RESPIRATION

Respiration is a bio-chemical catabolic process of breakdown of food molecules

using oxygen to release energy. This process occurs at the cell level. The organic
compounds that undergo oxidative breakdown in respiration are called respiratory
substrates. The most common substrate is glucose. Energy liberated during
oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate is partly stored in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate)

( )
In higher organisms, respiration consists of four steps-
Breathing
External Respiration
Internal Respiration
Cellular Respiration



The main gases involved in this process are - Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION

There are two types of respiration-
Aerobic (With Oxygen)
Anaerobic ( Without Oxygen)

GLYCOLYSIS pathway is the first step of respiration which is common to both
aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm. It is the

breakdown of glucose into Pyruvate (C
3
H
4
0
3
) or Pyruvic acid. This process is also
called EMP (Emden, Meyerhof and Parnas).
Absence
Of Oxygen
In yeast Ethanol + carbon dioxide +energy
(2-carbon molecule
In cytoplasm Lack of oxygen
Glucose 2 Pyruvate Lactic acid + energy
(6-carbon (3-carbon (In our muscles)
Molecule) molecule)
Presence of Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide + Water+ energy
(In Mitochondria)



AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration is the usual mode of respiration in all higher organisms as it
yields the maximum amount of energy. It occurs in two steps-
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle

Krebs Cycle (Citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic cycle) - Pyruvate passes into the
mitochondria. It undergoes decarboxlation to produce acetylCoA, carbon dioxide
and NADH2. AcetylCoA enters the Krebs cycle and the end result of this is carbon
Dioxide, water and 38 molecules of ATP.

2 Pyruvate CO
2
+ H
2
0 + 38 ATP (2870kJ)

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Anaerobic respiration occurs in many lower organisms eg. Bacteria, yeast etc. In
human body it occurs regularly in red blood cells and during heavy exercise in
muscles. It occurs entirely in the cytoplasm. It has two steps-

The first step is glycolysis. The Pyruvate is converted into ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH)
in Yeast and certain bacteria. It is changed into lactic acid (CH
3
CHOH.COOH) in
muscles cells when oxygen utilization is faster than its availability. Lactic acid
leads to the fatigue of muscles.
In Yeast (Fermentation)-

2 Pyruvate C
2
H
5
OH + CO
2
+ 2 ATP molecules

In our muscles-

2 Pyruvate CH
3
CHOH.COOH + 2 ATP molecules




HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Yeast



The Human Respiratory System consists of

Pair of external nostrils
Nasal Cavity Chamber
Nasopharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli









Air is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing through the
nostrils is filtered by fine hair that line the passage. Mucus is also present
here, which helps in preventing dirt from entering. Air then goes into the
nasal cavity.
Nasal Chamber opens into the nasopharynx (a part of pharynx) that leads
into larynx through the glottis. Glottis is covered by epiglottis, during
swallowing of food or water.
Larynx or the voice box is a cartilaginous box-like structure that helps in the
production of sound. It leads into trachea.
Trachea is a straight tubular structure that extends through the neck up to the
middle thoracic cavity. It is surrounded by ring-like structures to prevent it
from collapsing. It divides into bronchi.
Nasal Cavity
Nasal
Chambers
Nasopharynx Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli
Flowchart of air in respiratory system

Each of the primary bronchus divides into a no. of secondary and tertiary
bronchi.
The tertiary bronchi give rise to bronchioles.
Each bronchiole ends in a thin walled, highly vascular sac like structure
called alveoli.
The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli constitute the
lung.
The lungs are covered by double layered membrane called Pleura and
pleural fluid is present between the two layers.
Alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases takes place. The
walls of alveoli contain an extensive network of blood vessels. The blood
brings deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body for release of carbon
dioxide into the alveoli and the oxygen in alveolar air combines with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin and is transported to all cells of the
body. An interesting fact is that the surface area of alveoli is 80m
2.



THE FOUR STEPS OF RESPIRATION
As discussed above these four are-
Breathing
It is the process of taking in oxygen rich fresh air and releasing
carbon dioxide rich foul air. It is involuntary and can be prevented for
a brief period. Rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory
centre in brain.

External Respiration-
It is the exchange of gases that occurs at the respiratory surface.
Oxygen has a higher partial pressure in the alveolar air than inside the
blood circulating over the alveolar surface. Carbon dioxide has higher
partial pressure in the blood as compared to the alveolar air.
Therefore, oxygen diffuses into blood while carbon dioxide passes
out of the blood. 97% of oxygen combines with haemoglobin of red

blood corpuscles to form oxyhaemoglobin. Only 3% of oxygen
dissolves in blood plasma.


I nternal Respiration-
It is the exchange of gases that occurs between blood and tissues.
Blood containing oxyhaemoglobin is called oxygenated blood.
From lungs the oxygenated blood passes into left part of heart through
pulmonary veins. The heart pumps the blood to the whole body. In
body tissues, oxygen separates from haemoglobin and diffuses into
individual cells through the tissue fluid.
Inside the cells oxygen is used up in oxidative breakdown of
respiratory substrate. It releases energy and carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide diffuses into the blood through tissue fluid. In blood 23% of
carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin. The reaming travels as sodium bicarbonate
and carbonic acid in the plasma to reach lungs.

Cellular Respiration-
It is the actual bio-chemical process of enzymatic breakdown of
respiratory substrate inside the cells. Energy is liberated. It can be
aerobic or anaerobic.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING

The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a
pressure gradient between the lungs the atmosphere.
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles help in the generation of such
pressure gradient. It involves two steps-



INSPIRATION ( OR INHALATION)

It occurs when the intrapulmonary pressure is less than the atmospheric
pressure.
The muscles of the diaphragm contract to move downwards towards
abdomintant increasing the length of thoracic chamber.
The contraction of some of the intercostals muscles causes the ribs and
sternum to move upward and outward. This causes an increase in the volume
of the thoracic chamber. Being air tight, this causes an expansion of lungs.
The air pressure in the lungs decreases. So outside air rushes in.



EXPIRATION (OR EXHALATION)

Expiration or exhalation is the throwing out of air from the lungs after the
exchange of gases.
It is a passive process caused by the relaxation of intercostals
muscles(muscles attached to the ribs)

Relaxation of the muscles causes the diaphragm to regain its original
position (dome shaped) which results in the decrease in the volume of the
thoracic cavity and invert of the movement of the chest cavity.
This leads to the expulsion of air from the lungs through the respiratory
tract.



Aim: To take out the respiratory rate of three family members
While Resting
While Walking
While running

Procedure: I took the rates of
My mother (Age-38 years)
My sister (Age-12 years)
My grandmother (Age-64years)

Observations: Observations are the no. of breaths taken in 1 minute.

Person Rest Walking Running
Sister 15 20 38
Mother 18 25 34
Grandmother 20 21 25
Average 17.6 22 32.3











Result: Thus we see that the respiratory rate of a person is maximum while
running.









0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Rest Walking Running
Average respiratory rates
Average




I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not
have been possible without the kind support and help of
my family members and my teacher. I would like to
extend my sincere thanks to all of them. I am highly
indebted to Ms. Bhavana Trivedi for her guidance and
constant supervision. My thanks and appreciations also
go to my colleagues in developing the project and people
who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

PROJECT BY-
Abhishek Agarwal (X-A)