Q
V-,
( 'S
-( "l l H U
-{iljOUS ' t " >i | , 0l )9-
E
i
TIME HISTORIES OF
WING LOADS AND
ACCELERATIONS DUE
TO A SYMMETRICAL
AND A ONE WHEEL
LANDING IMPACT
I^ACCORDING T0FAI U5
REQUIREMENTS
CONFn Pll200hg
LANDING WEi eT| i f 7 00i eS
FILLED EXTENDED WING
FUELTANKS
50% FILLED PYLONTANKS
DESCENT VELOCITv [lOfM*c
FOOWARO VELOCITY Un^MC
lix'OJf SYMMETRICAL
U,(^25 ONE WHEEL
ANGLE OF BANK | - 0 ^
ANGLE OF PITCH l . 1 0 ^ '
TAIL DOWN
SYMMETRICAL IMPACT
Uft
right Hftf
CO
Fi g. 8. 2- 2
wing station
^kg
"^kgm
B,
kgm
symmetrical
one- wheel
lateral drift
symmetrical
one- wheel
lateral drift
symmetrical
one- wheel
lateral drift
symmetrical
one- wheel
lai.^ r^ l H r-l ft
1
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
E
R
1040
- 8087
- 5 001
- 6676
- 6706
- 4877
- 475 3
- 21261
- 0
- 2345
- 0
- 4872
- 0
- 10618
- 0
- 6305
- 0
- 115 97
- 3225
2314
0
1967
1025
115 4
1083
23733
235 33
29811
18311
13149
5 000
29140
8025
12823
6247
195 64
12033
K
^kg
3600'
- 8477
- 5 799
- 7299
- 7297
- 5 173
- 5 101
- 18134
- 0
- 2243
- 0
- 475 6
- 0
- 0
- 0
- 6768
- 1785
- 8073
- 1289
1818
0
1673
741
1122
931
21103
23862
29360
18449
13316
5 204
31767
21609
28388
23949
27684
24487
- 145 48
- 15 495
- 145 06
- 15 946
- 765 5
- 8022
3600*
.0
- 0
- 977
- 0
- 0
- 0
- 2791
- 408
- 1825
- 275
- 1684
- 181
- 0
- 0
- 6292
- 1618
- 1974
- 0
7842
6296
7801
6444
4409
4444
1610
135
2249
0
1066
0 ,
31438
21609
28027
23985
17771
16033
65 65
- 0
- 0
- 1271
- 328
- 5 32
- 0
- 4186
- 173
- 1322
- 119
- 1278
- 71
- 0
- 0
- 45 87
- 1118
- 125 4
- 0
5 171
35 18
4842
3974
3027
2640
3988
103
15 00
3
944
0
11640
6970
105 72
8372
6735
5 447
K
^kg
85 85 '
- 0
- 0
- 936
- 281
- 389
- 0
- 3910
- 192
- 1209
- 173
- 1134
- 109
- 878
- 0
- 2967
- 439
- 125 5
- 0
315 8
1920
2827
2300
1831
1499
3609
32
1230
13
773
0
425 7
15 49
4218
2063
2441
1299
- 5 386
- 5 615
8585"^
- 67
- 0
- 85 4
- 219
- 260
- 0
- 837
- 5 7
- 282
- 79
- 245
- 48
- 75 3
-
- 2886
- 45 4
- 1304
- 0
2070
1110
1796
1374
115 2
884
12660
- 135
- 0
- 35 7
- 40
- 187
- 0
702 - 88
0
136
11
15 4
0
405 8
15 49
4127
2079
2396
1305
1
- 7
- 35
- 11
- 31
- 7
- 136
- 0
- 348
- 37
- 184
- 0
395
90
431
135
25 7
82
64
0
31
3
22
0
35 7
77
412
118
247
71
"^^
accelerations
m/sec
- 109, 15
- 24,5 0
- 40.68
- 13, 14
- 27, 67
- 10,80
- 15 9, 98
- 17, 97
- 49,21
- 16,24
- 22, 10
- 12,07
- 61,30
- 1, 16
- 17,71
- 0,5 7
- 17, 11
- 0, 23
72,87
0
25 ,62
0
6, 19
0
135 ,01
0
24,70
0
10,00
0
60, 41
2, 16
23, 11
0
13,47
0
" m
" WM
I
n
P
- 635 3
- 6147
- 3627
- 3987
0
0
Configuration II : Landing weight 35700 lbs, extended wing fuel tank, pylontank 50% filled.
symmet r i cal
one-wheel
l at er al drift
E = el ast i c
descent velocity 10 f t / sec.
descent velocity 10 f t / sec.
descent velocity 5, 5 f t / sec.
R = rigid
Mx = 0, 80 with spin-up
Mx = 0, 25 without spin-up
Mx = 0 Aiy= 0.7
=
e =
e =
10
0"
0"
o
I
o
c 1
(U
u.
o
t
a.
>H,
(I)
^CTl
P
c+
^
>
M
N")
tn
I
P
3
a
3
TO
O
tn
'K
n>
m
P
_X
<
(1!
c
m
to
O

3
ffq
'
O
p
a.
CO
P
3
a.
p
o
o
a
p
O
3
cc
0
1
(D
h -'
P
cn
r+
o'
P
3
a
t
1*
'S.
a
3
m
CO
d
D
c
t
CO
>
da
r
t^i
CO
to
NJ
- 1 45-
The unequal values of K and K i l l ust r at e another difference between
^R ^ L
max. max.
a dynamic anal ysi s in which the el ast i ci t y and the rigid body motions ar e t aken into
account,and the formal r equi r ement s specifying equal ver t i cal react i ons for both lan-
ding gear s . ( See fig. 1 .3-1 and App. A ). The unequal val ues ar e due to the l at er al ho-
ri zont al forces which tend to rol l the ai rcraft and al l evi at e by this the ver t i cal ground
react i on on one landing gear and aggrevat e it on the ot her. The FAR-25 r equi r ement s
take this effect into account - illogically - to some extent only, by specifying different
l at er al friction forces of 0,6 K^ and 0,8 K^ . Since,as shown in t abl e 8.2-1 ,
Lmax "max
in the complete dynamic anal ysi s of our example, different ver t i cal landing gear for-
ces ar e obtained, by using the same friction coefficients on both si des, automatically
different l at er al friction forces will emer ge. Neglecting the fact that the r at i o of K^
"max
andKz differs consi derabl y from 8/ 6 ,in the pr esent scheme a single mean fric-
'-max
tion coefficient of 0, 7 has been adopted for both l at er al friction forces.
The complete t i me hi st or i es of loads and accel er at i ons in the el ast i c wing for the t hr ee
landing cases ar e depicted in fig. 8. 2-1 and 8. 2-2.
Moreover the max. loads in the el ast i c and in the rigid wing st r uct ur e obtained for the
t hr ee different landing cases ar e collected in table 8. 2-2.
It follows that for the el ast i c ai rcraft in general the symmet r i c landing case produces
the highest l oads. Ther e ar e however some loads for which the one wheel landing is
cr i t i cal . Notably the t or si onal moment s at the t hr ee inboard stations of the left wing,
which is hit by the landing i mpact , ar e l ar ger . Thi s is also t r ue for the negat i ve values of
shear force and bending moment in the outer wing half.
A compari son of left and right wing loads in fig. 8. 2-1 and 8. 2-2 indicates t hat right
wing loads ar e much lower for the inner wing stations and of nearl y equal magnitude
for tip st at i ons. Thi s follows from the fact that wing tip loads ar e due to i ner t i a ef-
fects whereas wing loads of left inboard st at i ons ar e heavily influenced by di r ect landing
gear l oads. The loads in the el ast i c wing due to the l at er al drift landing ar e every-
where lower than the l oads due to the ot her landing cases with the exception of two
inboard bending moment s.
For the rigid ai rcraft st r uct ur e the pi ct ure i s quite different. Then in gener al the
one wheel landing case r esul t s in the l ar gest wing loads and even the l at er al drift
landing gives the l ar gest bending moment s at two inboard st at i ons. The symmet r i cal
landing case produces highest loads only for the t or si onal moment s at the two in-
board st at i ons. The fi gures of t abl e 8. 2-2 show that in most cases the influence of el as -
ticity for the s ymmet r i cal landing case i s l ar ger than for the one-wheel and l at eral
drift landing. The r eason for this t rend is that in the symmet r i cal landing cas e st ruct ural
vi brat i ons, and especi al l y overt one wing t orsi on, ar e much mor e strongly excited
than in the ot her two cases, as i s i l l ust rat ed by figs. 8. 2-1 and 8. 2-2, showing the
compl et e t i me hi st or i es of loads and accel er at i ons for t hese t hr ee landing c a s e s .
Thi s vi brat i onal behaviour is due to the l ar ge friction coefficient of fly = 0 , 8 and the
abrupt cut of the drag force at t he spi n-up t i me in the symmet r i cal landing cas e.
In the one-wheel landing case the friction coefficient i s only 0, 25 and the dr ag force
is acting during the whole landing i mpact without a cut due to spin-up phenomena.
For the l at er al drift landing the drag force is even absent .
In applying the FAR-25 r equi r ement s in the way descri bed above, in or der to follow
as cl osel y as possi bl e the objectives of t hese r equi r ement s when elastic st r uct ur es
-1 46-
T AB L E 2 - 3
Compari son of symmet r i cal landing loads according to FAR-25, for t hree i nt er pr et at i ons
of the requi rement .
kg
T
kgm
^kgm
station
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
Mx-
0, 8
0, 8
0,25
0, 8
0,8
0, 25
0,8
0,8
0, 25
1040
- 8297
- 6967
- 4297
23073
- 1984
15 763
13286
3 5 7 48
- 10422
- 10422
1116
3 600'
- 835 9
- 7929
- 4888
20476
- 16703
15 942
13491
35 816
8482
12741
3600"^
8169
4199
3845
- 495 7
+ 4035
- 2416
1949
3 5 464
8711
12916
65 65
605 6
1288
2136
45 79
- 4072
- 2347
1938
13 620
645
4124
85 85 "
3 994
270
13 44
443 4
- 3 97 0
- 2184
1749
45 24
- 7 24
635
85 85 "^
215 8
- 1227
- 1227
- 337
- 5 75
+ 476
- 238
157
425 1
- 648
- 5 47
683
12660
447
- 123
- 115
+ 62
- 66
-+ 45
- 14
11
428
- 125
117
5 9
"kgi
- 14666
- 11648
- 1427 6
K i
"kg!
- 635 3
- 635 3
+25 30
A = max. values of loads
taken from t i me hi s-
t or i es. ( Mx = 0, 8 )
B = load val ues at the
moment at which the
hor. friction force
K i s maxi mal
X
( M, 0, 8 ;
load values at the
moment at which the
ver t i cal ground force
K i s maxi mal
z
(Mx = 0, 25)
Configuration IV : Landing weight 37500 l bs, filled pylontanks
Filled extended wing fuel tanks
Descent velocity 10 f t / sec, = 10
-1 47-
ar e dealt with, the question ar i s es to which degr ee the s ymmet r i cal landing case
as specified her e, is conservat i ve as compared with the mor e formal application of
the official FAR-25 r equi r ement s specifying t hr ee symmet r i cal landing cases, as i s
i l l ust rat ed in fig. 1 . 3- 1 . In or der to be able to answer t hi s question also quantitatively,
the s ymmet r i cal landing case has also been calculated for Mx " 0, 25.
Then it is possi bl e to compar e the symmet r i c loads obtained by the procedure as follow-
ed above ( i. e. max. val ues of loads and Mx =0 , 8 ), with the loads valid at t he moment
of spi n-up ( assumi ng Uy = 0, 8 ) and with the loads valid at the moment of K,
assumi ng fjy = 0, 25.
Thi s compari son has been performed for the configuration IV in which, due to the high
landing weight of 37500 l bs, al so the pylontanks ar e filled compl et el y. The r esul t s have
been collected in table 8. 2- 3, valid for a l Of t / sec, 1 0 taildown landing.
Fr om t hese r esul t s it follows that the way in which the symmet r i cal landing case has
been i nt erpret ed for el ast i c ai r cr af t , in or der to keep as closely as possi bl e to the ob-
j ect i ves of the FAR-25 r equi r ement s, and to take into account at the same t i me the ef-
fects of t r ansi ent deformation due to the landing impact, cert ai nl y i s the most conser -
vative i nt erpret at i on of the vaguely defined combination of existing r equi r ement s.
( Given in par . FAR-25 - 471 to 487 and the general r equi r ement , as given in par.
FAR-25 -305c with r egar d to the effects of t r ansi ent deformat i on) .
The differences in calculated loads ar e often so l ar ge that it is even possible to conclu-
de that the proposed conservat i ve i nt erpret at i on for the symmet r i c landing cases is the
only one which can be adopted anyhow.
Having calculated the loads due to landing i mpact s accordi ng to the FAR-25 r equi r e-
ment s, in the i nt erpret at i on as explained above, the compari son of the r esul t s with the
r esul t s of the rat i onal cal cul at i ons as present ed in chapt er 6, can now be made.
In t abl e 8. 2-4 the max. val ues of the landing gear forces and the vari ous shear forces,
bending moment s and t or si onal moment s along the span, found from the rat i onal asymm-
et r i c cal cul at i ons with Z =6 f t / sec for the vari ous val ues of the initial rol l angle as
given in table 6. 5-2, ar e collected and compared with the loads at the same stations but
cal cul at ed accordi ng to the FAR-25 r equi r ement s for symmet r i c and asymmet r i c landing
cas es , whichever i s the most cr i t i cal in the i nt erpret at i on as explained above.
The l at t er ar e pr esent ed for the ai rcraft st r uct ur e assumed to be both rigid as well as
el ast i c.
The figures show that the rat i onal anal ysi s usually r esul t s in l ower wing l oads, though
t he opposite i s t r ue at the wing tip, for the t orsi onal moment s at station 3600 and the
bending moment at station 3600' . It is also shown again that a rigid body concept is
inadequate, not only for outboard st at i ons and t orsi onal moment s, but even for wing
root design val ues of bending moment s, which ar e even smal l er than the val ues found
with the rat i onal anal ysi s.
As it has been shown al ready in chapt er 6 that with the st r uct ur al schemat i sat i on adop-
ted, and with the "r at i onal " calculation scheme, cer t ai nl y conservat i ve loads ar e cal cu-
lated, it must be concluded that if the above given i nt erpret at i on of the existing r equi r e-
ment s for el ast i c ai rcraft st r uct ur es is chosen, too high shear forces, and t orsi on moment s
* FAR-25 - 305c : Where st r uct ur al flexibility is such that any r at e of load application
likely to occur in the operating conditions might produce t ransi ent
s t r e s s e s appreci abl y higher than t hose corrspondi ng to st at i c loads,
the effects of this r at e of application must be consi dered.
-1 48-
T AB L E 8 . 2 - 4
Compari son of design limit loads and accel er at i ons due to proposed rat i onal
r equi r ement s and due to existing FAR-25 r equi r ement s.
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-1 49-
for many st at i ons ar e obtained. Bending moment s on the ot her hand ar e for this
exampl e of the same magnitude when calculated accordi ng to the FAR r equi r ement s
and accordi ng to a rat i onal anal ysi s, although station 3600 , as an exception, shows
an appreci abl e l ower value for the rat i onal anal ysi s.
For the landing gear loads K^ and Kx the differences between a rat i onal anal ysi s and
an anal ysi s accordi ng to the FAR r equi r ement s ar e significant too. The same is
t r ue for the engi ne- and wat er methanol tank vert i cal accel erat i on. These differences
ar e di rect l y rel at ed to the differences in descent vel oci t i es, as follows from table 6. 8-1
and from fig. 7. 2. They will be s mal l er for l ar ger ai rcraft , since the proposed descent
velocity values i ncr eases with landing weight.
The l at er al t i r e force Ky i s of the same magnitude in all t hr ee cas es . As al l t hr ee
accel er at i ons ar e an or der of magnitude smal l er when the ai rcraft i s assumed to be
rigid, and as st r uct ur al el ast i ci t y is becoming mor e and mor e i mport ant in modern
ai r cr af t design, ei t her as a r esul t of the i ncreasi ng si ze of modern ai rcraft , or as a
r esul t of l ar ge concent rat ed mas s es such as engines, pylontanks, et c. , a pr oper i ncor-
poration of st r uct ur al el ast i ci t y, as well as a pr oper predi ct i on of t i me hi st ori es of loads
acting on the st r uct ur e, ar e i mper at i ve for efficient st r uct ur es to be designed.
It can be concluded in general that loads and accel er at i ons accordi ng to the proposed
r equi r ement s in many cas es ar e appreci abl y lower than t hose found with the FAR r equi -
r ement s . This will be part l y due to the conservat i ve i nt erpret at i on of the FAR r equi r ement s,
and part l y due to the liidden safety margi n introduced in the existing r equi r ement s, as ex-
plained m the Introduction of this study.
For heavi er ai r cr af t that the F-27 tliese differences will be smal l er since the proposed des -
cent velocity val ues i ncr ease with landing weight. Thi s i mpl i es that for ai rcraft with landing
weights over about 200. 000 lbs the proposed r equi r ement s can easi l y lead to higher l oads
than will be found with the FAR r equi r ement s.
In or der to i nvest i gat e in a mor e gener al way the i mpl i cat i ons of the proposed r equi r ement s,
especi al l y for l ar ger ai r cr af t , it will be worthwhile to apply the proposed r equi r ement s to a
number of existing modern ai r cr af t . It may also be worthwhile to introduce an i nt er i m period
in which the proposed and the existing r equi r ement s both have to be applied to new desi gns,
in or der to be abl e to study the i mpl i cat i ons of the proposed ones also for future ai r cr af t
desi gns.
However, the aut her is convinced that application of the proposed rat i onal r equi r ement s no
doubt l argel y i mpr oves the accur acy of the load predi ct i ons.
Applying the proposed r equi r ement s i s not mor e complicated than applying the existing ones.
In or der to detect maximum loads only tlie pitch- and rol l attitude have to be vari ed, wher eas
for descent velocity and all ot her initial conditions fixed values can be used.
It is thought that introduction of the proposed r equi r ement s will bri ng the objective of desi g-
ning a light and economic ai rcraft st r uct ur e for a given st andard of st rengt h and st i ffness,
a st ep near er to i t s ul t i mat e goal.
-150-
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- 1 55-
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-1 57-
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81 , P. Henri ci
"Di scr et e vari abl e methods in or di nar y differential equat i ons".
J. Wiley & Sons Inc. 1 962
82, A. A, Ki r sch - J, M, Cal l i ger os - K. A, Foss
"Effects of s t r uct ur al flexibility on gust loading of ai r cr af t ",
W, A. D, C, Techn. Rep, 54-592 1 955
83, J, Yff - C, J, van Veen
"Analyse van vl eugel el ast i ci t ei t in het hori zont al e vlak en pylontank
stijfheid d. m. v, enige st andt ri l l i ngsproeven",
Fokker Report X-27-378 1 961
1 58-
AP P E N D I X A
Un i t e d S t a t e F e d e r a l Av i a t i o n Ag e n c y Ai r w o r t h i n e s s S t a n d a r d s f o r
Gr o u n d l o a d s of T r a n s p o r t C a t e g o r y A i r p l a n e s . *
GENERAL ( Par a 25. 471 )
a. Loads and equi l i bri um. For limit ground l oads. -
1. Limit ground loads obtained under this subpart ar e consi dered to be ext ernal
forces applied to the ai rpl ane s t r uct ur e ; and
2. In each specified ground load condition, the ext er nal loads must be pl aced in
equi l i bri um with the l i near and angul ar i nert i a loads in a rat i onal or conservat i ve
manner .
b. Cri t i cal cent er s of gravi t y. The cr i t i cal cent er s of gravity within the range for which
certification is request ed must be sel ect ed so that the maxi mum design loads ar e
obtained in each landing gear el ement .
c. Design weights . Design weights may be used for st r uct ur al desi gn only.
d. Landing gear dimension data . Fi gur e A-1 cont ai ns the basi c landing gear
dimension data.
GROUND LOAD CONDITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS ( Par a 25. 473 )
a. For the landing conditions specified in par . 25. 479 through 25. 485, the following
apply :
(1 ) The sel ect ed limit ver t i cal i nert i a load fact ors at the cent er of gravity of the
ai rpl ane may not be l ess than the val ues that would be obtained -
(i) In the attitude and subject to the drag loads associ at ed with the par t i cul ar
landing conditions ;
(ii) With a l i mi t descent velocity of 10 f. p. s. at the design landing weight ( the
maxi mum weight for landing conditions at the maxi mum descent velocity ) ;
and
(ill) With a limit descent velocity of 6 f. p. s. at the design take-off weight ( the
maxi mum weight for taxiing conditions and landing conditions at a reduced
descent velocity ),
(2) A wing lift, not exceeding the ai rpl ane weight, may be assumed to exi st t hrough-
out the landing i mpact and to act through the cent er of gravity of the ai r pl ane.
b. The pr escr i bed descent velocities may be modified if it i s shown that the ai rpl ane has
design feat ures that make it i mpossi bl e to develop these vel oci t i es.
c. The mi ni mum limit i nert i a load fact ors correspondi ng to the r equi r ed l i mi t descent
vel oci t i es must be det ermi ned in accordance with par a. 25. 723 (a).
LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT ( Par a 25. 477 )
Sections 25. 479 through 25. 485 apply to ai r pl anes with conventional ar r angement s of main
and nose gear s, or main and tail gear s, when nor mal operat i ng techniques ar e used.
= = Only t hose par agr aphs ar e reproduced which ar e rel at ed to the pr esent study. .
-1 59-
LEVEL LANDING CONDITIONS ( Pa r a 25. 479 )
a In the l evel at t i t ude, the ai rpl ane i s assumed to contact the ground at forward velocity
component s, rangi ng from V, to 1 ,25 Vi , par al l el to the ground, and to be subjected
to the load fact ors pr escr i bed in par a. 25.473(a) (1 ) with
(1 ) V, equal to V (TAS) at the apr opr i at e landing weight and in st andard sea level
^1 SQ
conditions ; and
(2) V, equal to Vg (TAS) at the appropri at e landing weight and al t i t udes in a hot day
t emper at ur e of 41 degr ees F. above st andard.
b. The effects of i ncr eased contact speeds must be investigated if approval of downwind
landings exceedi ng 10 knots i s desi r ed.
c. Assumi ng that the following combinations of ver t i cal and drag components act at the
axle cent er l i ne, the following apply :
(1 ) For the condition of maxi mum wheel spi n-up load, drag components si mul at i ng
the forces r equi r ed to accel er at e the wheel rolling assembl y up to the specified
ground speed must be combined with the ver t i cal ground r eact i ons existing at
the i nst ant of peak dr ag l oads. The coefficient of friction between the t i r es and
the ground may be est abl i shed by consi deri ng the effects of skidding velocity and
t i r e pr e s s ur e . However, this coefficient of friction need not be mor e than 0. 8.
Thi s condition must be applied to the landing gear, di rect l y affected attaching
s t r uct ur e, and l arge mas s i t ems such as ext ernal fuel tanks and nacel l es.
(2) For the condition of maxi mum wheel ver t i cal load, an aft act i ng dr ag component
of not l es s than 25 per cent of the maxi mum ver t i cal ground react i on must be
combined with the maxi mum ground react i on of par a. 25. 473.
(3) For the condition of maxi mum spri ngback load, forward-act i ng hori zont al loads
r esul t i ng from a rapi d reduct i on of the spi n-up dr ag loads must be combined
with the ver t i cal ground r eact i ons at the instant of the peak forward load. This
condition must be applied to the landing gear, di rect l y affected attaching s t r uct -
ur e, and l ar ge mas s i t ems such as ext ernal fuel tanks and nacel l es.
d. For the level landing attitude for ai r pl anes with all t ai l wheel s, the conditions speci -
fied in par agr aph (a) of this sect i on must be investigated with the ai rpl ane hori zont al
r ef er ence line hori zont al in accordance with figure A- 2.
e. For the l evel landing attitude for ai rpl anes with nose wheel s, shown in Fi gure 2 of
Appendix A, the conditions specified in par agr aphs (a) through (c) of this section must
be i nvest i gat ed, assumi ng the following at t i t udes :
(1 ) An attitude i n which the main wheels ar e assumed to contact the ground with the
nose wheel j ust cl ear of the ground.
(2) If reasonabl y attainable at the specified descent and forward vel oci t i es, an attitude
in which the nose and mai n wheels ar e assumed to contact the ground si mul t aneousl y
For t hi s at t i t ude -
(i) The nose and mai n gear may be separ at el y i nvest i gat ed under the conditions
in par agr aph (c) (1 ) and (3) of this section ; and
(ii) The pitching moment i s assumed, under the condition in par agr aph (c) (2) of
this sect i on, to be r esi st ed by the nose gear,
-1 60-
TAIL-DOWN LANDING CONDITIONS ( Pa r a , 25. 481 )
a. In the tail-down attitude, the airplane i s assumed to contact the ground at forward
velocity components, ranging from V]^. to Vi- , par al l el to the ground, and i s sub-
j ect ed to the load f act or s pr escr i bed in par agr aph 25. 473 (a) (1 ) with
(1 ) V^^ equal to Vg (TAS) at the appropri at e landing weight and in st andard sea l evel
condi t i ons; and
(2) Vl equal to Vs (TAS) at the appropri at e landing weight and al t i t udes in a hot day
t emper at ur e of 41 degrees F. above st andar d.
The combination of vert i cal and drag components specified in par agr aph 25. 479
(c) (1 ) and (3) i s consi dered to be acting at the mai n wheel axle cent er l i ne.
b. For the tail-down landing condition for ai r pl anes with t ai l wheels,the main and tail
wheels ar e assumed to contact the ground si mul t aneousl y, in accordance with figure
A- 3. Ground reaction conditions on the t ai l wheel ar e assumed to act -
(1 ) Vert i cal l y ; and
(2) Up and aft through the axle at 45 degr ees to the ground line.
c. For the tail-down landing condition for ai rpl anes with nose wheel s, the ai rpl ane is
assumed to be at an attitude correspondi ng to ei t her the st al l i ng angle or the maxi mum
angle allowing cl earance with the ground by each par t of the ai rpl ane ot her than the
main wheels, in accordance with figure A- 3, whichever i s l es s .
ONE-WHEEL LANDING CONDITIONS ( Pa r a . 25. 483)
For the one-wheel landing condition, the ai rpl ane i s assumed to be in the level attitude and to
contact the ground on one side of the main landing gear, in accordance with Fi gure A. 4.
In this attitude -
a. The ground react i ons must be the same as those obtained on that side under par agr aph
25,479 (c) (2) ; and
b. Each unbalanced ext ernal load must be r eact ed by ai rpl ane i nert i a in a rat i onal or
conservat i ve manner.
SIDE LOAD CONDITIONS ( P a r a . 25.485)
a. For the side load condition, the ai rpl ane i s assumed to be in the level attitude with
only the mai n wheels contacting the ground in accordance with figure A- 5,
b. Side loads of 0. 8 of the vert i cal react i on ( on one side ) acting inward and 0. 6 of the
ver t i cal react i on ( on the other side ) acting outward must be combined with one-half
of the maxi mum ver t i cal ground react i ons obtained in the level landing conditions.
These loads ar e assumed to be applied at the ground contact point and to be r esi st ed
by the i nert i a of the ai rpl ane. The drag loads may be assumed to be zer o.
* Three point landings of ai rpl anes with tail wheels ar e not t reet ed as such in the
present study.
- 1 61 -
SHOCK ABSORPTION TEST ( Par a 25. 723 )
a. It must be shown by energy absorpt i on t est s that the limit load fact ors selected for design
in accor dance with par a 25.473 for take-off and landing weights, respect i vel y, will not be
exceeded.
b. The landing gear may not fail in a t est , demonst rat i ng i t s r es er ve energy absorption ca-
pacity, simulating a descent velocity of 12 f. p. s. at design landing weight, assumi ng ai r -
plane lift not gr eat er than the ai rpl ane weight acting during the landing impact.
Appendix A
TAIL WHEEL TYPE
^^^i
M ill I
NOSE WHEEL TYPE
Fi gur e A-1 Basi c landing gear dimension data
>f (TOTAL)
S-tmLUI INCRTU FOKCE
NECESSARY FOR EOUIUBNUM
r FORW*M> COMPONENT OF
I NCRTU FORCE.
TAIL WHEEL TY PE NOSE WHEEL TY PE
Fi gur e A-2 Level landing
f f (TOTAL) I T (TOTAL)
^ -ANGLE FOR MAIN GEAR AND TAIL STRUCTURE
CONTACTING GROUND EXCEFT E O NCT
r/U Vf EXCEED STALL ANGU
TAIL WHEEL TY PE NOSE WHEEL TY PE
F i g u r e A - 3 T a i l - d o w n l a n d i n g
- 1 6 2 -
THE AIRPLANE INERTIA LOADS REQUIRED
0 BALANCE THE EXTERNAL FORCXS
SINGLE WHEEL LOAD
FROM 2 WHEEL LEVEL
LANDING CONDITION.
NOSE OR TAIL WHEEL TYPE
Fi gur e A-4 One-wheel landing
'M-tmtuir TM muamm lumtu. MU MACTWI
a n n o l i t * MM UUU tM IML uywM CMMIMM.
NOSE GEAR GROUND REACTION ' 0
NOSE OR TAIL WHEEL TYPE AIRPLANE IN LEVEL ALTITUDE
Figuue A-5 Lat er al drift landing
- 1 63-
AP P E N D I X B
C a l c u l a t i o n of p r e s c r i b e d wi n g b e n d i n g - a n d t o r s i o n d e f o r m a t i o n
m o d e s .
When the di st ri but ed mas s of the wing st r uct ur e, which is assumed to be clamped at i t s root,
i s thought to be concent rat ed in a finite number of wing st at i ons and when, likewise, in these
st at i ons the el ast i c influence coefficients ar e cal cul at ed assumi ng beam theory to be applicable
for the descri pt i on of the el ast i c behaviour of the wing st r uct ur e, it is possi bl e ( see e. g.
ref. 80 ) to approxi mat e the i nt egral equation of motion for free vi br at i ons, in a mat r i x
formul at i on.
One of the si mpl est formul at i ons, in which i nt egrat i on i s r epl aced by summat i on, i s given by
the following expr essi on :
in which
[O^c'.M-ljfx
= 0
B- 1
I = unity mat r i x
M = mat r i x of mass const ant s
-1
C = mat r i x of influence coefficients
\XJ = vect or of deformations in the wing st at i ons
' ^ = ci r cul ar frequency
Solutions of the equation B-1 have been obtained by si mpl e i t erat i on. Up to two ei gen-val ues
( frequenci es ) and eigen vect or s ( vibration modes ) have been computed for vari ous fuel
configurations.
For bending vi brat i ons the general i zed mass and stiffness mat r i ces take the following form
for the pr esent case :
m,0 9 0
O m, O
I I \ ' I
I I \ I
I I \ I
0 0 m0
0- 0 O- 'xj
In which ly i s the moment of i nert i a of the pylon tank around the wing chord of the pylon-
tank wingstation.
ly i s added because the pylontank i s located beneath the wing pl ane. Especi al l y for the filled
pylontank this rot ary i nert i a cannot be neglected.
M B- 2
The bending influe.nce coefficient mat r i x then i s defined by
d d e
I I I
11-1 11.1111 p
e_ e^ f
P.1 Pii- fp p
B- 3
-1 64-
in which
djj= l i near deflection at station i due tc unit force at station j
ajp= l i near deflection at station i due to unit bending moment at pylontank station p
6pj= angular rot at i on at pylontank station p due to a unit force at st at i on j
f_ = angular rot at i on at pylontank station p due to a unit bending moment at pylon-
tank station p.
For the calculation of the assumed t orsi onal deformation modes the engine rot at i on with
r espect to the wing is a separ at e degree of freedom. The mat r i x of mas s const ant s M then
takes the form
M =
1
O-
o-
o
o
' 2
o
I
o o
I
o-
'3 I ^ Tl m m m /
O
O
I
\
\
I I
0(' m-Mn,am^m)0
I
I
I
O
' m
B- 4
in which
i = moment of i nert i a about el . axi s of wing mas s in the i th wing station. In the
engine wing st at i on this includes the engine moment of i nert i a about the wing
el ast i c axi s
I = engine moment of inertia about vi rt ual rot at i on point A of engine rot at i on with
r espect to wing,
-1
Quantities Qj^ and l ^ ar e defined in fig. B- 2.
The el ement s of the mat ri x of influence coefficients C ' for the case of wing rot at i on and
engine rot at i on with r espect to the wing ar e defined as follows :
Ci . .= twist at wing st at i on i due to unit twisting moment around el ast i c axi s at wing
station j .
The row and column rel at ed to the engine rot at i on with r espect to the wing contain al l zer os
except for the diagonal el ement .
The basi c geomet ri c, el ast i c and mass data of the ai rcraft from which the bending and t orsi on-
al modes ar e calculated, ar e given in figs. B-1 and B-2 and t abl es B-1 and B-2,
Fr om the wing bending- and t orsi onal stiffness di st ri but i ons as given in fig. B- 3, the mat r i ces
of bending and t orsi on influence coefficients as given in tables B-3 and B-4, can be calculated.
Since a number of configurations ar e dealt with in the example cal cul at i ons, assumed
bending and t orsi on modes had to be calculated for all these configurations. The r esul t s ar e
collected in tables B-5 and B-6, while fig. B-4 gives some exampl es of the calculated bending-
and t orsi on modes.
-1 65-
TABLE B-1
S u m m a r y of F o k k e r F - 2 7 m a s s d a t a a s u s e d f o r e x a m p l e l a n d i n ;
i m p a c t c a l c u l a t i o ns .
C o n f i g u r a t i o n
1 2
Ma s s m ( kg. m s e c )
Fu s e l a g e + t a i l pl a ne s
Wi ng
Wi ng fuel
La ndi ng g e a r s
Engi ne s
Py l o n s + t anks
Py l o n t a n k fuel
Tot a l ( kg. m"- ^sec^)
l andi ng wei ght ( l bs )
St at i c mo me n t s wi t h r e
Fu s e l a g e -t- t a i l pl a ne s
Wi ng
Wi ng fuel
La ndi ng g e a r s
Engi ne s
Pyl ons + t anks
Pyl on t ankf uel
Tot a l
Ma s s mo me n t of i ne r t i a
Fu s e l a g e -i- t a i l pl a ne s
Wi ng
Wi ng fuel
La ndi ng g e a r s
Engi ne s
Pyl ons + t anks
Pyl on t ankf uel
Ma s s mo me n t of i ne r t i s
o r engi ne s t a t i on.
Fu s e l a g e + t a i l pl a ne s
Wi ng
Wi ng fuel
La ndi ng g e a r s
Engi ne s
Pyl ons + t anks
Pyl on t ankf uel
I
543, 8
327, 7
448, 1
6 5 , 5
1 57, 1
-
-
1 542, 2
(34000)
s pe c t t o wi ng
-1-380, 5
- 1 8, 0
+ 3 4 , 1
-1- 27, 5
- 4 2 4 , 1
-
-
0
a r ound wi ng
24080, 4
300, 8
1 85, 4
394, 5
1 260, 4
-
-
I I a r ound X.
1 702, 0
1 0991 , 5
1 9965, 0
382, 9
27, 3
-
-
II
525, 0
327. 7
448, 1
6 5 , 5
1 57, 1
1 9, 6
77, 1
1 620, 1
(35700)
HI
748, 1
321 . 8
327, 5
6 5 . 5
1 57, 1
-
-
1 620, 0
(35700)
2
e l a s t i c axi s ( kg. s e c )
-t-372, 0
- 1 8, 0
+ 34, 1
+ 27. 5
- 4 2 4 . 1
- 3, 8
+ 1 2. 1
- 0, 2
e l a s t i c a xi s I
20642, 5
300. 8
1 85. 4
394, 5
1 260, 4
3 1 , 1
54. 7
axi s i n t he win
1 461 . 2
1 0991 , 5
1 9965, 0
382, 9
27. 3
1 4. 6
3 2 , 5
-1-374, 7
- 1 7, 7
+ 39, 2
+ 27, 5
- 4 2 4 , 1
-
-
- 0, 4
2
, ( kg. m s e c )
25239, 0
299. 9
1 73, 7
394. 5
1 260, 4
-
-
g pl ane at t he
1 885. 1
1 0596. 9
1 0892, 3
3 8 2 , 9
27. 3
-
-
IV

528, 9
327, 7
448, 1
65, 5
1 57, 1
1 9. 6
1 54, 1
1 701 , 0
(37500)
-1 -41 1 , 0
- 1 8, 0
+ 34, 1
+ 27. 5
- 4 2 4 . 1
- 3, 8
- 28, 3
- 1 .6
2061 8. 4
300, 8
1 85. 4
394. 5
1 260. 4
3 1 , 1
1 24, 9
c e n t e r l i n e - ,
1 472, 8
1 0991 , 5
1 9965, 0
382, 9
27, 3
1 4, 6
66, 0
V
861 , 3
327, 7
448, 1
65, 5
1 57, 1
-
-
1 859, 7
(41 000)
+380, 5
- 1 8, 0
-1- 34, 1
-1- 27, 5
- 4 2 4 , 1
-
-
0
24409, 1
300, 8
1 85, 4
394, 5
1 260, 4
-
-
pyl ont ank- ,
1 946, 7
1 0991 , 5
1 9965, 0
382, 9
27, 3
-
-
- 1 66-
TABLE B- 2
I ner t i a dat a of half wi ng and fuel for c ompl e t e \ / i ng wi t hout engi ne, l andi ng ge a r and pyl ont ank.
s
CO
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7a
8
9
1 0
1 1
Y
0
1 ,040
2,540
3,600
4, 1 50
5,350
6, 550
7, 900
8,585
1 0,030
1 0, 760
1 2,660
1 4, 300
TOTAL
m
( kg. m-
NORMAL WING
FUEL TANK
WING
5,428
1 6,962
1 6,091
57,554
1 1 ,357
1 0,244
1 0,364
6,936
5,060
8,405
4,405
5,595
2,505
1 60,906
FUEL
1 8, 1 40
1 4, 1 40
64,390
45,980
21 .090
,
1 63,740
. s ec^)
EXTENDED WING
FUEL TANK
WING
5.428
1 6,962
1 6,091
57, 554
1 1 ,458
1 0,620
1 0,737
7,434
5,808
9,1 48
4,51 9
5,595
2,505
1 63.859
FUEL
1 8,1 40
1 4,220
66, 01 5
49, 320
29, 925
26,220
20, 1 90
0,841
224, 030
S
{ kg. sec^)
NORMAL WING
FUEL TANK
WING
- 0, 757
0,707
0, 839
-1 4,926
- 0,072
0,036
1 , 01 0
- 0,1 1 3
0,307
2,050
1 ,062
0,841
0,1 78
- 8, 838
FUEL
28, 386
-0, 891
- 3, 91 9
- 2, 693
-1 ,209
1 9, 674
EXTENDED WING
FUEL TANK
WING
- 0,757
+ 0, 707
0,839
-1 4,926
- 0,082
- 0,003
- 0,983
- 0,1 55
0,255
2,055
1 ,072
0,841
0,1 78
- 8, 987
FUEL
28, 386
-0,896
- 3 , 982
- 2, 795
- 1 , 562
- 1 , 239
- 0, 855
1 7,057
'y 2
( kg. m. sec )
NORMAL WING
FUEL TANK
WING
2, 366
9,791
8,462
1 05,341
4,829
4, 71 4
4,634
2, 599
1 ,675
2, 799
1 , 267
1, 1 09
0, 376
1 49,962
FUEL
68,323
2,1 42
8,846
5, 355
2,1 65
86,831
EXTENDED WING
FUEL TANK
WING
2,366
9, 791
8,462
1 05.341
4,850
4,786
4, 698
2,679
1 .794
2,897
1 ,282
1 , 1 09
0,376
1 50.421
FUEL
68,323
2,1 70
9,1 84
5,901
3,1 34
2,393
1 .588
92,693
TABLE B- 3
U n c o u p l e d w i n g b e n d i n g
Ma t r i x of i nf l uence coef f i ci ent s ( x 1 0 ) m/ k g
2
3
4
5
6
7
7a
8
9
1 0
1 1
7a
2
2
1 4
33
43
65
86
1 0
23
49
62
96
26
1 8
3
. 33
. 72
. 94
1 .42
1 . 90
2. 44
2. 71
3. 28
3. 58
4. 34
5. 00
. 40
4
. 4 3
. 94
1 . 28
2. 04
2. 79
3. 64
4. 07
4. 98
5. 44
6. 64
7. 67
. 6 3
5
. 6 5
1 .42
2. 04
3. 60
5. 1 4
5. 58
7. 73
9. 59
1 0. 52
1 2. 96
1 5. 06
1 . 28
6
1 .
2.
5.
8.
1 1 .
1 2
1 6.
1 8.
22.
26
2
86
90
79
1 4
00
27
91
42
1 9
79
76
42
7
1 . 1 0
2. 44
3. 64
5. 58
1 1 . 27
1 6. 56
1 9. 37
25. 36
28. 37
36. 22
42. 99
4 . 1 3
7
1 .
2.
4.
7.
1 2.
1 9.
23.
30.
34.
44.
53
5.
a
23
71
07
73
91
37
00
77
68
87
66
36
8
1 .49
3. 28
4. 98
9. 59
1 6. 42
25. 36
30. 77
43. 56
50. 20
58. 38
82. 37
8. 26
9
1 .62
3. 58
5. 44
1 0. 52
1 8. 1 9
28. 37
34. 68
50. 20
58. 74
81 . 1 4
1 00. 48
9. 72
1 0
1 . 96
4. 34
6. 64
1 2. 96
22. 79
36. 22
44. 87
58. 38
8 1 . 1 4
1 22. 90
1 61 . 60
1 3. 52
1 1
2. 26
5. 00
7. 67
1 5. 06
26. 76
42. 99
53. 66
82. 37
1 00. 48
1 61 . 60
230. 90
1 6. 80
^ 7 a
. 1 8
. 4 0
. 6 3
1 . 28
2. 42
4. 1 3
5. 36
8. 26
9. 72
1 3. 52
1 6. 80
2. 00
TABLE B- 4
U n c o u p l e d w i n g t o r s i o n
2
3
4
5
6
7
7a
8
9
1 0
1 1
ev
2
. 32
. 32
. 32
. 32
. 32
. 32
. 32
. 3 2
. 32
. 32
. 32
0
3
. 32
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
. 51
0
Ma t r i x of t or s i ona l i nf l uence
4
. 32
. 51
. 68
. 68
. 68
. 6 8
. 68
. 68
. 68
. 68
. 68
0
5
. 32
. 51
. 6 8
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
1 . 05
0
6
. 32
. 51
. 68
1 .05
1 .59
1 . 59
1 . 59
1 . 59
1 . 59
1 . 59
1 .59
0
7
. 32
. 5 1
. 68
1 . 05
1 . 59
2. 58
2. 58
2. 58
2. 58
2. 58
2. 58
0
coef f i ci ent s ( x
7a
. 32
. 51
. 68
1 . 05
1 .59
2. 58
3, 23
. 3 . 23
3. 23
3. 23
3. 23
0
8
. 32
. 51
. 68
1 . 05
1 . 59
2. 58
3. 23
5. 30
5. 30
5. 30
5. 30
0
1 0) r a d / k g m
9
. 3 2
. 51
. 68
1 . 05
1 . 59
2. 58
3. 23
5. 30
7. 00
7. 00
7. 00
0
1 0
. 32
. 51
. 68
1 .05
1 . 59
2. 58
3. 23
5. 30
7. 00
1 5. 00
1 5. 00
0
1 1
. 32
. 51
. 6 8
1 . 05
1 . 59
2. 58
3. 23
5. 30
7. 00
1 5. 00
29. 00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 36
wing c l a mp e d at s t a t i on 1 pyl ont ank at s t at i on no. 7a kg, m, r a d. uni t s .
-1 67-
TABLE B-5
U n c o u p l e d wi n g b e n d i n g d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e s .
n
c p s .
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7a
8
9
1 0
1 1
Fi l l e d n o r ma l
wi ng fuel t ank
Wi t hout Pyl ont a nk
Conf i g. Il l
3, 02
0
0
0, 01 93
0. 0426
0, 0633
0, 1 1 50
0, 1 954
0, 2889
0, 3501
0, 4736
0, 5649
0, 7752
1 , 0000
7, 87
0
0
- 0 . 0 3 0 9
- 0 , 0 6 7 6
- 0 . 0 9 0 5
- 0 , 1 3 0 7
- 0 , 1 6 4 4
- 0 , 1 2 7 4
- 0 , 1 2 7 0
- 0 , 0 5 9 6
0. 1 1 42
0. 5357
1 . 0000
Fi l l e d ext ended
Fi l l e d Pyl ont a nk
Conf i g. IV
2, 04
0
0
0, 0207
0. 0457
0. 0684
0. 1 267
0. 21 48
0, 3208
0, 3852
0, 521 5
0, 6040
0, 7890
1 , 0000
7, 42
0
0
- 0 , 0 1 9 5
- 0 , 0 4 2 5
- 0 . 0 5 6 8
- 0 . 0 8 1 5
- 0 . 0 9 9 4
- 0 . 0 6 8 1
- 0 , 0 5 5 0
- 0, 01 36
- 0 . 1 7 6 8
0. 5525
1 .0000
wi ng fuel t ank
50% f i l l ed Pyl ont a nk
Confi g. II
2. 1 7
-
. 0
0
0, 0203
0, 0449
0, 0671
0, 1 240
0, 21 08
0, 31 49
0. 3790
0, 51 44
0, 5982
0, 7831
1 , 0000
7. 45
0
0
- 0 . 0 2 1 4
- 0, 0468
- 0, 0627
- 0. 0898
- 0 , 1 1 0 9
- 0 , 0 7 8 6
- 0 , 0 6 6 5
0, 0037
0. 1 686
0. 5541
1 .0000
Wi t hout Pyl ont a nk
Config. I and V
2, 40
0
0
0. 01 99
0, 0438
0. 0655
0. 1 203
0, 2051
0, 3060
0, 3692
0, 5024
0, 5883
0, 7723
1 . 0000
7, 61
0
0
- 0 . 0 2 3 9
- 0 . 0 5 2 2
- 0 . 0 6 9 9
- 0 . 0 9 9 4
- 0 , 1 2 4 9
- 0 , 0 9 1 8
- 0 , 0 8 3 5
- 0 , 0 1 7 9
0, 1 506
0, 5562
1 , 0000
TABLE B-6
T o r s i o n d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e s .
n
c p s .
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7a
8
9
1 0
1 1
e
Fi l l e d n o r ma l
wi ng fuel t ank
Wi t hout Pyl ont a nk
Conf i g. Ill
6. 1 0 1 8. 84
0
0
0. 5556
0. 8838
0, 8936
0, 91 1 6
0. 91 81
0, 9448
0, 951 5
0, 9680
0, 9748
0, 9922
1 , 0000
- 0. 3907
0
0
0, 1 296
0, 2036
0, 2473
0, 3340
0, 4260
0, 5355
0, 5842
0, 71 1 1
0, 7678
0, 9255
1 , 0000
0, 3496
Fi l l e d ext ended
Fi l l e d Pyl ont a nk
Config. IV
5, 88
0
0
0, 3768
0, 5995
0. 6255
0. 6800
0. 7525
0. 8745
0. 9502
0. 9702
0, 9765
0. 9927
1 . 0000
- 0 , 2 4 6 0
1 0, 00
0
0
- 0 . 0 1 5 1
- 0 , 0 2 3 8
0, 0347
0. 1 623
0. 3434
0, 6608
0, 8595
0. 91 49
0. 9327
0. 9790
1 . 0000
0, 1 270
wi ng fuel t a nk
50% f i l l ed Pyl ont a nk
Confi g. 11
6, 02
0
0
0. 4454
0. 7085
0. 7283
0. 7689 .
0. 81 94
0. 8999
0. 9479
0, 9689
0, 9755
0, 9924
1 , 0000
- 0, 301 7
1 2, 20
0
0
0, 0096
0. 01 54
0. 0696
0. 1 870
0. 3501
0. 6268
0, 7948
0, 8744
0, 9004
0, 9687
1 , 0000
0, 1 091
Wi t hout Pyl ont a nk
Confi g. I and V
6, 1 2
0
0
0, 5394
0, 8679
0, 8691
0, 8903
0, 91 1 2
0. 9354
0, 9460
0, 9677
0, 9745
0. 9921
1 .0000
- 0 , 3 8 4 7
1 8, 26
0
0
0, 0775
0, 1 220
0, 1 655
0, 2553
0, 3606
0, 5038
0, 5728
0, 7275
0, 781 3
0, 9300
1 , 0000
0, 2093
1 68-
7^' "W1 TH ft^P*W NOSE
St O' WI TH RADAR NOSE
SMAU CAROO o o m MK 300
SHALL CAROO DOOR HK 100
Fig. BI
-1 69-
WING STATIONS IN WHICH MASS IS CONCENTRATED
o
o
o o o
* o i n
in o i2
o
in
cn
in
o
in
in
( O
o
o
C7>
t -
in
00
in
00
o o
o f-
o o
^ 1 1- I - I ^ I
I n I ^
^ c of g of wing sect i ons
o
(O
O
O
,= - 0. 385 m-| fully
= 3.066 m
= - ?; V . 0B8r
l ruiiy
J extended
WING S TATION 8 5 8 5
O/ O/
3 0/0 40/o
FRONT S PAR REAR S PAR
222
Fig. B2 Geomet ri e data of F-27 wing, engine and pylontank
1 70-
WIN6BENDIN6 ANO-TORSIONAL
STIFFNESS VARIATION AL0N6 SPAN
10 - I X I O ^ K g m 2
BENDING
TORSION
2 . MO MS U f I . St 1 1 0
SPAN( m) -
I f t Ol 1 0.7( 12.6 6 1 50
Fig. B-3
WI T H SOr o F I L L E D PYLONTANK
extended wing f uel >-
t ank( conf i ) y" \
engine J,
.04 2.Si ^l . i 0. . i ^ S3S CSS 7.0 r si S 10.0310.Tf 1 1 .fl \l,%%
- S P A N ( m ) -
WI T HOUT PYLONTANK
extended wing f u e j ^ _ _ _ - - - - ^^'
tonk , _ _ - - ' " " '
/j conf.iand X
rot i Tl ^l . COt l S S. f.S T.IO LSI S 1 0.0] 10.7S l l . l f 1 O0
- S P A N ( m) 1 ^
coLculoted uncoupled wing bending and
torsion modes
Fig. B-4
SAMENVATTING IN HET NEDERLANDS
De vl i egt ui gconst ruct eur moet t racht en een optimaal compr omi s tot stand te brengen t ussen
de t egenst ri j di ge ei sen van voldoende st er kt e en stijfheid van de const ruct i e aan de ene kant,
en van zo klein mogelijk gewicht en lage produktiekosten aan de andere kant.
De eisen t . a . v. voldoende st er kt e en stijfheid liggen vast in de l ucht waardi ghei dsvoorschri f-
ten. De bel angri j kst e zijn die, van de Verenigde Staten en van Engeland. Volgens deze voor-
schriften mag geen blijvende ver vor mi ng optreden onder invloed van de gedurende het gebrui
verwacht e belastingen die een zeker e zeer kleine waarschijnlijkheid van optreden bezitten,en
geen breuk indien deze belastingen 50% hoger zouden zijn.
Het probl eem van het bepalen van belastingen die vliegtuigen moeten kunnen weerst aan is dus
t weel edi g. Enerzi j ds moeten de verwacht e vluchtomstandigheden worden gedefinieerd.
Anderzi j ds moeten de belastingen berekend worden voor de t e verwachten vlucht- en landings
omstandigheden. Het gaat hi er dus om een st at i st i sch vraagst uk. Bij het bepalen van de kr i -
tieke belastingen i s daarom onzekerheid niet te vermi j den,ook al is goed st at i st i sch mat eri aa
aanwezig i s,het geen veel al niet het geval i s.
De mogelijkheid om belastingen te berekenen voor gegeven vluchtomstandigheden was in het
verl eden veel beper kt er dan nu waar de comput er de mogelijkheden zozeer verrui md heeft.
Daarom werden in de voorschri ft en de mogelijke vluchtomstandigheden op een zo conser va-
tive wijze gedefinieerd dat de onnauwkeurigheden als gevolg van pri mi t i eve berekeningsmethc
dieken, er door gedekt werden. Worden nu de nieuw ontwikkelde verfijnde berekeni ngsmet hodi e
ken, op de t e conservat i ef gedefinieerde vluchtomstandigheden toegepast, dan wordt de con-
st r uct i e onnodig zwaar.
Deze stand van zaken i s moment eel m. b . t . vliegtuigbelastingen door landingsstoten aanwezig
Door de kort e duur van de landingsstoot vertonen de daarui t r esul t er ende belastingen een
d y n a m i s c h kar akt er , d. w. z. dat de t raaghei dskracht en t. g. v. el ast i sche vervormi ngen
van de const ruct i e een zo grot e rol gaan spelen dat daardoor de belastingen belangrijk ver -
hoogd of verl aagd kunnen worden, vergel eken met de si t uat i e waarbij de vervormbaarhei d
van de const ruct i e niet in rekening wordt gebracht .
Toen de huidige voorschri ft en werden opgesteld werden gewoonlijk deze dynamische effecten
nog niet, of sl echt s benaderi ngsgewi j s, berekend, en aangezien deze dynami sche effecten
door de ontwikkeling van de vliegtuigbouw st eeds bel angri j ker worden, i s de vraag aan de
orde of de huidige voorschri ft en nog wel toereikend zijn,en of de voorgeschreven l andi ngs-
condities niet onnodig zwaar zijn.
In het onderhavige onderzoek wordt get racht om deze vragen t e beantwoorden. Voor dit doel
i s de landingsstoot in zijn algemeenheid geanal yseerd en is een berekeni ngsschema ontwikke]
waar mee het verl oop van de landingsstoot en zijn gevolg voor de const ruct i e kan worden be-
schreven. Dit schema is toegepast voor de berekeni ng van het bij de landing optredende be-
l ast i ng- en kracht verl oop in de const ruct i e van een voor dit doel bijzonder geschikt voorbeel(
het Fokker F-27 vliegtuig. Aan de hand van een groot aantal numeri eke berekeningen i s nage
gaan welke par amet er s belangrijk zijn voor de bepaling van de belastingen ten gevolge van
landingsstoten en in welke mat e ze belangrijk zijn. Daardoor i s het dan mogelijk geworden aan
t e geven hoe verfijnd een berekeni ng dient te worden ui t gevoerd om belastingen met een ge-
wenste mat e van nauwkeurigheid t e kunnen bepalen voor gegeven begincondities. Er blijkt eei
vergaande verfijning nodig t e zijn omdat bij een landingsstoot gecompl i ceerde pr ocessen be-
trokken zijn, die n voor n belangrijk zijn voor een nauwkeurige berekening van de bel as-
tingen.
L
-1 1 -
Als een vliegtuig landt moet de vert i cal e snelheid in zeer kort e tijd tot nul worden t er uggebr acht .
Hi ervoor dienen de schokbr eker s en de banden. Aanvankelijk worden alleen de banden ingedrukt,
waarbij de vert i cal e bandkracht op de schokbreker wordt overgedragen. Wanneer de voorspan-
ning van de schokbr eker s wordt over schr eden gaan deze i nveren. Hierbij wordt een deel van de
ki net i sche energi e,voorzover die betrekking heeft op de daal snel hei d,omgezet in war mt e .doordat
vloeistof door vernauwingen wordt gestuwd, en de r est in potentile energi e door het compr i me-
ren van lucht in de schokbrekercyl i nder.
Behalve de vert i cal e kracht en ontstaan bij een landing ook hori zont al e wri j vi ngskracht en door
het ver schi l in snelheid t ussen band en landingsbaan in de eer st e fase van de landing. De com-
ponent van dit snel hei dsverschi l evenwijdig aan het vliegtuig symmet r i evl ak leidt tot grot e wr i j -
vi ngskracht en aan de bandomtrek, die het wiel in een zeer kort e tijd in rot at i e brengen ("spin-
up"). Tegelijkertijd buigt deze kracht het onder st el naar acht eren.
De wrijvingscoefficient is een funktie van het snel hei dsver schi l t ussen band en baan. Op het mo-
ment dat het wiel bijna op t oeren is gekomen, zodat het snel hei dsver schi l t ussen band en baan
klein is geworden, neemt de wrijvingscoefficient snel af tot de waarde die geldt voor rol l ende
wrijving. Kort tevoren bereikt de wrijvingscoefficient zijn maxi mal e waar de.
De kracht die het onderst el naar acht eren gebogen houdt, neemt dan in zeer kort e tijd tot een
zeer kleine waarde af, zodat het onderst el t er ugveer t ( "spr i ng- back") . Dit ver schi j nsel speelt
zich af in mi nder dan O, 1 seconde. Er worden dan in de const ruct i e t ri l l i ngen met frequent i es
tot rui m 20 Hz opgewekt. Dit brengt mee dat de dynami sche eigenschappen van de const ruct i e
zo zorgvuldig moeten worden ger epr esent eer d in de berekeni ngen dat t r i l l i ngsvor men met eigen
frequenties van deze orde van groot t e goed worden weergegeven.
In het bijzonder vl eugel t orsi e en vleugelbuiging in het hori zont al e vlak worden door deze ver schi j n-
selen geexci t eerd, waardoor zeer hoge dynami sche belastingen kunnen ontstaan werkende op de
grot e geconcent reerde mas s a' s die aan de vleugel zijn bevestigd, zoal s mot oren en pylontanks.
Pr akt i sch alle landingen zijn daarenboven asymmet r i sch. En wiel raakt de baan eer der dan het
ander e. Hi ermede gepaard gaat vaak een initile dwarssnel hei d van het wiel t . o. v. de baan, waar -
door aan de wi el omt rek zijdelingse wri j vi ngskracht en ont st aan. Door deze effekten gaat het vl i eg-
tuig rol l en om zijn l angsas.
De zijdelingse wri j vi ngskracht en zijn een funktie van de hoek t ussen wielvlak en de lokale snel -
hei dsvct or van wi el omt rek t. o. v. de baan. Daar er geen spi n-up verschi j nsel en zijn zoal s bij
de l angskracht en werken de zijdelingse kracht en veel l anger dan de l angskracht en. Daardoor
worden door deze kracht en ook niet zulke hoge frequenties geexci t eerd.
Sen ander aspekt van een landing i s dat door de bewegingen die het vliegtuig als gevolg daar -
.'an ui t voert , ext ra l ucht kracht en ontstaan die wellicht het verloop van de l andi ngskracht en met
ie tijd zouden kunnen beinvloeden.
^1 deze aspekten zijn in beschouwing genomen in de wiskundige formul eri ng van het l andi ngs-
stootgebeuren zoals dat is weergegeven in h o o f d s t u k 3, nadat in h o o f d s t u k 2 is nagegaan
wat r eeds door andere aut eur s aan onderzoek m. b . t . dit onderwerp i s ver r i cht .
De uiteindelijke doelstelling van dit onderzoek is de formul eri ng van een st el voorschri ft en voor
iet berekenen van belastingen t. g. v. landingsstoten, dat alle rel evant e physi sche effekten vol-
doende nauwkeurig in rekening brengt , maar toch zo weinig mogelijk vari abel en bevat.
Dit l aat st e i s belangrijk omdat het verloop van het l andi ngsst oot gebeuren niet alleen van de ver -
:icale snelheid waarmee het vliegtuig de grond raakt afhangt, maar ook van de groot t e van de
/ oor waar t se snelheid,van de zijdelingse snelheid van het onder st el t. o. v. de baan, van de r ol - , de
stand-, en de gierhoek van het vliegtuig, al smede van de tijdsafgeleiden van deze hoeken.
-III-
Wat er aan st at i st i sch mat er i aal aanwezig is m. b . t . deze begincondities, i s verzamel d in
h o o f d s t u k 4. Het blijkt dat dit onvoldoende is om daarop een st el sel van nieuwe voor schr
ten t e baser en. Het zou bovendien voor prakt i sche doeleinden te moeilijk en te onhanteerbaai
zijn al die combi nat i es van de begincondities te bepalen, r es p. voor t e schri j ven die tot kriti
sche bel ast i ngsgeval l en aanleiding kunnen geven.
Daarom is nagegaan of het mogelijk is rat i onel e voorschri ft en te baser en op sl echt s een bep<
aant al voor geschr even begi ncondi t i es. Het kon aangetoond worden dat de invloed van sommig
van de begincondities zo onbelangrijk is dat het voorschri j ven van een constante waarde er v
de nauwkeurigheid niet wezenlijk aant ast ,en voort s dat andere begincondities alleen maar bin
nen bepaalde grenzen gevar i eer d behoeven te worden om na t e gaan welke van de mogelijke
waarden tot de hoogste belastingen aanleiding geven,en dat t ensl ot t e alleen voor de daalsnelh
het verkri j gen van zo nauwkeurig mogelijke st at i st i sche informatie nodig i s.
Op grond van het nu beschi kbar e st at i st i sche mat er i aal m. b . t . de daalsnelheid blijkt er een
verband t e best aan t ussen de daal snel hei d die een zeker e kleine waarschijnlijkheid bezit, en
groot t e van het vliegtuig. Er wordt voorgest el d voor dit verband in de voorschri ft en de volge
de formul e te gebrui ken
Z = 6 f t / sec al s W. < 50, 000 lbs
o ' L
W - 50, 000
Z =6 -f= X O, 80 f t / sec
O
^ ' al s 50, 000 < Wj^ < 300, 000
Z = 10 f t / sec al s W, S 300,000 lbs
o ' L -^
( Z = daal snel hei d in f t / sec, W, = landingsgewicht in lbs )
De berekeni ngen zijn uitgevoerd voor de Fokker F- 27.
Zoal s in h o o f d s t u k 5 is ui t eengezet , i s dit vliegtuigtype bijzonder geschikt voor het illu-
s t r er en van de invloed van vl eugel el ast i ci t ei t op de bel ast i ngen door landingsstoten, en voor
het nagaan van de invloed van een aant al andere par amet er s, omdat het een hoogdekker i s was
door het onder st el rel at i ef lang i s,en omdat de spoorbreedt e groot i s. Daardoor worden grot
buig- en t or si emoment en in de vleugel ingeleid en kunnen grot e dynamische effecten worden
verwacht , t emeer omdat door de grot e aan de vleugel bevestigde mas s a' s van mot oren en pylc
t anks de eigen frequent i es van de vleugel laag zijn. Omdat de romp voor dit vliegtuig veel st:
ver i s dan de vleugel, kon de romp s t ar aangenomen worden. Voor andere vliegtuigtypen kan
dit ui t er aar d heel ander s zijn.
Reeds op grond van l i t er at uur gegevens en van kwalitatieve overwegingen kon tot een aantal v
eenvoudigingen in het r ekenschema besl ot en worden, die de nauwkeurigheid niet of nauwelijk
beinvloeden en meest al tot conser vat i eve uitkomsten leiden. Hiervan kunnen worden genoemc
a) de l ucht kracht en t . g . v. d e vliegtuigbewegingen tijdens de landingsstoot kunnen word^
ver waar l oosd, al s het gaat om de bepaling van maxi mal e belastingen.
b) de onafgeveerde wi el massa kan bij de berekeni ng van vert i cal e wielkrachten worder
ver waar l oosd.
c) de wri j vi ngskracht en t ussen schokbrekerwand en cylinder kunnen worden ver waar -
loosd.
d) bandi nver i ngskar akt er i st i eken kunnen door een l i neai r e veerconst ant e worden bena-
derd.
-IV-
Ook is r eeds bekend dat de eigenschappen van de ol eo-pneumat i sche schokbr eker s in de berekeni ng
zo nauwkeurig mogelijk moeten worden weergegeven. Dit houdt in : een hydraul i sche demping die
evenredig i s met de t weede macht van de i nveri ngssnel hei d (indien aanwezig moet ook de werking
van een z . g . n . "met eri ng pin" cor r ect in rekening worden gebracht ), en een zo nauwkeurig moge-
lijke benaderi ng van de ni et - l i neai r e veer kar akt er i st i ek.
De r esul t at en van de vel e berekeningen ver r i cht aan het hierboven beschreven rekenmodel voor de
F-27 zijn weergegeven in h o o f d s t u k 6 . De voornaamst e konklusies die daarui t getrokken kun-
nen worden zijn :
. In een berekening die aanspraak maakt op de kwalifikatie "r at i oneel ", moet uitgegaan wor-
den van asymmet r i sche landingen waarbij eer st n wiel de grond raakt voordat het ande-
r e er in kontakt mee komt, en moeten zijdelingse wri j vi ngskracht en t ussen wiel en band
in de berekening worden opgenomen. Kwantitatief werd gevonden dat, ofschoon de ver t i -
cal e daalsnelheid de bel angri j kst e par amet er i s, door de asymmet r i sche invloeden van
nwiel landingen de belastingen nog met 1 0-50% kunnen worden verhoogd, afhankelijk
van het betrokken const ruct i edeel en de aard van zijn bel ast i ng.
De maximale waar de van deze belastingen moet door var i at i e van de initile dwar shel -
ling worden bepaal d.
De vereenvoudiging waarbi j de l at er al e wrijvingscoefficient constant wordt aangenomen,
i. p. V. afhankelijk van de hoek t ussen wielvlak en lokale bandsnel hei dsvect or, blijkt ge-
recht vaardi gd t e zijn. Deze verfijning heeft wel een zekere redukt i e van berekende bel as-
tingen ten gevol ge. Echt er de mogelijkheid van grote dwarssnel heden, waarbij di rekt de
l i mi et waarde van de wrijvingscoefficient opt r eedt , kan zich juist voordoen in combinatie
met hoge daal snel heden. Daarom moet voor de berekeni ng van kri t i eke belastingen deze
combinatie van grot e dwarssnel hei d en van grot e daalsnelheid voorgeschreven worden.
De dynamische schemat i ser i ng van de vl i egt ui gconst ruct i e moet t enmi nst e zo verfijnd
zijn, dat t ri l l i ngen met eigenfrequenties tot ten mi nst e 20 Hz goed zijn ger epr esent eer d.
De bandwrijvingskracht in l angsri cht i ng kan berekend worden met een konstante wri j vi ngs-
coefficient, wanneer een zekere mat e van conser vat i sme wordt geaccept eerd,
De meer verfijnde berekeni ng waarbij de invloed van slipsnelheid op wrijvingscoefficient
in rekening wordt gebracht , kan geschieden door een l i neai r e betrekking t ussen de "sl i p
r at i o" ("slip r at i o" i s de verhouding van slipsnelheid en voor waar t se snelheid van de
wi el en) en wrijvingscoefficient aan te nemen. Het spin-up ver schi j nsel moet st eeds in de
berekening worden opgenomen.
De standhoek al s apar t e graad van vrijheid is ver waar l oosbaar omdat de standhoek tijdens
de landing pr akt i sch niet var i eer t . De beginwaarde van de standhoek heeft wel een zekere
invloed op de bel ast i ngen en moet binnen de mogelijke grenzen gevari eerd worden voor
het vinden van ongunstigste belastingen.
De voorwaart se snelheid i s een duidelijk secundai re par amet er . Omdat in de praktijk
bijna alle landingen pl aat s vinden binnen het snel hei dsberei k van 1, 2 tot 1, 4 maal de over -
t reksnel hei d, i s het voldoende nauwkeurig om al s beginconditie t e definiren een voor-
waar t se snelheid van 1, 3 maal de overt reksnel hei d.
Dat het op deze wijze mogelijk is om de belastingen nauwkeurig te berekenen voor gegeven begin-
:ondities, kan slechts overtuigend worden aangetoond door vergelijking van de berekende bel as-
:ingen met gemeten bel ast i ngen bij landingen onder bekende begincondities.' Een grote moeilijk-
leid is dat de wrijvingscoefficient bij uitgevoerde landingen niet bekend i s. Wat desondanks uit
Bnige meet pr ogr amma' s aan mat er i aal is verzamel d, is behandeld in h o o f d s t u k 7.
-V-
In h o o f d s t u k 8 ten slotte wordt op grond van de r esul t at en van deze st udi e een voor st el
geformul eerd voor voorschri ft en m. b . t . het berekenen van ontwerp belastingen in vliegtuig-
const r uct i es door l andi ngsst ot en.
In p a r a g r a a f 8 . 2 worden resul t at en van berekeningen vol gens deze voorgest el de voor -
schriften vergel eken met die volgens de bestaande voorschri ft en. Daarbij doet zich de moei -
lijkheid voor dat de t oepassi ng van de bestaande voorschri ft en bepaalde i nt er pr et at i e probl e-
men opl evert . Die i nt er pr et at i e is gekozen die zoveel mogelijk de geest van de best aande
voorschri ft en nabij komt.
Uit de vergel i j ki ng blijkt dat de voorgest el de voorschri ft en s oms tot l ager e belastingen aan-
leiding geven, en soms tot hogere.
De ver schi l l en bedragen enige t i ent al l en procent en in het geval van de F- 27.
Het effekt kan bij andere vliegtuigen natuurlijk gr ot er of kl ei ner zijn.
Dat neemt niet weg dat door t oepassi ng van de voorgest el de voorschri ft en voor landingsstoten
de ont werpbel ast i ngen op een veel nauwkeuri ger en r eal i s t i s cher manier zullen kunnen wordei
voorspeld dan op basi s van de huidige voorschri ft en.
I
\
Levensber i cht .
I r . Jacob IJff werd geboren op 6 apr i l 1 929 in de Beems t er .
Van 1 941 tot 1 946 bezocht hij de RHBS t e Amer s f oor t . Zijn st udi e voor
vliegtuigbouwkundig i ngeni eur te Delft werd in apr i l 1 952 afgesloten,
met al s af st udeer r i cht i ng de vliegtuigdynam.ica.
Van October 1 951 tot October 1 958 was hij wer kzaam op de afdeling
voor i nst at i onai r e ar odynami ca en aer oel ast i ci t ei t van het Nat i onaal
Lucht - en Rui nat evaart Labor at or i um,
Dit di enst verband werd in 1 953 en 1 954 onder br oken voor het vervul l en
van de mi l i t ai r e di enst pl i cht al s l ui t enant t er zee bij de t echni sche
di enst van de Mar i ne Lucht vaar t Di enst , t e den Hel der .
Sedert 1 958 is hij wer kzaam op het const r uct i ebur eau van de Neder -
l andse Vl i egt ui gfabri eken "Fokker - VFW" N. V. , al s speci al i st op het
gebied van vl i egt ui gdynami ca en aer oel as t i ci t ei t .
In 1 967 werden de gr oep vl i egt ui gdynami ca en aer oel ast i ci t ei t , en het
r ekencent r um van het const r uct i ebur eau, samengevoegd tot de afdeling
"rekenkundi ge anal yse", waarvan hij het afdelingshoofd wer d.
In 1 969 werd hij lid van het best uur van de sect i e voor mechani ca van
het Kon. Instituut van I ngeni eur s.
Ook is hij lid van de s ubcommi s s i es voor aer oel ast i ci t ei t en voor
ar odynami ca van de Wet enschappel i j ke Commi s s i e NLR-NIVR.
Daar naast i s hij si nds 1 970 lid van de Pr ovi nci al e Staten van Noord-
Holland. In deze hoedanigheid is hij lid van de Raad van Toezi cht op de
Pr ovi nci al e bedri j ven PEN en PWN, en lid van de commi s s i e van ad-
vi es en bijstand voor de mi l i euhygi ne. Hij heeft ook enige j ar en deel
ui t gemaakt van het P, v. d. A. best uur van het gewest Ams t er dam en i s
si nds 1 971 lid van de sect i e ver keer en ver voer van de Wi ardi Beekman
Stichting.
STELLINGEN
1 . Landi ngsst oot bel ast i ngen van neuswi el onder st el l en kunnen in
rat i onel e voorschri ft en gedefi ni eerd worden door uit t e gaan van
s ymmet r i s che l andi ngscondi t i es met ger educeer de daal snel heden.
2. Rationele voorschri ft en voor l andi ngsst oot bel ast i ngen op s t a a r t -
wielen moet en in pr i nci pe gelijk zijn aan die van hoofdonderst el l en.
Een i et s ger educeer de daal snel hei d is s t at i s t i s ch echt er wel ve r -
antwoord.
3. Het voor schr i j ven bij vl i egt ui gcer t i f i cat i e van een ui t gebrei d pr o-
gramnaa van val proeven voor onder st el l en kan aanzi enl i j k worden
beperkt nu m. b. v. analoge r ekenmachi nes de schokbr eker wer ki ng
zeer nauwkeur i g kan worden nageboot st .
4. Aan f l ut t er ber ekeni ngen van r o e r - en hul pr oer s ys t emen kunnen geen
concl usi es worden ontleend m. b. t. fl ut t ervri j hei d, wanneer daar i n
t heor et i sch ber ekende l ucht kracht en worden t oegepast .
5. Fl ut t er ber ekeni ngen waari n gemet en i nst at i onai r e l ucht kracht en
worden t oegepast , laten zien dat in vel e geval l en geen, of sl echt s
een gedeel t el i j ke, mas s abal ancer i ng van r oe r en hul pr oer en nodig
i s om fl ut t er t e voorkomen. De hi er mee gepaar d gaande gewi cht s-
winst i s aanzi enl i j k.
6. Ki el vl akel ast i ci t ei t l ever t een essent i l e bi j dr age tot T- s t a a r t be-
l ast i ngen door zi j del i ngse r emous . De st udi e van Dodd en Pr at t is
daar om onvoldoende en mi sl ei dend,
H. M. Dodd " T- t ai l t r ans por t empennage l oads in cont i -
K. G. Pr at t nuous at mospher i c t ur bul ence"
Jour nal of Ai r cr af t - August us 1 971 p. 61 6
7. Voor shi mmyber ekeni ngen van vl i egt ui ghoofdonderst el l en zijn de
benaderi ngen van Pacej ka voor l at er al e bandkr acht en niet br ui kbaar
door het st er k i nst at i onai r e kar akt er van het ver schi j nsel .
H. B. Pacej ka "The wheel shi mmy phenomenon"
Thes i s , Delft 1 966
8. Vanwege de gr ot e invloed die l okal e l ucht st r omi ngen ( t ocht gat en)
hebben op de l eefbaarhei d van woonwijken en wi nkel cent ra, zou geen
best emmi ngspl an meer goedgekeurd mogen worden wanneer niet door
middel van een wi ndt unnel onderzoek onderzocht is of de gedacht e
gr oeper i ng en afmetingen van de bebouwing geen ongewenste lokale
l ucht st r omi ngen t eweeg kunnen brengen. In ar t . 7, lid 2e van het
Besl ui t op de Rui mt el i j ke Ordeni ng zou na "al s mede de bodemgest el d-
hei d" toegevoegd moet en worden : "en het wi ndr egi em".
Ar t . 5 van de Wet op de Rui mt el i j ke Ordeni ng war e aan t e vullen met
een zi nsnede
"Van de in een st r eekpl an opgenomen nog ui t te voer en infra-
s t r uct ur el e wer ken ( zoal s wegen, spoorwegen, vl i egvel den,
wat er wer ken en st adsui t br ei di ngen) moet r edel i j ker wi j s vast -
st aan dat ze binnen een t er mi j n van 20 j a a r ger eal i s eer d zullen
wor den",
Alle Neder l andse pol i t i eke part i j en zijn t e kort geschoten in het ont -
wikkelen van r e a l i s e e r ba r e ideen over i nt er ne democr at i s er i ng van
het bedri j fsl even, ondanks al l e l i ppendi enst di e aan het begr i p demo-
cr at i s er i ng wordt bewezen.
De in de di s s er t at i e van prof. dr . Fr . de Jong Edzn. benadrukt e doops-
gezi nde invloed van het Scher mer ei l ands e j eugdmi l i eu van P. Wiedijk
( ps. J. Saks ), t er ver kl ar i ng van de soci al e en geest el i j ke acht er -
grond van waarui t hij zijn r ol al s mar xi s t en l i t er at or speel de in het
begin van de 20e eeuw, i s in wezen de invloed van een me e r al gemeen
Noord-Hol l ands geest el i j k kl i maat . Landschap en hi st or i e van Noord-
Holland boven het IJ hebben een s oci aal - r el i gi eus klimaat gevormd
dat niet al l een goed aansl ui t bij de doopsgezi nde levenshouding, en de
ver kl ar i ng vor mt voor de rel at i ef s t er ke posi t i e di e de doopsgezi nden
in Noord-Hol l and i nnamen, ma a r dat ook in s t e r ke mate t er ug te
vinden is in de opvattingen van al l e Noor d- Hol l ander s, gelovig en
niet gelovig,
dr . Fr , de Jong Edz. "J. Saks, l i t er at or en mar xi s t "
de Ar bei der s per s 1 954
dr . A. Weiland "Geloof en ongeloof in een Noor d-
hol l andse pol der " 1 956
Een ver der e ui t brei di ng van Schiphol zal het volbouwen van het gr oene
har t van Holland in s t er ke mat e bevor der en en moet alleen daarom al
afgewezen worden.