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Introduction of stones and rock

Rocks:
I. A lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter.
II. Material consisting of the aggregate of minerals like those
making up the earths crust.
Stones:
I. A lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter.
II. Building material consisting of a piece of rock hewn in a definite
shape for a special purpose.
In construction:
Rocks:
An definite mixture of naturally accuring substance , mainly
minerals .its composition may vary in containment of minerals and
organic subtances, and are never exact .
Stones:
Small piece of rocks , may or may not refer to ornamental
materials.
To ease the understanding of this topic ,rock = stones

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Properties of stones and rocks
(metamorphic rock)
Metamorphic :
Igneous or sedimentary rock transformed by heat and pressure
into another rock.
Marble:
Recrystallized limestone, colour varies from white throught
grey and black, red , violet ,pink , yellow, and green presence of
oxides of iron , silica, graphite , carbonaceous, matter, and mica
produce these colour variations.
Quartzite:
It is a variety of and stones composed of mainly granular quartz
cemented by silica , colour varies from brown , buff, tan, ivory,
red throught grey.
Schist:
Made of silica with smaller amounts of iron oxide and magnesium
oxide. Colour varies from blue , green , brown, gold, white, grey ,
and red.

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Slate:
Consists mainly of clays and shales major ingredients are
silicon dioxide, iron oxide , potassium oxide , magnesium oxide, and
sometimes titanium, calcium and sulfur slate found in parallel
layers , which enables it to be cut into thin sheets.

(crushed stones)
Construction aggregate:
or simply aggregate , is a broad category of coarse
particulate material used in construction , including sand ,
gravel, crushed stone , slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic
aggregates.
Aggregate are a component of composite material such as
concrete and asphalt concrete , the aggregate serves as
reinforcement to add strength to the overall composites
material.
Aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road or rail base
with predictable, uniform, properties, (e.g to help prevent
differential settling under the road or building), or as a low-cost
extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to
form concrete.


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Constituents of stones









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Types of stones

Granite
Granite is igneous meaning it is formed by extreme heat and
volcanic action. Its characteristic colors include a huge variety
and mixes of color. Granite can take a high polish.
Limestone
Limestone is sedimentary meaning it is formed by the action of
water and great pressure. Its characteristic colors include
neutrals, off-white, beige, tan, taupe, light blue grey. The look of
limestone is created by the interaction of sediment deposits and
shells with geological activity. Limestone finishes are usually
honed and typically do not hold a high gloss polish.
Marble
Marble is the metamorphic product of limestone meaning it is
formed when heat and great pressure are applied to limestone.
Its characteristics include a huge variety and mixture of colors.
The veins found in marble are created by the interaction of
mineral deposits with geological activity. Marble can take a high
polish due to its hard surface.


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Slate
Slate is metamorphic meaning it is formed under great pressure
from sediment. It has a huge variety of characteristic colors
that often vary widely. Slate has a natural cleft finish.
Travertine
Travertine is a banded, compact variation of limestone. Its
characteristic colors include neutrals, off white, beige, tan, and
yellow. The look of travertine is created by the interaction of
gas, shells and water with geological activity. Travertine
finishes are usually honed, but some will hold a polish.
Rock and stones




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Rock and stones (origin)
o In geology , rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of
minerals and / or mineraloids
o the earths outer solid layer , the lithosphere , is made of rock . in
general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic.
o The scientific study of rock is called petrology , and petrology is
an essential component of geology.






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Manufacturing of stones

Manufactured Stone
People have been building with stone for thousands of years.
Normally stone must be found in the ground, quarried or mined out,
and then refined into a certain shape. With the advances in
technology, however, people can now manufacture stone to fit
their specifications. Called cast stone, this product can be mixed
to fit any color or hue and to resemble a variety of different
types of stone, including limestone, granite, slate and marble.
This unusual product is made in a way that's remarkably similar
to regular cement, with a few additional steps and additions.
Mixing
The basic materials that make up cast stone are water, cement,
fine crushed stone, coarse crushed stone, color pigments and a
variety of chemical admixtures. These components are all mixed
together and stirred so that they're well mixed. This slurry is
then poured into a mold and left to dry. As it hardens, it takes on
the look of natural, carved stone. The color will vary with the
pigments put into it, and the type of stone it mimics will change

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with the types of coarse and fine stone that are added to the
mixture.
Reinforcement
Since cast stone is a slurry before it dries, this presents several
opportunities for enhancing the structural integrity. Like
concrete or cement, cast stone may be reinforced with steel bars
or with other, similar means when it's poured into a mold. This way
the stone can take more weight, but it still maintains the look of
the stone that it's trying to imitate. Additionally, the cost of
cast stone is usually a lot less, and it can be molded to be
exactly what a person wants. Oftentimes it can be molded in a
way that natural stone simply couldn't be carved.
1-Selection of the right Quarry and the Big Block
Geologists check the soil with the latest technology using
sonograms, samples and digging to make sure that the stone is
of the highest quality and that there is sufficient reserve of
this specific material. Then experts identify and mark the
blocks to be processed.

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2-Cutting down the Block to Slabs
The blocks are brought to the processing factories and sliced
down to slabs using top of the line Italian technology. Slabs
with even the tiniest defect are rejected on site.




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3-Sizing of the Slabs
The slabs are sized down and rectified to the required
dimensions. The sizes are checked with a digital measuring
device to avoid even the smallest size difference.


4. Filling Process
Fillers are prepared by color experts to match the natural
color of the stone in laboratories.



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5. Polishing or Honing
The tiles are polished and honed with top quality Italian
abrasives and processed repeatedly until the desired surface
finish is met.


6. Final Quality Check and Shade Selection
Selection teams eye check every single tile based on our
defined shade restrictions. Out-of-shade tiles are carefully
eliminated.



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Selection of stones
This Stone Federation Great Britain guide is based on relevant
sections of a number of British Standards, Codes of Practice and
trade documents. It sets out the current best practice for the
selection of natural stone for larger cladding, flooring, paving
and masonry projects. It considers the important issues relating
to the interpretation of samples, the role of the
quarry/mine/factory visit in the assessment of the stone
selection and the relevant factors appropriate to the
evaluation of the technical properties of the stone, and if
necessary, to a successful testing regime. It aims to identify the
common misunderstandings and is designed to help the specifier to
make an informed selection of a suitable stone for their project.
1. Samples
All samples should be labelled in accordance with BS EN 12440
Natural Stone Denomination Criteria, ie. they should have their
traditional name, quarry location andcountry of origin and the
petrological family declared, together with a sample reference
number. This information will allow you to comparethis sample
with previous samples andwith buildings using these stones and
will also allow you to access previous technicalinformation
which will give you an indication whether the stone is suitable in
your proposedapplication.
Some stones are given commercial names but it is vital that the
traditional name of the stone is established so that all

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appropriate historical information can be found. If the supplier
is unable or unwilling to provide information we advise that an
alternative stone is selected. All samples should be marked with
the surface finish that has been applied to the sample, ie. If fine
rubbed or honed, it should have the grit size used so that the
specifier can accurately specify the finish of the stone. The
wording should also reflect the requirements of the relevant
product BS EN Standards.
Indicative Samples
An indicative sample shows the general colour, tone and
texture of the stone, but cannot and should not attempt to
show the range of geological characteristics that will be
naturally present in all stones. These indicative samples are
typically small stones, say 150mm x 150mm, so that they can be
posted to various members of the project team for presentation
to the planners (if appropriate). A short list of acceptable
stones is normally made from viewing the indicative samples.
Range/Control Samples
The range/control samples may be specifically prepared for
the project, or there may be panels of current production
already established at the quarry/mine showing the typical
range of features normally found in the bed of stone. The
range/control samples should be of sufficient size to indicate
the general appearance of the finished work. Normally about
10 large stones at least 600mm x 400mm or the sizes of the

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common stones on the project. These samples should include the
typical variations in colour, texture, veining, shell content,
grain size and the distribution, character and frequency of
these, and all other features that are deemed to be part of the
geological characteristics of the stone.
Selecting the Correct Stone
If processing of the stones typically involves the use of
patching, fillers or other similar products for natural holes,
faults or cracks, then they should be declared by the
quarry/mine or the production facility completing this
operation and the reference samples should include any such
feature. it is ultimately the quarry or mines responsibility to
select a suitable number of samples from various blocks from
the chosen bed to show the typical range of geological
variations that are present in the stone or the bed of stone.
Invariably this inspection should take place at the extraction
site but if in exceptional circumstances this is not possible, then
confirmation that the source of the stone has been closely
consulted in the sample selection must be sought.
You should view these samples and agree an acceptable range
of samples for the project, remembering that rejection of
characteristics typically found in the stone will potentially
result in abortive cutting, prolonged procurement and possibly
increased costs. All characteristics accepted in these samples
should be considered to be typical of the normal production and
not as flaws and therefore should not become a reason for

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rejection, unless their concentration becomes excessive and the
typical character of the stone is lost.
Any comparison between the range/control samples and the
actual production should be conducted in normal daylight for
external stone work. For internal stone work the samples
should wherever possible, be viewed in light conditions similar to
those anticipated for the project. Wherever possible, samples
should be viewed from a distance of 2m as stated in all the
relevant British Standards and in the orientation in which the
stone will be used. This will allow for an accurate comparison
similar to the conditions on site.

Building Inspections
It is advisable, if possible, to confirm the selection of the
stone by viewing a number of buildings built in the vicinity or in a
similar environment of the proposed project using the same
stone or bed of stone and in the same application and exposure
conditions. The stones on these buildings should be examined
closely, noting the geological characteristics in the individual
stones compared to the samples provided. It is important to
remember that some of these characteristics may dull as part
of the weathering process, so it may be advisable to retain the
services of a stone consultant/experienced geologist to
explain the process. After examining the stone in detail it is
suggested the entire faade is viewed from a reasonable
distance, perhaps from across the street, to see the stone as

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part of the overall building structure and to note the
characteristics that are still visible or dominant.



















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Suitability/ applications of stones
Igneous rock
Stones masonry
Building stones obtained by quarrying from the rocky strata of
earth and reducing it to the required shapes and sizes for
construction.
Granite
Consist mainly of quartz , feldspar , mica and other coloured
mineals, colour include black , grey, red , pink , brown , buff and
green.
Serpentine
Main ingredient is serpentine colour ranges from olive green to
greenish black , is fine grained and dences.
Basalt
Colour ranges from grey to black , used mainly for paving stones
and retaining walls.



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Granite
o Non-porous , hard , strong , durable
o Colour range
o Surface textures
o Plimary uses





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Sepertine






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Basalt






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Suitability/ applications
(sedimentary rock)

Sedimentary
Sediments deposited by the action of water of wind gets
consolidated to a rock.
Sandstones
Sedimentary rock composed of sand sized grains made of silica ,
iron oxide and clay colours include grey , brown, light brown ,
buff , russet ,red , copper, and purple.
Shale
Derived from clays and silts , weak along planes and is in thin
laminations- high in limestones and colour varies from black to
red, yellow, and blue.
Limestones
Sedimentary rock composed of calcite and dolomite - three types,
oolitic , dolomitic , and crystalline has high compressive
streght- used for building stones and for paneling.


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Sandstones
o Porous, relatively weak
o Colour range
o Surface textures








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Shale






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Limestones