College Algebra
Tutorial 39:
Zeros of Polynomial Functions, Part II
Upper and Lower Bounds, Intermediate Value
Theorem,
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra,
and The Linear Factorization Theorem
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Tutorial
Upper Bound
If you divide a polynomial function f(x) by (x - c), where c > 0, using
synthetic division and this yields all positive numbers, then c is an upper
bound to the real roots of the equation f(x) = 0.
Note that two things must occur for c to be an upper bound. One is c > 0 or
positive. The other is that all the coefficients of the quotient as well as the
remainder are positive.
Lower Bound
If you divide a polynomial function f(x) by (x - c), where c < 0, using
synthetic division and this yields alternating signs, then c is a lower bound
to the real roots of the equation f(x) = 0. Special note that zeros can be
either positive or negative.
Note that two things must occur for c to be a lower bound. One is c < 0 or
negative. The other is that successive coefficients of the quotient and the
remainder have alternating signs.
Example 1: Show that all real roots of the
equation lie between - 4 and 4.
Note how c = -4 < 0 AND the successive signs in the bottom row of
our synthetic division alternate.
Note how c = 4 > 0 AND the all of the signs in the bottom row of our
synthetic division are positive.
Since - 4 is a lower bound and 4 is an upper bound for the real roots of
the equation, then that means all real roots of the equation lie
between - 4 and 4.
In other words, when you have a polynomial function and one input
value causes the function to be positive and the other negative, then
there has to be at least one value in between them that causes the
polynomial function to be 0.
When finding functional values, you can either use synthetic division or
directly plug the number into the function. Since we will only be
interested in knowing the functional value in this problem, I’m going to
directly plug my x value into the function. If I were needing more, for
example the signs of the quotient, like above, then I would use
synthetic division.
Finding f(2):
Finding f(3):
Finding f(2.1):
Finding f(2.2):
Finding f(2.3):
Finding f(2.4):
Finding f(2.5):
Finding f(2.41):
Finding f(2.42):
Finding f(2.43):
Finding f(2.44):
Finding f(2.45):
Since it would land slightly below 2.45, the nearest tenth would be
2.4.
Conjugate Roots
If
then
Keep in mind that some factors may occur more than one time. For
each time a linear factor appears it is counted as a linear factor. For
example, if , the
linear factor (x + 2) has a multiplicity of 3, which means that factor
occurs three times. So technically there are 4 linear factors, one (x - 3)
and three (x + 2)’s. This matches the degree of the polynomial
function.
Example 3: Use the given root to find all of the roots of the
polynomial equation ; 1 + i.
This is done in the same fashion as when you are given a real zero.
Check it out:
Now we are getting somewhere. From here we can rewrite the original
problem using the roots that we have above and the quotient that we
ended up with in this last synthetic division.
Did you know that the sum of squares can be factored over the complex
nonreal numbers as ?
Note how once we had factored over the complex numbers that we
ended up with four linear factors and that our polynomial was degree
four.
Now we are going to reverse things. In the next two examples, we will be given
zeros and the degree of a polynomial function, and we will need to find out what
that polynomial is.
Step 1: Use the given zeros and the Linear Factorization Theorem
to write out all of the factors of the polynomial function.
Keep in mind that if you are given a nonreal complex zero, that
its conjugate is also a zero.
Also keep in mind that the degree tells you how many linear
factors over the complex numbers (possibly real and not
necessarily distinct) that you will have.
Step 1: Use the given zeros and the Linear Factorization Theorem
to write out all of the factors of the polynomial function.
Since our degree is 3, that means there are three linear factors over the
complex numbers (possibly real and not necessarily distinct).
Note how we are only given two zeros. We need to come up with a
third one. Do you have any ideas?
*Multiply
comp. factors
*Simplify (i
squared = -1)
*Multiply
remaining
factors
*f(3) = -20
Practice Problems
These are practice problems to help bring you to the next level. It will allow
you to check and see if you have an understanding of these types of problems.
Math works just like anything else, if you want to get good at it, then you
need to practice it. Even the best athletes and musicians had help along the
way and lots of practice, practice, practice, to get good at their sport or
instrument. In fact there is no such thing as too much practice.
To get the most out of these, you should work the problem out on your own
and then check your answer by clicking on the link for the
answer/discussion for that problem. At the link you will find the answer as
well as any steps that went into finding that answer.
1a.
(answer/discussion to 1a)
3a. ; 2i
(answer/discussion to 3a)
4a.
(answer/discussion to 4a)
All contents copyright (C) 2002, WTAMU and Kim Peppard. All rights reserved.
Last revised on October 26, 2002 by Kim Peppard.