Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.

com/abstract=1857971
THI LIMITS OI NIUROLAW

Sictcn K. |rickscn

11 HOUS. }. HIALTH L. & IOL'Y (forlhcoming 2012).

Visiling Irofessor of Lav, Widener SchooI of Lav

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1857971
2 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW


INTRODUCTION

An oId earI of visdom hoIds lhal lhere is nolhing nev under
lhe sun.
1
Ior al Ieasl lhe asl lvo decades, schoIars and Iay eoIe
aIike have engaged in a gIullonous induIgence on aII mallers IabeIed
neuroscience. }usl aboul everylhing lhal is even langenliaIIy Iinked
vilh human affairs is reorled lo have some sorl of neuro-saIience.
Irom lhe lye of cars ve drive
2
and lhe eoIe ve vole for
3
lo
underslanding lhe rools of moraI lhoughl,
4
Irofessor LamareIIo suggesls lhal neuroscience can indeed
fashion a nev viev of criminaI Iav for lhose haIess agenls vhose
brains kee lhem from conlroIIing lhemseIves. The rigors of
neuroscience can be harnessed, according lo LamareIIo, lo
discriminale agenls vho ose a significanl danger lo lhe ubIic in
lhe fulure and, consequenlIy, shouId be commilled for care and
lrealmenl. In lhis fashion, lhe neuroscienlisl is nol |usl a
diagnoslician, bul aIso a hysician vho ossess lhe knovIedge and
skiII lo ameIiorale lhe alhoIogicaIIy vioIenl brain. ul, in order lo
accomIish lhis feal, subslanlive criminaI Iav shouId broadIy adol
nev slalules lhal viII ermil lhe commilmenl of dangerous fulure
agenls afler lhey serve lheir enaI senlences. These nev slalules
nolhing is safe from lhe
reduclions of neuroscience. A Iiberaled hermil vho suddenIy finds
himseIf connecled lo lhe inlernel one day shouId be forgiven if he
concIudes lhal lhe ansver lo lhe ig Queslions of Iife have aIready
been ansvered vhiIe he vas avay in soIilary conlemIalion: Iife is
aboul lhe brain.

1
|cc|csiasics 1:9 NIV
2
Scc, Nick Lee, Amanda }. rodericka, & Laura ChamberIaina, Wnai is
Ncurcnarkciing? A Oiscussicn an! Agcn!a jcr |uiurc |cscarcn, 63 INT'L }. OI
ISYCHOIHYSIOLOGY 199 (2007).
3
Scc, NichoIas O. RuIe, ci a|., Vciing Bcnaticr is |cj|ccic! in Anqg!a|a |cspcnsc
Acrcss Cu|iurcs, 2 SOC. COGNITIVI & AIIICTIVI NIUROSCIINCI 349 (2010).
4
IATRICIA S. CHURCHLAND, RAINTRUST: WHAT NIUROSCIINCI TILLS US AOUT
MORALITY (2011).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 3
vouId focus on agenls vilh fronlaI Iobe damage vho, desile
reserved cognilion, disIay behavioraI robIems, incIuding
robIems conlroIIing lhemseIves, and lhus are bolh bIamevorlhy for
lheir criminaI conducl yel in need of neuroIogicaI rehabiIilalion. In
shorl, lhey are bolh bad and mad, and neuroscience can leII us vhy.
ul does neuroscience reaIIy offer criminaI Iav a nev vindov of
oorlunily for reform` And, more broadIy, shouId ve readiIy
embrace lhe romise of a reformed criminaI |uslice syslem lhal
vievs crime as a brain disease vhiIe relaining ils enaI over vhiIe
simuIlaneousIy engaging lhe over of civiI commilmenl` In my
viev, neuroscience does nol offer us anylhing nev lhal cannol be
resonsibIy incororaled inlo exisling subslanlive criminaI Iav
doclrine. Whelher an agenl Iacks conlroI over his behavior because
of a sychoIogicaI disorder or a neuroIogicaI in|ury is a dislinclion
vilhoul a difference. Subslanlive criminaI Iav in mosl |urisdiclions
aIready affords such agenls a Iea of non-resonsibiIily lhal is
harmonious vilh lhe rinciIes of delerrence and deserved
unishmenl. SlrangeIy, LamareIIo IargeIy sidesles lhis obvious
facl and inslead dravs a Iine belveen cognilive and behavioraI
caacilies, vhich he argues varranls findings of resonsibiIily and
civiI confinemenl for olenliaIIy dangerous agenls. ul, of course,
civiI commilmenl is aIready avaiIabIe for agenls vho are bolh
menlaIIy iII and dangerous, irreseclive of lheir menlaI slale al lhe
lime of lhe crime.
So, vhal need is lhere for a nev series of slalules imbued vilh
neuro-laIk` Il is my conlenlion lhal such slalules are unnecessary
and unvise because lhey so viIIingIy engage lhe overs of civiI
commilmenl for cIasses of eoIe vho sociely vievs as bolh
bIamevorlhy and disabIed. ul ve cannol have il bolh vays. A
syslem lhal derives eoIe of lheir Iiberly musl do so ralionaIIy. If
an agenl cannol conlroI her conducl, she is deemed nol resonsibIe
and can be civiIIy commilled because of her disabiIily. We unish
eoIe vho are bIamevorlhy irreseclive of lheir neuroIogicaI
roensilies. The lheraeulic Iens neuroscience brings lo discussions
of cuIabiIily obscures ralher lhan cIarifies.

4 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW

I. NIUROSCIINCI AND IUTURI DANGIROUSNISS

A. Otcrticu

LamareIIo begins his ambilious roosaI by noling a simIe
lrulh: delerminalions of fulure dangerousness are a IegaI necessily.
According lo LamareIIo, lhe courls have sleadfaslIy mainlained
lhal delerminalions of fulure dangerousness are reIevanl and
inevilabIe in formuIalions of criminaI senlencing. Cuslomary
exIanalions hoId lhal in mallers of ubIic safely and delerrence,
courls are free (and robabIy obIigaled) lo consider an agenl's
IikeIihood of fulure vioIence in senlencing caIcuIalions. Those agenls
vho are IikeIy dangerous require Ienglhier lerms of incarceralion
because lhey are recaIcilranl lo lhe conforming sociaI force lhal is lhe
criminaI Iav. So, loo, is fulure dangerousness reIevanl in
delerminalions of civiI commilmenl. The Iandmark case of OCcnncr
t. Ocna|!scn
5
ul as LamareIIo oinls oul, rediclion of fulure
dangerousness is a recarious business. Desile aII of lhe exerlise
oflen broughl lo bear in lhese cases, behavioraI science exerls oflen
gel lhe rediclions vrong. The veII-knovn diclum lhal 2 oul of 3
rediclions are erroneous is deeIy embedded vilhin lhe vernacuIar
of good menlaI hygiene Iavyers.
requires a finding of dangerousness in order lo derive
a cilizen of his Iiberly due lo menlaI iIIness. olh civiI commilmenl
and enaI sanclion find fulure dangerousness reIevanl, and lhal
reIevance is IargeIy grounded in uliIilarian nolions of ubIic safely
and delerrence. In shorl, ve care much aboul vhelher our feIIov
cilizens viII harm us.
6

5
422 U.S. 563 (1975).
ul lhal adage is oflen used loo
broadIy. Irediclions of fulure dangerousness are sub|ecl lo lvo
Iimils lhal oflen gel Iosl in lhe rheloric. Iirsl, rediclions of fulure
dangerousness generaIIy become Iess accurale lhe furlher in lime lhe
forecasl of olenliaI harm is made. Iredicling lhal someone is IikeIy
6
Scc, arefool v. IsleIIe, 463 U.S. 880, 901 (1983).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 5
lo ose a menace lo sociely lomorrov is much easier lhan cIaiming
vilh simiIar recision lhal someone viII be a risk lo sociely lvenly
years from nov. Second, il is never lhe case lhal a behavioraI science
exerl can cIaim vilh absoIule cerlainly lhal someone viII reoffend.
Il may be lrue lhal some agenls ose a very high IikeIihood of
recidivism, arlicuIarIy vhen drug and aIcohoI abuse are in lhe
iclure. ul Iike aII raclicaI risk rediclion, lhe queslion is aboul
lhreshoIds and vhal amounl of risk is deemed unaccelabIe by
sociely.
In a simiIar vein, risk rediclion in lhe behavioraI sciences has
grovn and malured. We are no Ionger bound by exerls vhose
oinion resl on nolhing more lhan armchair inslincls as lo vhelher
someone osed a danger lo himseIf or olhers. ehavioraI science
exerls nov have a vasl sum of emiricaI Iileralure lo drav uon in
forming lheir oinions, in addilion lo many veII-conslrucled
assessmenl inslrumenls. WhiIe nol infaIIibIe by any means, lhese
resources can rovide assurances lhal risk rediclion is nol a shee
vandering in lhe nighl. There are many oinls of Iighl lhal can
rovide lhe dedicaled and elhicaI exerl vilh good guidance in
formuIaling oinions.
ul LamareIIo's crilicism of our currenl slale of risk
rediclion is nol vilhoul meril. Whenever Iiberly is in lhe baIance,
ve shouId vanl lo maximize, as much as raclicaIIy ossibIe, lhe
accuracy of our |udgmenls. As sureIy as behavioraI science exerls
have made mislakes, lhere are undoubledIy cilizens vho have been
vrongIy denied lheir Iiberly inasmuch as assuredIy lhere have been
viclims vhose suffering couId have been revenled had lhe
rediclions by lhe exerls been beller. Our desire for imroved
accuracy underslandabIy Ieads us lo Iook eIsevhere for an aroach
lhal Iacks lhe indelerminacies of sychoIogicaI science. As vilh so
many olher areas, neuroscience has romised lo fiII lhal void.

B. Prcnisc cj Ncurcscicncc

The disciIine of neuroscience is broad. Il covers aII asecls of lhe
brain, from lhe moIecuIar IeveI lo comulalionaI modeIs of higher-
6 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
ordered lhinking. There are serious neuroscienlisls vho even sludy
lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe quanlum mechanics of lhe brain and ils
slruclure and funclion, as veII lhose vho sludy lhe eIusive nolion of
menlaI force on lhose asecls.
7
Irofessor LamareIIo lakes lhe romise of neuroscience al ils
vord. He goes lo greal Ienglhs lo demonslrale lhal neuroscience has
shovn lhal lhe brains of many of lhe mosl saIienl IegaI agenls in
lerms of cuIabiIily are differenl from lhose in lhe generaI
ouIalion. As has been videIy reorled for many years nov, lhe
brains of adoIescenls aear differenl uon scienlific inseclion from
lhose of aduIls. The convenlionaI argumenl hoIds lhal adoIescenl
brains have nol malured and lhe fronlaI Iobes are nol yel sufficienlIy
in conlroI of lhe emolionaIIy Iaden amygdaIa, hence, adoIescenls
cannol be execled lo exerl maslerfuI conlroI over lheir imuIses.
ul lhe bread and buller of
neuroscience as aIied lo sociaI inslilulions such as lhe Iav is
aImosl excIusiveIy lhe domain of cognilive neuroscience. And lhe
dominanl schooI of cognilive neuroscience hoIds lo severaI basic
rinciIes lhal Irofessor LamareIIo readiIy adols: aII human
exeriences are reducibIe, machines such as fMRI can reveaI human
lhoughl, and rediclions aboul human behavior can be made from
lhe knovIedge gained lhrough reduclion and lechnoIogy. Il is
undoubledIy an aeaIing viev. The Iure of cognilive neuroscience
is lhe common desire lo undersland comIexily by vay of ils
eIemenls. To areciale vhy eoIe lhink and acl cerlain vays, lhe
firsl sle is aIvays lo onder lhe consliluenl arls: erhas }oe
sIammed his book dovn because }iII vas curl lo him lhis morning,
bul }iII is oflen curl vilh }oe, and he does nol abuse his books in such
a ueriIe mannerlhere musl be somelhing more lo il. Such is hov
lhe human mind oerales in a vorId fiIIed vilh inlricacy and
fickIeness.
8

7
Ior a good reviev, see }effery M. Schvarlz el aI., Quaniun Pnqsics in
Ncurcscicncc an! Psqcnc|cgq. A Ncurcpnsqica| Mc!c| cj Min!-Brain |nicraciicn, 360
IHIL. TRANSACTIONS ROYAL SOC'Y 1309 (2005).

Any arenl knovs lhis is sureIy lrue. ul lhe reaI queslion is vhy
8
Scc, c.g., Kevin W. Saunder, Oisccnncci |ciuccn Iau an! Ncurcscicncc. Mc!crn
Brain Scicncc, Mc!ia |nj|ucnccs, an! jutcni|c jusiicc, 2005 UTAH L. RIV. 695 (2005).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 7
lhis may be so. Ierhas lhe leenage brain simIy has nol Iearned lo
inhibil ils imuIses, maybe insufficienl Iife exeriences and
resonsibiIilies have yel lo do lheir indeIibIe vork of lransforming
lhe |uveniIe brain lo ils Iess lemeramenlaI eIder. ul lhe
resumlion adoled by lhe ma|orily of neuroscienlisls is lhal lhe
leenage brain is incaabIe of malure abiIily and lherefore, as a cIass,
leenagers Iack lhe brainover for aduIl lasks.
This is foundalionaI lo underslanding hov much of lhe neuroIav
discussion lakes Iace. Il invariabIy examines grous of brains and
Iooks for deficils of funclion. Il lhen concIudes lhal, as a maller of
generaI rinciIe, lhose agenls vilhin lhe grou are incaabIe of
doing somelhing because lheir brains are abnormaI in some fashion.
Various sludies have suggesled lhal some brains are incaabIe of
emalhy,
9
olhers are unabIe lo comrehend sociaI norms,
10
and sliII
olhers are overIess lo engage in rinciIed moraI decision-
making.
11

These brains Iack caacilies of normaI funclion, and fulure
behavior can be modeIed uon lhose grealIy diminished or absenl
funclions. In lhis vay, neuroscience is abIe lo make rediclions
vilhoul lhe need for examinalions of individuaI behavior, ralher,
forecasls of ersonaI roensilies are achieved by mere examinalion
of neuronaI lissue. In sum, lhere is no need lo vail unliI someone
acls because ve can define someone as dangerous based simIy on a
lrail lhal lhey ossess: lheir dangerous mind. Irom lhal, IegaI
rescrilions shouId foIIov.
C. Crinc an! Brain

The abiIily of neuroscience lo make rediclions aboul fulure
conducl by mere inseclion of one's hysicaI allribules shouId be
broadIy emIoyed by lhe criminaI |uslice syslem, under

9
Scc, Henrik Soderslrom, Psqcncpainq an! a Oiscr!cr cj |npainq 12 IUROIIAN
CHILD & ADOLISCINT ISYCHIATRY 249 (2003).
10
Scc, S. erlhoz, el aI., An jM|| Siu!q cj |nicniicna| an! Uninicniicna|
(|n|arrassing) Vic|aiicns cj Sccia| Ncrns, 125 RAIN 1296 (2002).
11
Scc, MichaeI Koenigs, el aI., Oanagc ic inc Prcjrcnia| Ccricx |ncrcascs Uii|iiarian
Mcra| ju!gncnis, 444 NATURI 908 (2007).
8 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
LamareIIo's viev. And lhis is no fulure fanlasy lhal musl endure
alienl rogress, as LamareIIo assures us lhal neuroscience has
aIready idenlified vilh sufficienl cerlainly lhe areas of lhe brain
resonsibIe for vioIence and aggression. According lo LamareIIo,
lhere is slrong evidence lhal a Iarge ercenlage of aduIl criminaI
ouIalions suffer from neuroIogicaI imairmenl. This is so,
aarenlIy, vilhoul any Iarge eidemioIogicaI surveys lo
demonslrale lhal facl. NonelheIess, LamareIIo argues lhal, because
cerlain areas of lhe brain have been imIicaled vilh aggression and
vioIence, ve shouId conducl neuroIogicaI examinalions of aduIl
offenders and civiIIy commil lhose vho evince disordered brains
vilh lhose indenlified deficils. And Iike lhe numerous sexuaIIy
vioIenl redalor slalules, lhis shouId haen onIy afler lhe offender
has served her lerm of incarceralion.
Moreover, LamareIIo assures us, as a maller of Iav, ve can be
confidenl lhal such a oIicy vouId nol lransgress currenl IegaI
recedenl because numerous Sureme Courl decisions have shovn
lhal neuroIogicaI deficils are reIevanl in mallers of subslanlive
criminaI Iav. Whal is odd, lhough, is lhal lhe decision LamareIIo
sends lhe mosl lime exIoring
12
ul vhal lhe courl has said is necessary for any civiI commilmenl
is a shoving of menlaI iIIness or abnormaIily, as veII as a shoving of
dangerousness. U unliI Kansas t. Hcn!ricks,
slands for lhe roosilion lhal
neuroIogicaI imairmenls shouId serve as a basis for miligalion of
cuIabiIily and nol for ascrilions of dangerousness based on
underdeveIoed caacilies. Novhere in lhe Courl's |uveniIe
|urisrudence is lhere suorl for lhe nolion lhal neuroIogicaI
inabiIily shouId Iead lo civiI confinemenl. IresumabIy, lhis is
because, as a maller of oIicy, lhe Courl vievs lhe incaacilies of
|uveniIes as lransilory and lyicaI. So, erhas, lhe Courl vouId
lake a differenl viev of neuroIogicaI imairmenls in aduIls.
13

12
Roer v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005).
schoIars couId debale
al lhe erihery vhal roerIy consliluled a menlaI disorder
sufficienl for commilmenl, bul, by and Iarge, civiI commilmenl vas
13
521 U.S. 346 (1997).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 9
uliIized for lhose vilh ma|or menlaI iIInesses.
14
AII of lhal changed
vilh Hcn!ricks, of course, as lhe Courl reasoned lhal a voIilionaI
imairmenl Iinked vilh asl conducl and olenliaI fulure harm vas
aII lhal vas necessary for civiI commilmenl. Yel, il remains unsellIed
vhelher lhe Courl vouId embrace civiI commilmenl for lhose vho
mereIy have roensilies lovards aggression and vioIence.
15
Iven
by modesl eslimales, lhal may incIude one haIf of aII incarceraled
individuaIs.
16
According lo LamareIIo, lhe vhoIe oinl behind lhe civiI
commilmenl of lhese neuroIogicaIIy chaIIenged offenders is ubIic
safely and lrealmenl. The firsl is obvious and is a subslanlive goaI of
any civiI commilmenl, irreseclive of lhe asl criminaI conducl of
lhe agenl. We roulineIy civiIIy commil eoIe vho suffer from ma|or
menlaI iIInesses because lhey ose a danger lo lhemseIves or olhers.
Sociely engages in lhis derivalion of Iiberly because ve recognize
lhal some eoIe suffer from a disabiIily lhal renders lhem irralionaI
or unabIe lo care for lhemseIves al limes. The irralionaIily lhal
accomanies eisodes of some ma|or menlaI iIInesses can Iead lo an
agenl harming herseIf or someone eIse. ul lhe rool cause of lhal
harm is generaIIy an inabiIily of lhe agenl lo be guided by reason,
usuaIIy because of grossIy disorganized lhinking or erceluaI
dislurbances.

17
The second goaI of civiI commilmenl is lhe guideosl lhal
differenliales il from enaI incarceralion: lrealmenl. WhiIe lrealmenl
is nol aIvays abundanlIy rovided for lhose sub|ecl lo lradilionaI


14
Il is lrue lhal many slales had enacled sexuaI sychoalh slalules before lhe
modern versions ushered in by Hcn!ricks, bul lhere is IillIe evidence lhal lhey vere
videIy uliIized.
15
Indeed, lhe courl did louch uon lhis issue in Ioucha v. Louisiana, 504 U.S.
71 (1992), hoIding lhal a slale may nol delain a dangerous bul non-menlaIIy-iII
erson. The elilioner, Terry Ioucha, vas found nol resonsibIe on burgIary
charges and vas civiIIy commilled. Al lhe lime lhe case arose, Ioucha's soIe
diagnosis vas anlisociaI ersonaIily disorder.
16
Scc, Seena IazeI & }ohn Danesh, Scricus Mcnia| Oiscr!cr in 23 000 Priscncrs. A
Sqsicnaiic |cticu cj 62 Surtcqs, 359 THI LANCIT 545 (2002).
17
Scc, Slehen }. Morse, B|anc an! Oangcr. An |ssaq cn Prctcniitc Ocicniicn, 76
oslon Univ. L. Rev. 113, 127 (1996).
10 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
civiI commilmenl, il remains a haIImark goaI.
18
IenaI incarceralion
may rovide rehabiIilalion |uslified on uliIilarian grounds, bul ils
sociaIIy reIevanl urose is lo unish lhose vho engage in
vrongdoing. In order for civiI commilmenl lo Iive u lo ils
lheraeulic |uslificalions, il musl make good-failh efforls lo rovide
lrealmenl. WhiIe lhe Sureme Courl has IargeIy refrained from
oulIining vhal conslilules sufficienl lrealmenl for civiI commilmenl
uroses, a skelicaI viev vouId nole lhal lhe Courl has uheId
commilmenl of a sexuaIIy vioIenl redalor even vhen lrealmenl vas
raclicaIIy nonexislenl.
19
In some vays, LamareIIo's nev slalule aears lo fiII a void.
Ivery year, numerous criminaI offenders vho are very IikeIy lo
reoffend are reIeased back inlo lhe communily. Many viII onIy
reoffend in a non-vioIenl manner, such as sleaIing or using drugs,
bul olhers viII reoffend vilh vioIence. If neuroscience can
confidenlIy assess and segregale lhose offenders vho ose a risk of
fulure offending by means of lheir disordered brains, lhen erhas
civiI commilmenl is in order. ul arl of lhe confusion embedded
vilhin LamareIIo's framevork is caused by a faiIure lo define vhen
an agenl's Iack of conlroI is reIevanl. IresumabIy, enduring
neuroIogicaI in|ury lhal is reIevanl lo recidivism and LamareIIo's
nev regime of civiI commilmenl is aIso aIicabIe lo lhe conducl
invoIved vilh lhe commission of lhe offense, yel LamareIIo IargeIy
ignores lhe facl lhal lhis IegaIIy reIevanl conducl can be ad|udicaled
under exisling subslanlive criminaI Iav vhiIe achieving nearIy
idenlicaI resuIls. Likevise, disensing vilh lhe neuroscience in
LamareIIo's roosaI reveaIs lhal il is, in facl, very simiIar lo
exisling civiI commilmenl slalules, vhich can do lhe vork vilhoul
lhe necessily of nev slalulory framevorks. Moreover, lhe focus on
voIilionaI imairmenl reveaIs lhal, in many vays, LamareIIo's nev
As a consequence, vhalever lrealmenls
mighl be avaiIabIe for lhe largels of LamareIIo's nev slalule, lhe
bar is nol sel arlicuIarIy high in lerms of demonslrabIe
effecliveness.

18
And conslilulionaIIy required. Scc, Ycung|crg t. |cncc, 457 U.S. 307 (1982).
19
Scc, SeiIing v. Young, 531 U.S. 250 (2001).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 11
slalule is nol aboul civiI commilmenl bul revenlive delenlion. Ior
reasons discussed beIov, lhis is bolh unnecessary and unvise.

II. SUSTANCI, IROCISS, AND THI CIVIL-CRIMINAL DIVIDI
20


A. Ncn-|cspcnsi|i|iiq an! Ccnniincni

The revaiIing viev in neuroscience is lhal neuroIogicaI in|ury is
IargeIy ermanenl and lhose vho suffer from il have enduring
deficils. There are nolabIe excelions lo lhis viev, bul il is
inescaabIe lhal lhe iclure of lhe neuroIogicaIIy imaired defendanl
being ainled by mosl neuroIav schoIars is one of defendanls vho
acl because of lheir in|ury or Iimilalions. AdoIescenls are said lo Iack
lhe caacily for cooI Iogic under slress, sychoalhs are lhoughl
incaabIe of reaI emalhy. Under LamareIIo's viev, many aduIl
offenders cannol conlroI lheir vioIenl lendencies. In lhe reaIm of civiI
commilmenl, lhese deficils are reIevanl insofar as lhey Iead an
offender lo ose a credibIe danger lo sociely in lhe fulure. ul, given
lhe enduring nalure of lhese deficils, lhey maller in lerms of
resonsibiIily, as veII.
According lo LamareIIo, lhe deficils of vioIenl criminaI
offenders iminge nol on cognilion bul onIy vilh lheir abiIily lo
conlroI lheir behavior. Thal is, lhese offenders do nol suffer from
erceluaI abnormaIilies or irralionaI lhinking, inslead lhey |usl
cannol heI lhemseIves. LamareIIo argues lhal, because of lhis facl,
revaiIing neuroscience dala does nol suorl findings of
diminished caacily or incomelency lo sland lriaI, bul ralher, is
onIy reIevanl lo findings of imairmenl lhal varranl civiI
commilmenl uon reIease from enaI confinemenl.
ul if an agenl lruIy cannol conlroI his conducl due lo an
enduring neuroIogicaI condilion, il is highIy IikeIy lhal such a
condilion is indeed reIevanl for mallers of criminaI resonsibiIily.
WhiIe |urisdiclions vary, many subscribe lo vhal is knovn as lhe

20
This lilIed is laken from lhe Iale WiIIiam }. Slunlz's exceIIenl essay,
Su|siancc, Prcccss, an! inc Citi|-Crinina| Oiti!c, 7 }. CONTIM. LIGAL ISSUIS 1 (1996).
12 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
voIilionaI rong of lhe insanily lesl. As lhe ModeI IenaI Code uls
il, an agenl is nol resonsibIe if she, due lo menlaI iIIness or defecl, is
unabIe lo conform her conducl lo lhe requiremenls of lhe Iav.
21
Il is nol al aII cIear vhy LamareIIo considers ersons vho suffer
from lhe neuroIogicaI in|ury or deficils he describes are resonsibIe
agenls in lhe firsl Iace. Suose aduIl offender }oe has lhe
imairmenls lhal LamareIIo beIieves are crilicaI for civiI
commilmenl: he vas exosed lo numerous environmenlaI harms
lhal resuIled in damage lo his fronlaI Iobes and amygdaIa al a young
age. As a resuIl, }oe has robIems conlroIIing his imuIses and has a
Iov loIerance for Iife's fruslralions. He is chronicaIIy unemIoyed
and uses drugs and aIcohoI lo moderale his emolions. He is
insensilive and Iacks Ians for lhe fulure. One day, }oe is driving
dovn lhe road vhen anolher driver culs him off. Incensed, }oe
seeds u, forces lhe olher driver off lhe road, gels oul of his car and
brulaIIy assauIls lhe olher driver. }oe is arresled and charged vilh
numerous offenses and sils in |aiI vailing for lriaI. }oe knev al lhe
lime lhal he shouId nol assauIl lhe olher driver, bul he cIaims he |usl
couId nol heI himseIf. He |usl snaed.
The
viev here is simIe: resonsibIe aclion requires an agenl vho can
reasonabIy conlroI her conducl. Acls are nol moraIIy bIamevorlhy
vhen lhey are lhe resuIl of menlaI iIInesses lhal render an agenl
unabIe lo conlroI herseIf because, resumabIy, lhe agenl neilher
couId choose olhervise nor vas Iaced in a hard-choice osilion.
}oe is lhe lye of agenl lhal LamareIIo cares aboul. AII
evidence suggesls lhal his cognilion vas sufficienlIy inlacl insofar as
he knev lhal his conducl vas vrong al lhe lime of lhe commission
of lhe offense. He simIy is unabIe lo conlroI himseIf because he
Iacks lhe caacily for seIf-governance lhal mosl cilizens exercise
daiIy. If reIeased back inlo lhe communily unlrealed, }oe oses a
danger lo lhe ubIic because of his neuronaI roensilies. ul is }oe
roerIy bIamevorlhy or criminaIIy resonsibIe` Under lhe various
conlroI lesls of insanily, }oe shouId be excused because his Iacked lhe
abiIily lo conform his conducl lo lhe requiremenls of lhe Iav. }oe is

21
MODIL IINAL CODI 4.01(1).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 13
robabIy a dangerous feIIov bul he is aIso lhe haIess ovner of a
defeclive brain. Under lhe convenlionaI neuroIav viev, he bears no
resonsibiIily for his condilion and is moraIIy bIameIess for conducl
lhal he cannol conlroI.
Ior }oe, criminaI unishmenl is nol aroriale because aII
|usl syslems of criminaI cuIabiIily incIude deserl as a necessary
yardslick of unishmenl. }oe is aIso nol delerrabIe because his
IegaIIy reIevanl conducl is divorced from his cognilive abiIilies. He
very veII may require segregalion from sociely for care and
lrealmenl because he is neuroIogicaI infirm, bul aII |urisdiclions lhal
rovide for non-resonsibiIily verdicls aIso make avaiIabIe civiI
commilmenl for lhose vho successfuIIy acquire an insanily
ad|udicalion. The difficuIly in achieving lhose verdicls has been
noled,
22

bul vhelher a neuroIogicaIIy imaired defendanl is
resonsibIe in lhe firsl Iace is an imorlanl queslion lhal
LamareIIo Ieaves unansvered.
B. Cunning Ccnirc|

AII eoIe Iack conlroI in some fashion. Ior some, Iack of conlroI
is nolhing more lreacherous lhan succumbing lo lhe aIIure of cerlain
deIicious foods or lhe lemlalion lo gossi aboul one's neighbor. ul
lhe Iack of conlroI conlemIaled by conlroI lesls is of anolher variely.
This viev hoIds lhal some agenls cannol conlroI lhemseIves even if
lhe ob|ecl of lheir desires is overfuIIy forbidden or lhe sanclion for
vioIalion incredibIy severe. ConlroI lesls offer a sychoIogicaI
exIanalion as lo vhy some cilizens engage in unIavfuI conducl
vilhoul any |uslifiabIe exIanalion. ul conlroI lesls are noloriousIy
conlroversiaI and difficuIl. We never reaIIy knov vhelher someone
vas unabIe lo exercise conlroI over her conducl al any arlicuIar
oinl in lime. Likevise, il remains unsellIed hov much conlroI is
necessary for cuIabiIily. Since lhere is IillIe evidence lo suggesl lhal

22
Scc, Randy orum & SoIomon M. IuIero, |npirica| |cscarcn cn inc |nsaniiq
Ocjcnsc an! Aiicnpic! |cjcrns. |ti!cncc Tcuar! |njcrnc! Pc|icq, 23 L. & Hum.
ehav. 375, 378 (1999)(noling lhal lhe insanily defense is successfuI in Iess lhan a
quarler of cases in vhich il is raised).
14 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
an agenl can ever be comIeleIy oul of conlroI, lhen lhe imorlanl
queslion is vhal amounl of conlroI is required for ascrilions of
criminaI resonsibiIily.
Those are lhe dee queslions of conlroI lesls for insanily cIaims.
Ior lhe rescrilions of LamareIIo's civiI commilmenl modeI, ve
can disense vilh normalive mallers of cuIabiIily and focus on
conlroI and neuroIogicaI imairmenl. ul lhis does nol make lhe
lask any easier. Desile aII of lhe neuroscience sludies on execulive
funclion, fronlaI Iobes, and imuIsivily, ve sliII have IillIe guidance
on vho lruIy Iacks conlroI over lheir conducl. Mosl eoIe vilh
fronlaI Iobe damage are abIe lo conlroI lhemseIves mosl of lhe lime
desile Iife's endIess chaIIenges. Iven lhose vilh subslanliaI deficils
in fronlaI Iobe funclioning can mainlain conlroI over lhe behavior al
Ieasl some of lhe lime. And, more imorlanlIy, mosl criminaI
offenders are abIe lo conlroI lheir conducl nearIy aII of lhe lime. We
simIy have no vay of knoving vhich offenders vilh neuroIogicaI
imairmenls mighl ose more conlroI robIems lhan olhers.
23

Neuroscience lhus far does nol heI mallers, since il has nol yel
ansvered lhe queslion of vhal neuroIogicaI finding Ieads lo a
suslained inabiIily lo exerl conlroI over one's ovn conducl.
24
Iven if neuroscience can someday rovide reIiabIe evidence lhal
some aduIl offenders lruIy slruggIe vilh conlroIIing lheir behavior


23
LamareIIo allemls lo counler lhis crilicism by suggesling lhal lhe Iack of
recision in delermining vhich neuroIogicaIIy imaired offender is IikeIy lo be
dangerous is misIaced by vay of an anaIogy lo smoking: nol aII smokers deveIo
Iung cancer, bul ve knov cancer and smoking is Iinked. ul he faiIs lo comIele
lhe anaIogy: ve can reasonabIy encourage aII eoIe lo slo smoking because, al
mosl, aII lhal is Iosl is lhe Ieasure of smoking. Ior civiI commilmenl, vhal is Iosl
is lhe Iiberly of many nondangerous offenders. Thal is, many offenders vho
vouId nci be dangerous bul have neuroIogicaI imairmenl ucu|! |c commilled
nonelheIess. AslonishingIy, LamareIIo cIaims lhal lhe ccnp|cxiiq of neuroscience
saves lhe day for such a brighl-Iine ruIe.
24
I concede lhal neuroscience can ansver lhis queslion in lhe exlreme case,
such as KIuver-ucy Syndrome, bul lhese cases are exceedingIy rare and do nol
|uslify vide aIicalion of neuroscience in lhe criminaI |uslice syslem.
AddilionaIIy, even in lhe exlreme cases, lhe agenl is abIe lo conlroI herseIf al Ieasl
some of lhe lime, and lherefore, comIele Iack of conlroI is nol evidenl.
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 15
lo a degree lhal varranls invoIunlary commilmenl, il is vorlh
ondering vhal sorl of lrealmenl mighl be heIfuI. WhiIe
LamareIIo cIaims lhal effeclive lrealmenls are aIready avaiIabIe, he
faiIs lo menlion even one. This is unsurrising because, absenl
invasive sychosurgery, ve have none. WhiIe anlisycholic
medicalions IikeIy rovide some reIief, lhis is onIy because in
sufficienl doses, lhese drugs induce sedalion and anhedonia lo
anyone exosed lo lheir side effecls. ul ve have no evidence lhal
lhe lheraeulic effecls of lhese drugs vouId be beneficiaI lo lhose
vilh conlroI robIems Iinked vilh fronlaI Iobe damage.
The mosl romising lrealmenls for eoIe vilh anlisociaI
rocIivilies and brain disorders enlaiI lhe use of cognilive-behavioraI
lheray lo induce nol onIy changes in lhinking allerns, bul IikeIy
hysioIogicaI changes in lhe brain, as veII.
25

WhiIe lhe evidence is
nol vilhoul ils Iimilalions, il does suggesl lhal lhe segmenling of
cognilion from behavior lhal LamareIIo convenienlIy uliIizes is
misIaced: lhere is no vaII searaling cognilion from behavior
excel in lhe minds of schoIars. Whalever neuroIogicaI imairmenl
mighl louch uon behavior invariabIy las cognilion. IeoIe mighl
say lhal lhey cannol conlroI lhemseIves, bul mosl can and do,
conlroI comes nol from exogenous harmaceulicaIs bul from
conlemIalion and erseverance.
C. Tnc Brca!in cj Ncurcccnniincni

The Sureme Courl has firmIy heId lhal civiI commilmenl
requires roof of bolh menlaI iIIness and dangerousness.
26

25
Scc, D.A. ANDRIWS & }AMIS ONTA, THI ISYCHOLOGY OI CRIMINAL CONDUCT
(5
TH
ID. 2010). The neuroIaslic effecls of sycholheray have been noled in
numerous sludies. Ior a reviev, see Mario eauregard, Min! Occs |ca||q Maiicr.
|ti!cncc |rcn Ncurcinaging Siu!ics cj |nciicna| Sc|j-|cgu|aiicn, Psqcncincrapq, an!
P|acc|c |jjcci, 81 IROGRISS IN NIUROIOLOGY 218 (2007).
Iven
under lhe nebuIous sexuaI redalor slalules, lhe courl has carefuIIy
arlicuIaled lhal civiI confinemenl is nol aroriale for agenls vho
have mere redisosilions lovard vioIence, ralher, lhe risk of
26
OCcnncr t. Ocna|!scn, 422 U.S. 563 (1975).
16 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
vioIence musl be connecled vilh asl acls and a menlaI condilion
lhal redisoses an agenl lo acl vilh vioIence.
27
ul lhe courl has
aIso shovn greal skelicism vilh resecl lo giving deference lo
rofessionaI menlaI heaIlh exerls' delerminalions of vhal quaIifies
as a IegaIIy reIevanl menlaI imairmenl.
28
As a consequence, slales are free lo adol very broad definilions
of menlaI imairmenl for mallers of civiI commilmenl. AccordingIy,
lhe definilion roosed by LamareIIo mighl ass conslilulionaI
musler. As offered by LamareIIo, an offender couId be sub|ecled lo
civiI commilmenl roceedings uon reIease from rison if lhe slale
can rove by cIear and convincing evidence lhal lhe offender (1) has
nol been successfuIIy lrealed vhiIe incarceraled, (2) is IikeIy lo
commil anolher vioIenl offense uon reIease, and (3) Iacks lhe
voIilionaI conlroI and lhus conlinues lo have difficuIlies vilh
imuIse conlroI. WhiIe LamareIIo's roosaI does nol exIicilIy say
so, resumabIy lhe imuIse difficuIlies al issue are reIaled lo lhe
offender's roensily for vioIenl acls. ul lhe slalule Iacks an
idenlifiabIe menlaI iIIness or abnormaIily as a basis for lhe
commilmenl afler aII, vhal exaclIy is vrong vilh lhese foIks` Do
lhey suffer from VioIenl VoIilionaI Imairmenl Disorder` In aII
IikeIihood, every offender conlinues lo have difficuIlies vilh
imuIse conlroI.
rushing aside nearIy
universaI condemnalion of lhe Kansas definilion of menlaI
abnormaIily in lhe Hcn!ricks case, lhe Courl has sleadfaslIy
reserved |udgmenls aboul vho quaIifies as menlaIIy disordered in
IegaI mallers lo lhe slales.
Of course, lhal couId be easiIy fixed by lhe addilion of some
IegisIaliveIy crafled diagnoslic disorder vilhin lhe slalule. ul lhe
hard arl is roviding a ralionaI and coherenl |uslificalion for vho is
covered and vhy. As Irofessor Morse has alIy exIained, voIilionaI

27
Kansas t. Hcn!ricks, 521 U.S. 346, 357 (1997).
28
Kansas t. Cranc, 534 U.S. 407, 407-408 (2002)(Slales relain considerabIe
Ieevay in defining lhe menlaI abnormaIilies and ersonaIily disorders lhal make
an individuaI eIigibIe for commilmenl, and sychialry, vhich informs bul does nol
conlroI uIlimale IegaI delerminalions, is an ever-advancing science, vhose
dislinclions do nol seek reciseIy lo mirror lhose of lhe Iav).
TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 17
imairmenl slalules al issue in cases Iike Hcn!ricks are noloriousIy
circuIar and incoherenl.
29
Hov do ve knov if someone has lhe
disorder` If lhe ansver is because lhey have a bioIogicaI roensily
lo break lhe Iav, lhen ve are no furlher avay from lhe courl's
concern lhal mere disosilion lo vioIence is insufficienl for
commilmenl.
30
Whal is Iurking benealh lhe formaIilies of lhe roosed slalule is
lhe ambilion of mosl slrands of neuroIav: lo make neuroscience
indisensibIe lo IegaI decision making. In many resecls, il seems
quile reasonabIe lo examine lhe brains of offenders in search of
abnormaIilies lhal can be Iinked lo lheir IegaIIy reIevanl conducl. If
an offender has some fronlaI Iobe disorder, and sludies shov lhal
fronlaI Iobe disorder is somehov Iinked vilh aggression and
vioIence, lhen il seems erfeclIy sensibIe lo commil lhem in order lo
revenl fulure lragedies.
AeaIing lo bioIogicaI causes is unheIfuI since aII
behavior invoIves bioIogy, brain imaging can onIy leII us lhal lhere is
a bioIogicaI comonenlsomelhing ve knev aII aIong. Whal ve
resumabIy care aboul is vhelher lhe agenl Iacks lhe caacily for
reasoned decision making vhen under lhe demands of daiIy Iife. Ior
lhis, ve musl Iook lovard conducl. ul here, lhe onIy conducl al
issue is a roensily for fulure vioIence. More imorlanlIy, no
erson Iacks voIilionaI conlroI in any meaningfuI sense, eoIe
have varying IeveIs of conlroI over lheir imuIsive desires, vhich are
deendenl on lheir environmenl and lhe choices lhey make vilhin il.
ul lhis lra|eclory invariabIy Ieads us dovn lhe road of
examining and cIassifying brain differences and engaging lhe over
of Iav before any conducl has occurred. This enlerrise is nol reaIIy
aboul care and lrealmenl bul revenlive delenlion. Il is an oId
maxim lhal lhe Iav does nol unish mere lhoughlsacls are
required. ul lhe romise of neuroscience lo leII us lhal cerlain
cilizens are redisosed lo acl in cerlain vays is nearIy irresislibIe.
Irofessor LamareIIo's slalule Iimils ilseIf lo vioIenl offenders, bul

29
Slehen }. Morse, |car jrcn Oangcr, ||igni jrcn Cu|pa|i|iiq, 4 ISYCHOL., IULIC
IOL'Y & L. 250, 260 (1998).
30
Scc, Kansas v. Crane, 534 U.S. 407, 413 (2002).
18 TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW
lhere are fev reasons lo be so conslrained. WhiIe lhe Sureme Courl
has Iimiled civiI commilmenl lo individuaIs vilh menlaI disorders
vho are dangerous lo lhemseIves or olhers, ve have IillIe guidance
vhelher lhe courl vouId find ob|eclionabIe a slalule lhal vouId
imose significanl and indefinile robalion for |uveniIe deIinquenls
or elly criminaIs vhose brains aIso disIay abnormaIilies.
LegisIalures couId easiIy crafl slalules vhich decIared such ersons
as dangerous, bul menlaIIy abnormaI offenders in need of
confinemenl and lrealmenl. More broadIy, lhere is IillIe reason lo
beIieve lhal neuroscience vouId nol louch on mosl IegaI issues
invoIving lhe caacily of IegaI agenls. WouId a Iack of neuroabiIily
for varmlh and caring be reIevanl lo adolion and chiId cuslody
roceedings` If lhe lechnoIogy couId demonslrale a Iink belveen
iluilary funclion and human bonding, lhen sureIy il is reIevanl
under a neuroIav Iens.
The issue, lhough, is beyond reIevance. IarenlaI varmlh,
remorse, and lhe abiIily lo conlroI oneseIf are ersonaI caacilies
lhal indeed are reIevanl lo lhe Iav. They have been for a very Iong
lime. The Iav has lradilionaIIy accounled for lhese characlerislics by
examining someone's conducl, even vhen making rediclions aboul
lhe fulure. Whelher an offender oses a risk lo lhe communily is
measured by asl acls and nol lheir hysicaI allribules. Iven in lhe
lradilionaI civiI commilmenl reaIm, menlaI iIIness aIone is nol
synonymous vilh dangerousness. The robIem vilh mosl
neuroscience-based aroaches lo queslions of IegaI saIience is nol
one of reIevancy bul urose. Irofessor LamareIIo's roosaI, Iike
much neuroIav laIk lhese days, seeks lo invoke lhe over of Iav for
vho ve are, nol vhal ve do. In mallers of subslanlive criminaI Iav,
ve shouId endeavor lo reslrain lhe over of Iav lo acl based on lhe
mere facl lhal ve vere born vilh our redelermined disosilions.
Iroensilies are nol deslinies, and ve are free lo acl againsl our
urges, vhalever bioIogicaI IiabiIilies may encumber us. Liberly
shouId mean al Ieasl lhal much.

CONCLUSION

TH| I|M|TS O| N|U|OIAW 19
The chaIIenge for any schoIar vho desires lo incororale science
inlo Iav is hov lo do so vilhoul uending lhe foundalionaI vaIIs
uon vhich Iav resls. Ior subslanlive criminaI Iav, lhal lask musl
incIude deaIing fuIIy vilh lhe doclrine of resonsibiIily and lhe
normalive vaIues of Iiberly and fairness. Since criminaI Iav
reresenls lhe zenilh of Iav's over, caulion shouId revaiI vhen
lhe lechnoIogy of science is uliIized lo furlher derivalions of Iiberly.
Irofessor LamareIIo has made a nolevorlhy slab al lhe lruIy vexing
robIem of incororaling neuroscience resonsibIy inlo our criminaI
|uslice syslem, bul uIlimaleIy his roosaI is inconsislenl vilh
eslabIished rinciIes of fairness and |uslice.