Minerals and Rocks: A First Look: Illinois Fluorite, Photo by J. Carr

Minerals and Rocks : A First Look
Chapter 2
The differences in the physical
properties of rocks, minerals, and
soils determine their suitability for
different purposes extraction of
water or of metals, construction,
manufacturing, waste disposal,
agriculture, and other uses.
Rocks and minerals give us many
clues about past geologic
processes they have undergone.
Illinois Fluorite, photo by J. Carr
Geol 101: The Earth, Present and Past Fall 2014, Dr. M. K. Salah
Atoms
Smallest particle into which an element can be divided while still retaining
the chemical characteristics of that element

Composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons
Nucleus is composed of protons (+) and neutrons (0)
Number of protons defines the chemical element and atomic number
( H = 1, He = 2, Li = 3, )
Number of neutron adds mass to the atom
Number of electrons (-) orbiting the nucleus is determined by the
number of positively charged protons;
Negatively charged electrons balance the positive charges of the protons
in the nucleus.
Schematic drawing of atomic structure
Elements and Isotopes
Element substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons
All nuclei, except the simplest hydrogen atoms, contain neutrons
The number of neutrons is similar to or somewhat greater than the number of
protons
Isotopes atoms with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons for an element.
Atomic Mass Number is the number of protons and neutrons in the
elements nucleus
Some isotopes have more neutrons and are heavier (carbon-14 has 6
protons and 8 neutrons)
Some isotopes have fewer neutrons and are lighter (carbon-12 has 6
protons and 6 neutrons)
Some isotopes are radioactive, meaning that over time, their nuclei will decay
(e.g., C-14).

the
Ions
An atom that is positively or negatively charged
Anion has gained electrons (-); has more electrons relative
to the number of protons (+)
Cation has lost electrons (-); has fewer electrons relative
to the number of protons (+)

The electrical attraction of ions will cause an ionic
bond to form between oppositely charged ions.
Na
+
+ Cl
-
= NaCl (halite & Table salt)
Compounds
A compound is a chemical combination of two or more chemical
elements, bonded together in particular proportions, that has a distinct
set of physical properties.

Elements will bond because of electrical attraction, forming ionic bonds,
or the atoms may share electrons, forming covalent bonds (NaCl).
Minerals
Naturally occurring
Inorganic
Solid element or compound (ice and water)
Definite chemical composition
Regular internal crystal structure
Identified by recognizing different physical properties
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral are its chemical
composition and its crystal structure (graphite and diamond).
Analyze the mineral composition
Technology based
Measure crystal structure and symmetry
Technology based
Observe and measure special physical properties
Easy for humans to see and recognize!
Physical Properties of Minerals
Color (quartz may have many colors; if purple: amethyst)
Hardness: the ability to resist scratching; Mohs hardness scale
Cleavage: a distinctive way some minerals may break up when struck
Luster: the appearance of mineral surface when subjected to light (glassy, metallic, pearly,
etc.)
Density: relative heaviness of a mineral (Barite)
Crystalline Form
Streak: the color of the powdered mineral
Usefulness: talc (talcum powder); halite (table salt); copper (electric wires); diamond and
tourmaline (gemstones)

Tourmaline: chemical
conditions change as a crystal
grows; thus different parts
may be different colors.
The many colors of these corundum gemstones
illustrate why color is a poor guide in mineral
identification (ruby and sapphire).
Cubic (galena)
Cleavage in Minerals
Octahedral (flourite)
Rhombohedral (calcite)
Prismatic (amphiboles)
Pinacoidal or basal (mica)
Types of Minerals
Silicate Group
Silicate group variety of compounds containing silicon and oxygen in
addition to other elements
Quartz glass manufacturing
Feldspar ceramic manufacturing
Mica
Muscovite (white mica)
Biotite (black mica)
Clays used as drilling mud, in building materials, ceramics, and as a
soil modifier
Silica Tetrahedra: different ways of linking giving a variety of minerals

Ferromagnesian silicates
Olivine (semiprecious gem); semiprecious peridot
Garnet abrasives; semiprecious gems
Amphibole industrial products
Figure 2.6
olivine
Some silicate minerals
tremolite
feldspar mica
quartz
Mineral Composition
Nonsilicates
Carbonates CO
3
2-
Useful for building materials and manufacturing (calcite and dolomite)
Sulfates SO
4
2-

Useful for building materials (gypsum and anhydrite)
Sulfides S
Host for many metallic ores (Pb, Cu, Zn, and others): pyrite and galena
Oxides any metal combined with oxygen
Iron and aluminum ores (magnetite and corundum)
Native elements minerals composed of single element
Carbon as diamond and graphite
Copper, gold, silver, or platinum
Gypsum
Pyrite
Halite Calcite
Rocks formed from Minerals
A solid cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals, or mineral materials

Consists of many mineral grains or crystals forming a solid mass
Beach sand is not a rock; but when cemented it becomes.
Economic importance: construction; building foundation; industry, etc.

Each rock contains a record of its own history: it is always changing!

Three broad categories
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
The ROCK CYCLE
www.gsi.ie
The Rock Cycle
Earth as a system: the rock cycle
Full cycle does not always take place due to "shortcuts" or interruptions
e.g., Sedimentary rock melts
e.g., Igneous rock is metamorphosed
e.g., Sedimentary rock is weathered
e.g., Metamorphic rock weathers
Through time, geologic processes acting on older rocks change them into
new and different ones so that, in a sense, all kinds of rocks are interrelated
The Essence of the Rock Cycle
Igneous rocks, formed from magma at high temp.
Sedimentary rocks, formed from low-temperature accumulations of
particles or by precipitation from solution at low temp.
Metamorphic rocks, formed from preexisting rocks through the change
of temperature and pressure as well as the chemical conditions.
Geologic processes working on old rocks change the old rocks into new
and different ones, and thus all kinds of rocks are interrelated in a sense
Igneous Rocks
Magma, at high enough temperatures, rocks and minerals melt, and the
natural hot, molten rock material is called magma

Silicates are the most common minerals, and magmas are thus rich in
silica. Magmas also contain some dissolved water and gases, and include
some solid crystals suspended in the melt; iron content is variable and this
variability is the basis for igneous rock classification

An igneous rock is a rock formed by the solidification and crystallization of
a cooling magma
Derived from the latin term ignis, meaning fire

Molten materials are very hot
Plutonic rocks form if magma cools inside earths crust (does not
flow onto surface); coarse crystals will grow
Volcanic rocks form if magma flows onto surface as lava; glass
often forms.
Sub-volcanic rocks form in between at shallow depths-
intermediate crystal sizes.

Granite: a famous plutonic rock Obsidian: volcanic glass
Basalt: a common volcanic rock
Porphyry:
coarse
crystals in a
fine-grained
groundmass
Igneous Rocks

Classification
Felsic;
low iron
Light-colored
Intermediate

Mafic;
high iron
Dark-colored
Ultramafic
Volcanic;
extrusive;
aphanitic
Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Eclogite/
Picrite
Plutonic;
intrusive;
phaneritic
Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Silica-rich magma: viscosity; variations in the intensity of volcanic eruptions
Tightly interlocking crystals with very little pore space
Weathering of Rocks
Chemical weathering
Physical weathering
Sediments
Cementing Material
Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are produced by weathering of pre-existing rocks and minerals
Sediments are loose, unconsolidated accumulations of mineral or rock particles
Sediments are eroded, transported, and deposited in many sedimentary environments
The sediments will be buried and experience lithification
Lithification involves compacting the sediments with burial and cementation of the
sediments forming a sedimentary rock
The physical properties of sediments bear on a broad range of environmental problems
Gravity plays a role in the formation of all sedimentary rocks.
Layering is a very common feature of sedimentary rocks and is used to identify the
origins of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks can yield information about the settings in which the sediments
were deposited.
Sedimentary rocks are formed at or near the earths surface and at temperatures close
to ordinary surface temperatures.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks
Formed by the lithification of mechanically weathered pieces of rocks and
minerals
Grain sizes range from boulder, gravel, sand, silt, and mud
Grains are continually broken down in size and shape until deposited
Once deposited these clastic particles are cemented; thus forming a clastic
sedimentary rock.
Examples: conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
Considerable pore space between grains.

Chemical sedimentary rocks
Chemical process occur in water bodies such as lakes, seas, or oceans
Minerals precipitate from the water and form thick deposits
Examples: Halite (rock salt), limestone, and Gypsum
Organic sediments: carbon-rich remains of living organisms (coal)
Gravity role in sedimentary rock formation
Give clues about the settings in which the sediments were deposited
Sedimentary Rocks
Crinoidal limestone
Shale
Sedimentary Rocks
Sandstone
Coal seams (dark layers)
Metamorphic Rocks
Changed form rock
Rock formed from pre-existing rock or minerals
Heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids cause changes in rock
Heat increases as a rock is buried or is close to a magma chamber
Pressure increases with burial or collision between moving continents
Fluids become heated and circulate with burial or with location near a
magma chamber
All the changes occur while the rock is still solid-no melting. WHY?
The temperatures required to form metamorphic rocks are below
magmatic temperatures
Significant changes can occur in a rock at temperatures well below
melting
Temperature and pressure can cause the minerals in the rock to
recrystallize
Pressure may cause the rock to be deformed
Metamorphic Rocks
The sources of elevated temperatures of metamorphism: burial, magma,
mountain-building, and plate tectonic movement
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact metamorphism localized metamorphism of rocks
adjacent to a cooling magma chamber
2. Regional metamorphism large scale stressing and heating of a
rock by deep burial or continental plates moving and colliding
Names of metamorphic rocks:
Original rock\\\\:
- metaconglomerate and metavolcanics
Mineral content:
- Quartzite: a quartz-rich metamorphic rock
- Marble: is a metamorphosed limestone
- Amphibolite: a metamorphic rock rich in amphibole
Characteristic texture:

Common Metamorphic Rocks
Any kind of preexisting rock (another rock) can be metamorphosed

Foliation: when a rock is subjected to directed stress, its minerals form
elongated/platy crystals and line up parallel to each other

Metamorphic rocks without foliation do not show directed stress
Marble is metamorphosed limestone
Quartzite is metamorphosed quartz-rich sandstone

Metamorphic rocks with foliation show directed stress or pressure
Slate low grade foliated metamorphic rock
Schist and Gneiss (nice) high grade metamorphic rocks
Can be modified as: biotite-garnet schist; granitic gneiss
Metamorphic rocks have undergone mineralogical,
chemical, and/or structural change
Metamorphic rocks have undergone mineralogical,
chemical, and/or structural change
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite Marble
Schist
Gneiss
Slate
Garnet amphibolite
Examples of common metamorphic rocks
The Rock Cycle
Three rock groups on the basis of their mode of origin: igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic
Shows the interrelationships among the three rock types
Rocks of any type can be transformed into rocks of another type or into
another distinct rock of the same general type through the geologic processes
Rocks are continually being changed by geological processes
The example of sandstone and schist: may evolve into the three rock types!
Interactions of people with the rock cycle involve the sedimentary and
volcanic components.
The Rock Cycle

Minerals and Rocks: A First Look: Illinois Fluorite, Photo by J. Carr

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