Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

2.10 Heating
with
Coils
and
Jackets
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Vessels can be heated in a number of different ways. This module will deal with indirect heating. In these
systems, the heat is transferred across a heat transfer surface. Options include:
Submerged steam coils ! widely used form of heat transfer in"ol"es the installation inside a tan#
of a steam coil immersed in a process fluid.
Steam $ac#ets Steam circulates in the annular space between a $ac#et and the "essel walls, and
heat is transferred through the wall of the "essel.
Submerged steam coils
The use of tan# coils is particularly common in marine applications where cargoes of crude oil, edible oils,
tallow and molasses are heated in deep tan#s. %any of these li&uids are difficult to handle at ambient
temperatures due to their "iscosity. Steam heated coils are used to raise the temperature of these li&uids,
lowering their "iscosity so that they become easier to pump.
Tan# coils are also e'tensi"ely used in electroplating and metal treatment. (lectroplating in"ol"es passing
articles through se"eral process tan#s so that metallic coatings can be deposited on to their surfaces. One of
the first stages in this process is #nown as pic#ling, where materials such as steel and copper are treated by
dipping them in tan#s of acid or caustic solution to remo"e any scale or o'ide )e.g. rust* which may ha"e
formed.
Steam coil si+ing
,a"ing determined the energy re&uired )pre"ious %odule*, and with #nowledge of the
steam pressure-temperature in the coil, the heat transfer surface may be determined using (&uation ../.0:
Eqation 2.!."
The heat transfer area calculated is e&ui"alent to the surface area of the coil, and will enable an appropriate
si+e and layout to be specified.
1etermining the 232 "alue
To calculate the heat transfer area, a "alue for the o"erall heat transfer coefficient, 3, must be chosen. This
will "ary considerably with the thermal and transport properties of both fluids and a range of other conditions.
On the product side of the coil a thermal boundary layer will e'ist in which there is a temperature gradient
between the surface and the bul# fluid. If this temperature difference is relati"ely large, then the natural
con"ecti"e currents will be significant and the heat transfer coefficient will be high.
!ssisted circulation )such as stirring* that will induce forced con"ection, will also result in higher coefficients.
!s con"ection is partially dependent on the bul# motion of the fluid, the "iscosity )which "aries with
temperature* also has an important bearing on the thermal boundary layer.
!dditional "ariations can also occur on the steam side of the coil, especially with long lengths of pipe. The
coil inlet may ha"e a high steam "elocity and may be relati"ely free from water. ,owe"er, further along the
length of the coil the steam "elocity may be lower, and the coil may be running partially full of water. In "ery
long coils, such as those sometimes found in seagoing tan#ers or in large bul# storage tan#s, a significant
pressure drop occurs along the length of the coil. To achei"e the mean coil temperature, an a"erage steam
pressure of appro'imately 4/5 of the inlet pressure may be used. In e'treme cases the a"erage pressure
used may be as low as 675 of the inlet pressure.
!nother "ariable is the coil material itself. The thermal conducti"ity of the coil material may "ary
considerably. ,owe"er, o"erall heat transfer is go"erned to a large e'tent by the heat resistant films, and the
thermal conducti"ity of the coil material is not as significant as their combined effect. Table ..87.8 pro"ides
typical o"erall heat transfer coefficients for "arious conditions of submerged steam coil application. 93:
"alues for steam pressures between . bar g and ; bar g should be found by interpolation of the data in the
table.
The range of figures shown in Table ..87.8 demonstrates the difficulty in pro"iding definiti"e 232 "alues.
<ustomary figures at the higher end of the scale will apply to installations that are supplied with clean dry
steam, small coils and good condensate drainage. The lower end is more applicable to poor &uality steam,
long coils and poor condensate drainage.
The recommended o"erall heat transfer coefficients will apply to typical conditions and installations. These
recommended rates are empirically deri"ed, and will generally ensure that a generous safety margin applies
to the coil si+ing.
In the case of fluids other than water, the heat transfer coefficient will "ary e"en more widely due to the way
in which "iscosity "aries with temperature. ,owe"er, the "alues shown in Table ..87.. will ser"e as a guide
for some commonly encountered substances, while Table ..87.0 gi"es typical surface areas of pipes per
metre length.
('ample ..87.8
<ontinuing from ('ample ..=.8 determine:
Part 8. The a"erage steam mass flowrate during startup. )%ean heat load > 0;? #@*
Part .. The heat transfer area re&uired.
Part 0. ! recommended coil surface area.
Part 6. The ma'imum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area.
Part /. ! recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout.
The following additional information has been pro"ided:
Steam pressure onto the control "al"e > ..; bar g )0.; bar a*.
! stainless steel steam coil pro"ides heat.
,eat transfer coefficient from steam-coil-li&uid, 3 > ;/7 @-mAB<
Part 8 <alculate the a"erage steam mass flowrate during startup
Steam pressure onto the control "al"e > ..; bar g )0.; bar a*
<ritical pressure drop )<P1* will occur across the control "al"e during startup, therefore the minimum
steam pressure in the heating coil should be ta#en as /?5 of upstream absolute pressure. !n e'planation of
this is gi"en in Cloc# /.
Part . <alculate the heat transfer area re&uired
3sing (&uation ../.0: > 3!T
Part 0 ! recommendation for coil surface area
Cecause of the difficulties in pro"iding accurate 93: "alues, and to allow for future fouling of the heat
e'change surface, it is usual to add 875 to the calculated heat transfer area.
Part 6 The ma'imum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area
%a'imum heat transfer )and hence steam demand* will occur when the temperature difference between the
steam and the process fluid is at its ma'imum, and should ta#e into consideration the e'tra pipe area
allowed for fouling.
)a* <onsider the ma'imum heating capacity of the coil )coil*
3sing (&uation ../.0: > 3!T
)b* Steam flowrate to deli"er /8= #@
Part / ! recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout
)a* 1etermine coil diameter and length
Drom Table ..87.0, a 877 mm pipe has a surface area of 7.0/? mA-m run. This application will re&uire:
It may be difficult to accommodate this length of large bore heating pipe to install in a 0 m E 0 m tan#.
One solution would be to run a ban# of parallel pipes between steam and condensate manifolds, set at
different heights to encourage condensate to run to the lower )condensate* manifold. The drain line must fall
from the bottom of the condensate manifold down to the steam trap )or pumptrap*. See Digure ..87.8 for a
suggested layout.
#ig. 2.10.1 Possi$le la%ot of coils in a rectanglar tank
Fote the steam supply is situated at one end of its manifold, whilst the trap set is at the other end. This will
help steam to flow and push condensate through the coils.
In the application, the steam and condensate headers would each be ..? m long. !s the condensate
manifold is holding condensate, the heat from it will be small compared to the steam manifold and this can
be ignored in the calculation.
The steam manifold should be 877 mm diameter as determined by the pre"ious "elocity calculation. This will
pro"ide a heating area of:
..? m ' 7.0/? mA-m > 8.7 mA
<onse&uently 4 mA 8 mA > ; mA of heat transfer area is still re&uired, and must be pro"ided by the
connecting pipes.
!rbitrarily selecting 0. mm pipe as a good compromise between robustness and wor#ability:
The lengths of the connecting pipes are ../ m.
<,(<G
It is necessary to confirm the steam "elocity through the connecting tubes:
On the basis of proportionality of heat transfer area, the steam header will condense:
This lea"es ?;5 of the ?/7 #g-h > 408 #g-h of steam which must pass through the 8? connecting pipes and
also into the lower )condensate* manifold.
Other steam coil layouts
The design and layout of the steam
coil will depend on the process fluid
being heated. @hen the process fluid
to be heated is a corrosi"e solution, it
is normally recommended that the coil inlet and outlet connections are ta#en o"er the lip of the tan#, as it is
not normally ad"isable to drill through the corrosion resistant linings of the tan# side. This will ensure that
there are no wea# points in the tan# lining, where there is a ris# of lea#age of corrosi"e li&uids. In these
cases the coil itself may also be made of corrosion resistant material such as lead co"ered steel or copper,
or alloys such as titanium.
,owe"er, where there is no danger of corrosion, lifts o"er the tan# structure should be a"oided, and the
steam inlet and outlet connections may be ta#en through the tan# side. The presence of any lift will result in
waterlogging of a proportion of the coil length, and possibly waterhammer, noise and lea#ing pipewor#.
Steam heating coils should generally ha"e a gradual fall from the inlet to the outlet to ensure that
condensate runs toward the outlet and does not collect in the bottom of the coil.
@here a lift is una"oidable, it should be designed to include a seal arrangement at the bottom of the lift and
a small bore dip pipe, as shown in Digure ..87...
#ig. 2.10.2 Tank with a rising discharge pipe
The seal arrangement allows a small amount of condensate to collect to act as a water seal, and pre"ents
the occurrence of steam loc#ing. @ithout this seal, steam can pass o"er any condensate collecting in the
bottom of the pipe, and close the steam trap at the top of the riser.
The condensate le"el would then rise and form a temporary water seal, loc#ing the steam between the
bottom of the riser and the steam trap. The steam trap remains closed until the loc#ed steam condenses,
during which time the coil continues to waterlog.
@hen the loc#ed steam condenses and the steam trap opens, a slug of water is discharged up the riser. !s
soon as the water seal is bro#en, steam will enter the rising pipe and close the trap, while the bro#en column
of water falls bac# to lie at the bottom of the heating coil.
The small bore dip pipe will only allow a "ery small "olume of steam to become loc#ed in the riser. It enables
the water column to be easily maintained without steam bubbling through it, ensuring there is a steady and
continuous condensate flow to the outlet.
@hen the seal is ultimately bro#en, a smaller "olume of water will return to the heating coil than with an
unrestricted large bore riser, but as the water seal arrangement re&uires a smaller "olume of condensate to
form a water seal, it will immediately reform.
If the process in"ol"es articles being dipped into the li&uid, it may not be con"enient to install the coil at the
bottom of the tan# it may be damaged by the ob$ects being immersed in the solution. !lso, during certain
processes, hea"y deposits will settle at the bottom of the tan# and can &uic#ly co"er the heating surface,
inhibiting heat transfer.
Dor these reasons side hung coils are often used in the electroplating industry. In such cases serpentine or
platetype coils are arranged down the side of a tan#, as shown in Digure ..87.0. These coils should also
ha"e a fall to the bottom with a water seal and a small bore dippipe. This arrangement has the ad"antage
that it is often easier to install, and also easier to remo"e for periodic cleaning if re&uired.
#ig. 2.10." Side hng coils
If articles are to be dipped into the tan#, it may not be possible to use any sort of agitator to induce forced
con"ection and pre"ent temperature gradients occurring throughout the tan#. @hether bottom or side coils
are used, it is essential that they are arranged with ade&uate co"erage so that the heat is distributed e"enly
throughout the bul# of the li&uid.
The diameter of the coil should pro"ide sufficient length of coil for good distribution. ! short length of coil with
a large diameter may not pro"ide ade&uate temperature distribution. ,owe"er a "ery long continuous length
of coil may e'perience a temperature gradient due to the pressure drop from end to end, resulting in une"en
heating of the li&uid.
&hilst the ne't two headings( )Si*ing the control +al+e, and )The condensate remo+al de+ice, are
inclded in this -odle( the new reader shold refer to later .locks and -odles in The Steam and
Condensate Loop for fll and comprehensi+e information( $efore attempting si*ing and selection of
eqipment.
<ontrol "al"e arrangement
The control "al"e set may be either one or two "al"es in parallel. ! single control "al"e, large enough to
cope with the ma'imum flowrate encountered at startup, may be unable to control flow accurately at the
minimum e'pected flowrate. This could cause erratic temperature control. !n alternati"e is to fit two
temperature control "al"es in parallel with:
One "al"e )running "al"e* si+ed to control at the lower flowrate.
! second "al"e )starting "al"e* to pass the difference between the capacity of the first "al"e, and
the ma'imum flowrate.
The starting "al"e would ha"e a setpoint slightly lower than the running "al"e, so it would close first, lea"ing
the running "al"e to control at low loads.
Si+ing the control "al"e
The control "al"e set )either one "al"e or two "al"es in parallel*.
The coil has been si+ed on mean heat transfer "alues. ,owe"er, it may be better to si+e the control "al"e to
supply the ma'imum )startup* load. @ith large coils in tan#s, this will help to maintain a degree of steam
pressure throughout the length of the coil when the steam is turned on, helping to push condensate through
the coil to the steam trapping de"ice. If the control "al"e were si+ed on mean "alues, steam pressure in the
coil at startup will tend to be lower and the coil may flood.
3sing one "al"e
<ontinuing with ('ample ..87.8 the ma'imum steam load is ?/7 #g-h and the coil is designed to deli"er this
at a pressure of 8.8 bar g. ! steam "al"e si+ing chart would show that a G" of about .7 is re&uired to pass
?/7 #g-h of steam with a pressure of ..; bar g at the inlet of the control "al"e, and <ritical Pressure 1rop
)<P1* across the "al"e. )%odule ;.6 will show how the "al"e si+e can be determined by calculation*.
! 1F67 control "al"e with a larger G"s of ./ would therefore need to be selected for the application.
If one "al"e is to be used, this "al"e must ensure the ma'imum heat load is catered for, while maintaining
the re&uired steam pressure in the coil to assist the drainage of condensate from it at startup. ,owe"er, for
reasons pre"iously e'plained, two "al"es may be better.
The running load is /. #@ and with the coil running at 8.8 bar g, the running steam load:
The steam "al"e si+ing chart shows a G" of . is re&uired to pass ?/ #g-h with 0.; bar upstream, operating at
critical pressure drop.
! 1F8/ G( type "al"e )G"s > 6* and a 1F./ piston actuated "al"e )G"s > 8?.;* operating together will cater
for the startup load. @hen approaching the control temperature, the larger "al"e would be set to shut down,
allowing the smaller "al"e to gi"e good control.
The condensate remo"al de"ice
The selection and si+ing of the condensate remo"al de"ice will be "ery much influenced by the condensate
bac# pressure. Dor the purpose of this e'ample, it is assumed the bac# pressure is atmospheric pressure.
The de"ice should be si+ed so it is able to satisfy both of the following conditions:
8. Pass ?/7 #g-h of condensate with 8.8 bar g in the coil, i.e. the fullload condition.
.. Pass the condensate load when steam pressure in the coil e&uals the condensate bac# pressure, i.e. the
stall load condition.
If the steam trap is only si+ed on the first condition, it is possible that it may not pass the stall load )the
condition where the product approaches its re&uired temperature and the control "al"e modulates to reduce
steam pressure*. The stall load may be considerable. @ith respect to nonflow type applications such as
tan#s, this may not be too serious from a thermal "iewpoint because the contents of the tan# will almost be
at the re&uired temperature, and ha"e a huge reser"oir of heat.
!ny reduction in heat transfer at this part of the heating process may therefore ha"e little immediate effect
on the tan# contents.
,owe"er, condensate will bac# up into the coil and waterhammer will occur, along with its associated
symptoms and mechanical stresses. Tan# coils in large circular tan#s tend to be of robust construction, and
are often able to withstand such stresses. Problems can howe"er occur in rectangular tan#s )which tend to
be smaller*, where "ibration in the coil will ha"e more of an effect on the tan# structure. ,ere, the energy
dissipated by the waterhammer causes "ibration, which can be detrimental to the life of the coil, the tan#,
and the steam trap, as well as creating unpleasant noise.
@ith respect to flowtype applications such as plate heat e'changers, a failure to consider the stall condition
will usually ha"e serious implications. This is mainly due to the small "olume in the heat e'changer.
Dor heat e'changers, any unwanted reduction in the heating surface area, such as that caused by
condensate bac#ing up into the steam space, can affect the flow of heat through the heating surface. This
can cause the control system to become erratic and unstable, and processes re&uiring stable or accurate
control can suffer with poor performance.
If heat e'changers are o"ersi+ed, sufficient heating surface may remain when condensate bac#s up into the
steam space, and reduction of thermal performance may not always occur. ,owe"er, with heat e'changers
not designed to cope with the effects of waterlogging, this can lead to corrosion of the heating surface,
ine"itably reducing the ser"ice life of the e'changer. @aterlogging can, in some applications, be costly.
<onsider a waterlogging air heater frost coil. <old air at 6B< flowing at 0 m-s can soon free+e condensate
loc#ed in the coils, resulting in premature and unwarranted failure. Proper drainage of condensate is
essential to maintain the ser"ice life of any heat e'changer and air heater.
Steam traps are de"ices which modulate to allow "arying amounts of condensate to drain from applications
under "arying conditions. Dloat traps are steam traps designed to modulate and release condensate close to
steam temperature, offering ma'imum plant performance, ma'imum plant life, and ma'imum return on plant
in"estment.
@hen stall conditions occur, and a steam trap cannot be used, an automatic pumptrap or pump and trap in
combination will ensure correct condensate drainage at all times, thus ma'imising the thermal capability and
lifetime costs of the plant.
Steam $ac#ets
The most commonly used type of steam $ac#et consists simply of an outer cylinder surrounding the "essel,
as shown in Digure ..87.6. Steam circulates in the outer $ac#et, and condenses on the wall of the "essel.
Hac#eted "essels may also be lagged, or may contain an internal air space surrounding the $ac#et. This is to
ensure that as little steam as possible condenses on the outer $ac#et wall, and that the heat is transferred
inwards to the "essel.
#ig. 2.10./ 0 con+entional 1acketed +essel
The heat transfer area )the "essel wall surface area*, can be calculated in the same manner as with a steam
coil, using (&uation ../.0 and the o"erall heat transfer coefficients pro"ided in
Table ..87.6.
!lthough steam $ac#ets may generally be less thermally efficient than submerged coils, due to radiation
losses to the surroundings, they do allow space for the "essels to be agitated so that heat transfer is
promoted. The 3 "alues listed in Table ..87.6. are for moderate nonpro'imity agitation.
<ommonly the "essel walls are made from stainless steel or glass lined carbon steel. The glass lining will
offer an additional corrosion resistant layer. The si+e of the steam $ac#et space will depend on the si+e of the
"essel, but typically the width may be between /7 mm and 077 mm.