Clove

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the spice. For other uses, see Clove (disambiguation).
Clove

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus: Syzygium
Species: S. aromaticum
Binomial name
Syzygium aromaticum
(L.) Merrill & Perry
Synonyms
[1]

Caryophyllus aromaticus L.
Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill.
Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock
& S. G. Harrison
Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum.
They are native to the Maluku Islands inIndonesia, and are commonly used as a spice. Cloves are
commercially harvested primarily in Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar,Pakistan, Sri Lanka
and the largest producer, Pemba Island, just off the coast of Tanzania.
The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 812 m tall, with large leaves and sanguine flowers
grouped in terminal clusters. The flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then
transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1.52.0 cm long, and
consist of a long calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals that form a
small central ball.
Nonculinary uses[edit]
The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia.
[1]
They have been smoked
throughout Europe, Asia, and the United States. In 2009, clove cigarettes (as well as fruit- and
candy-flavored cigarettes) were outlawed in the US. Cigarettes containing clove are now classified
as cigars when sold in the US.
[5]

Clove may be used as an ant repellant.
[6]

They can be used as to make a fragrant pomander when combined with an orange.
Traditional medicinal uses[edit]
Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and
western herbalism and dentistry where the essential oil is used as ananodyne (painkiller) for dental
emergencies. Cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to
improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic.
[7]
The essential oil is used in
aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical
application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract. Applied to a cavity in
a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache.
[8]

In Chinese medicine, cloves or ding xiang are considered acrid, warm, and aromatic, entering
the kidney, spleen and stomach meridians, and are notable in their ability to warm the middle, direct
stomach qi downward, to treat hiccough and to fortify the kidney yang.
[9]
Because the herb is so
warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms and according to classical sources
should not be used for anything except cold from yang deficiency. As such, it is used in formulas for
impotence or clear vaginal discharge from yang deficiency, for morning sickness together
with ginseng and patchouli, or for vomiting and diarrhea due to spleen and stomach coldness.
[9]

Cloves may be used internally as a tea and topically as an oil for hypotonic muscles, including for
multiple sclerosis.
[citation needed]
This is also found in Tibetan medicine.
[10]
Some recommend avoiding
more than occasional use of cloves internally in the presence of pittainflammation such as is found in
acute flares of autoimmune diseases.
[11]

Modern medicinal uses and pharmaceutical preparations[edit]

This section needs more medical references for verification or
relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents
of the section and add the appropriate references if you can.
Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (July 2012)

While it has been used historically in the West for dental pain, the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has reclassified eugenol (one of the chemicals contained in clove oil),
downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates eugenol
is effective for toothache pain. Clove oil seems safe when applied to the skin.
Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent, and to prevent
premature ejaculation have been inconclusive.
[citation needed]
Clove may reduce blood sugar levels.
[12]

Tellimagrandin II is an ellagitannin found in S. aromaticum with antiherpesvirus properties.
[13]

The buds have antioxidant properties.
[14]

Clove oil can be used to anesthetize fish, and prolonged exposure to higher doses (the
recommended dose is 400 mg/l) is considered a humane means of euthanasia.
[15]

In addition, clove oil is used in preparation of some toothpastes, laxative pills, and Clovacaine
solution, which is a local anesthetic used in oral ulceration and inflammation. Eugenol (or clove oil
generally) is mixed with zinc oxide to form a temporary tooth cavity filling.
[16]

Studies have also found that cloves and clove oil has been effective in treating dental pains.
Other Henna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Henna (disambiguation).
Henna

Lawsonia inermis
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Lythraceae
Genus: Lawsonia
Species: L. inermis
Binomial name
Lawsonia inermis
L.

Henna (Lawsonia inermis, also known as hina, the henna tree, the mignonette tree, and
the Egyptian privet)
[1][2]
is a flowering plantand the sole species of the Lawsonia genus. The
English name "henna" comes from the Arabic

(ALA-LC: inn; pronounced [nn]) or,

colloquially , loosely pronounced as /inna/.
The name henna also refers to the dye prepared from the plant and the art of
temporary tattooing based on those dyes. Henna has been used since antiquity to dye skin, hair,
and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool, and leather. The name is used in other skin
and hair dyes, such as black henna and neutral henna, neither of which is derived from the henna
plant.
[3][4]

Historically, henna was used for cosmetic purposes in Ancient Egypt, as well as other parts of North
Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the Near East and South Asia. It was also popular
among women in Iberia and elsewhere in Europe during the 19th-century. Bridal henna nights
remain an important custom in many of these areas, particularly among traditional families.
findings concluded that cloves can also boost insulin function in the body.
[17

Description[edit]
Henna is a tall shrub or small tree, standing 1.8 to 7.6 m tall (6 to 25 ft). It is glabrous and multi-
branched, with spine-tipped branchlets. The leaves grow opposite each other on the stem. They are
glabrous, sub-sessile, elliptical, and lanceolate (long and wider in the middle; average dimensions
are 1.55.0 cm x 0.52 cm or 0.62 in x 0.20.8 in), acuminate (tapering to a long point), and have
depressed veins on the dorsal surface.
[2]
Henna flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm
(0.079 in) calyx tube, with 3 mm (0.12 in) spread lobes. Its petals are obvate, with white or
red stamens found in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube. The ovary is four-celled, 5 mm (0.20 in) long,
and erect. Henna fruits are small, brownish capsules, 48 mm (0.160.31 in) in diameter, with 3249
seeds per fruit, and open irregularly into four splits.
[5]

Cultivation[edit]
The henna plant is native to northern Africa, western and southern Asia, and northern Australasia, in
semi-arid zones and tropical areas.
[2][6]
It produces the most dye when grown in temperatures
between 35 and 45 C (95 and 113 F).
[7]
During the onset of precipitation intervals, the plant grows
rapidly, putting out new shoots. Growth subsequently slows. The leaves gradually yellow and fall
during prolonged dry or cool intervals. It does not thrive where minimum temperatures are below
11 C (52 F). Temperatures below 5 C (41 F) will kill the henna plant.
Preparation and application[edit]
Body art[edit]

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help
improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013)


Lawsone, an active compound in Henna
Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin. Henna will not stain skin until
the lawsone molecules are made available (released) from the henna leaf. Fresh henna leaves will
stain the skin if they are smashed with a mildly acidic liquid. The lawsone will gradually migrate from
the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a fast stain.


Video of Henna being applied
Since it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarse crushed leaves, henna is commonly traded
as a powder made by drying, milling and sifting the leaves. The dry powder is mixed with lemon
juice, strong tea, or other mildly acidic liquids to make a preparation with toothpaste-like consistency,
which can be used to make finely detailed body art. The henna mix must rest for 6 to 24 hours
before use, to release the lawsone from the leaf matter. Essential oils with high levels
of monoterpene alcohols, such as tea tree, eucalyptus, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain
characteristics.


Henna powder
The paste can be applied with many traditional and innovative tools, including resist, a cone, syringe,
Jac bottle or fingers. A light stain may be achieved within minutes, the longer the paste is left on the
skin, the stronger the stain will be, and should be left for several hours. To prevent it from drying or
falling off the skin, the paste is often sealed down by dabbing a sugar/lemon mix over the dried
paste, or simply adding some form of sugar to the paste. It is debatable whether this adds to the
color of the end result; some believe it increases the intensity of the shade. After time the dry paste
is simply brushed or scraped away.
Henna stains are orange soon after application, but darken over the following three days to a reddish
brown. Soles and palms have the thickest layer of skin and so take up the most lawsone, and take it
to the greatest depth, so that hands and feet will have the darkest and most long-lasting stains.
Steaming or warming the henna pattern will darken the stain, either during the time the paste is still
on the skin, or after the paste has been removed. Chlorinated water and soaps may spoil the
darkening process: alkaline products may hasten the darkening process. After the stain reaches its
peak color it will appear to fade, as the stained dead cells exfoliate.
Hair dye[edit]
History[edit]


Elderly Punjabi woman whose hair is dyed with henna.
Henna has been used as a cosmetic hair dye for 6,000 years. In Ancient Egypt, it is known to have
been worn. Henna has also traditionally been used for centuries in other parts of North Africa,
the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the Near East and South Asia.
In Ancient Egypt, Ahmose-Henuttamehu (17th Dynasty, 1574 BCE): Henuttamehu was probably a
daughter of Seqenenre Tao and Ahmose Inhapy. Smith reports that the mummy of Henuttamehu's
own hair had been dyed a bright red at the sides, probably with henna.
[8]

In Europe, henna was popular among women connected to the aesthetic movement and the Pre-
Raphaelite artists of England in the 1800s. Dante Gabriel Rossetti's wife and muse, Elizabeth Siddal,
had naturally bright red hair. Contrary to the cultural tradition in Britain that considered red hair
unattractive, the Pre-Raphaelites fetishized red hair. Siddal was portrayed by Rossetti in many
paintings that emphasized her flowing red hair.
[9]
The other Pre-Raphaelites, including Evelyn De
Morgan and Frederick Sandys, academic classicists such as Frederic Leighton, and French painters
such as Gaston Bussire and the Impressionists further popularized the association of henna-dyed
hair and young bohemian women.
Opera singer Adelina Patti is sometimes credited with popularizing the use of henna in Europe in the
late 1800s. Parisian courtesan Cora Pearl was often referred to as La Lune Rousse (the red moon)
for dying her hair red. In her memoirs, she relates an incident when she dyed her pet dog's fur to
match her own hair.
[10]
By the 1950s, Lucille Ball popularized "henna rinse" as her character, Lucy
Ricardo, called it on the television show I Love Lucy. It gained popularity among young people in the
1960s through growing interest in Eastern cultures.
[11]

Muslim men may use henna as a dye for hair and most particularly their beards. This is
considered sunnah, a commendable tradition of the Prophet Muhammad. Furthermore,
a hadith (narration of the Prophet) holds that he encouraged Muslim women to dye their nails with
henna to demonstrate femininity and distinguish their hands from the hands of men; thus some
Muslim women in the Middle East apply henna to their finger and toenails as well as their hands.
Today[edit]


Cosmetic henna for colouring hair.
Commercially packaged henna, intended for use as a cosmetic hair dye, is available in many
countries, and is now popular in India, as well as the Middle East, Europe, Australia, Canada and the
United States. The color that results from dying with henna depends on the original color of the hair,
as well as the quality of the henna, and can range from orange to auburn to burgundy. Henna can be
mixed with other natural hair dyes including Cassia Obovata for lighter shades of red or even blond,
or with indigo to achieve brown and black shades. Some products sold as "henna" include these
other natural dyes. Others may include metal salts that can interact with other chemical treatments,
or oils and waxes that may inhibit the dye, or even chemical dyes which are common allergens. Any
product that comes in a cream, block, or paste form has some sort of additives.
As with henna in body art, the dried leaf powder should be mixed with a mild acid such as lemon
juice, orange juice, or vinegar and left to stand. The resulting paste is then applied to the hair, and
covered with plastic wrap to keep it from drying out. This paste should be left in the hair for several
hours in order for the dye to permanently bind to the hair strands. The paste is then washed away
leaving hair that is permanently dyed. Sometimes henna is mixed with hot or boiling water and used
immediately. This gives a color that may fade, and which is not as rich or deep.
[12]

Traditions of henna as body art[edit]
The different words for henna in ancient languages imply that it had more than one point of
discovery and origin, as well as different pathways of daily and ceremonial use.


Mehndi on a hand.
Henna has been used to adorn young women's bodies as part of social and holiday celebrations
since the late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest text mentioning henna in the
context of marriage and fertility celebrations comes from the Ugariticlegend
of Baal and Anath,
[13]
which has references to women marking themselves with henna in preparation
to meet their husbands, and Anath adorning herself with henna to celebrate a victory over the
enemies of Baal.
Wall paintings excavated at Akrotiri (dating prior to the eruption of Thera in 1680 BCE) show women
with markings consistent with henna on their nails, palms and soles, in a tableau consistent with the
henna bridal description from Ugarit.
[14]
Many statuettes of young women dating between 1500 and
500 BCE along the Mediterranean coastline have raised hands with markings consistent with henna.
This early connection between young, fertile women and henna seems to be the origin of the Night
of the Henna, which is now celebrated worldwide.


Somali singer Fartuun Birimo wearing henna hand and arm designs.
The Night of the Henna was celebrated by most groups in the areas where henna grew naturally:
Jews,
[15]
Muslims,
[16]
Sikhs, Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians, among others, all celebrated
marriages by adorning the bride, and often the groom, with henna.
Across the henna-growing region, Purim,
[15]
Eid,
[17]
Diwali,
[18]
Karva
Chauth, Passover, Nowruz, Mawlid, and most saints' days were celebrated with some henna.
Favorite horses, donkeys, and salukis had their hooves, paws, and tails hennaed. Battle victories,
births, circumcision, birthdays, Zr, as well as weddings, usually included some henna as part of the
celebration. When there was joy, there was henna, as long as henna was available.
[16]



Henna pattern on foot in Morocco.
Henna was regarded as having Barakah ("blessings"), and was applied for luck as well as joy and
beauty.
[19]
Brides typically had the most henna, and the most complex patterns, to support their
greatest joy, and wishes for luck. Some bridal traditions were very complex, such as those in
Yemen, where the Jewish bridal henna process took four or five days to complete, with multiple
applications and resist work.
The fashion of "Bridal Mehndi" in Pakistan, Northern Libya and in North Indian diasporas is currently
growing in complexity and elaboration, with new innovations in glitter, gilding, and fine-line work.
Recent technological innovations in grinding, sifting, temperature control, and packaging henna, as
well as government encouragement for henna cultivation, have improved dye content and artistic
potential for henna.
Though traditional henna artists were Nai caste in India, and barbering castes in other countries
(lower social classes), talented contemporary henna artists can command high fees for their work.
Women in countries where women are discouraged from working outside the home can find socially
acceptable, lucrative work doing henna. Morocco, Mauritania,
[20]
Yemen, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, as
well as India and many other countries have thriving women's henna businesses. These businesses
are often open all night for Eid, Diwali and Karva Chauth. Many women may work together during a
large wedding, wherein hundreds of guests have henna applied to their body parts. This particular
event at a marriage is known as the Mehndi Celebration or Mehndi Night, and is mainly held for the
bride and groom.
Regions[edit]


Henna being sold at the Egyptian Bazaar in Istanbul, Turkey.
Bridal henna nights are a popular tradition in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula,
the Near East and South Asia.
Algeria
In Algeria, the bride's mother-in-law presents her with jewelry and paints the henna on her hands.
India
In India, the longer the henna stays on the bride's hand the longer it is believed that her in-laws will
treat her well. If the henna fades out quickly, its a sign that she will not be happily married.
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, one of the female relatives of the bride is the one who paints the brides hands with
henna, but the relative has to be happily married or else she will bring bad luck to the bride.
[citation
needed]

Israel
In Israel, Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish women sometimes choose to have a hennah party about a
week before the wedding. The hennah party is smaller than the wedding, as only closer friends and
family members are invited. The bride and groom wear traditional costumes as do some of the main
guests. There is much dancing and music, especially when the hennah is brought out. The hennah
is usually presented in a deep dish with lit candles in it and carried by the grandmother. She applies
the hennah onto the palms of the bride and groom and they are blessed. Subsequently, guests stain
their palms with hennah as well. There are variations in customs and dress between the different
Jewish communities (Yemenite, Moroccan, Indian, etc.).
Somalia
In Somalia, henna is worn by Somali women on their hands, arms, feet and neck during
weddings, Eid, Ramadan, and other festive occasions. Somali henna designs are similar to those in
the Arabian peninsula, often featuring flower motifs and triangular shapes. The palm is also
frequently decorated with a dot of henna and the fingertips are dipped in the dye. Henna parties are
usually held before the wedding takes place.
Tunisia
In Tunisia, henna celebrations last for seven days. On the 3rd day, the bride wears a traditional
dress and has henna painted on her hands and feet. As for the groom, his pinky finger is painted
with henna on the 6th day.
Turkey
In Turkey, henna is sold in convenience stores and markets. Among these are the Egyptian Bazaar
in Istanbul.
Health effects[edit]
Henna is known to be dangerous to people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
(G6PD deficiency), which is more common in males than females. Infants and children of particular
ethnic groups are especially vulnerable.
[21]
Though user accounts cite few other negative effects of
natural henna paste, save for occasional allergic reactions, pre-mixed henna body art pastes may
have ingredients added to darken stain, or to alter stain color. The health risks involved in pre-mixed
paste can be significant. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does consider
these risks to be adulterants and therefore illegal for use on skin.
[22]
Some pastes have been noted
to include: silver nitrate, carmine, pyrogallol, disperse orange dye, and chromium.
[23]
These have
been found to cause allergic reactions, chronic inflammatory reactions, or late-onset allergic
reactions to hairdressing products and textile dyes.
[24][25]

Regulation[edit]
The U.S. FDA has not approved henna for direct application to the skin. It is unconditionally
approved as a hair dye, and can only be imported for that purpose.
[22][26]
Henna imported into the
U.S. that appears to be for use as body art is subject to seizure,
[27]
though prosecution is rare.
"Natural henna" and "black henna"[edit]
Natural henna stains only a rich red brown. Products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna" do not
contain henna, but are instead made from other plants, or from other substances altogether.
"Neutral henna"[edit]
"Neutral henna" does not change the color of hair. This is not henna powder; it is usually the powder
of the plant Senna italica (often referred to by the synonym Cassia obovata) or closely
related Cassia and Senna species.
"Black henna"[edit]


Woman with henna stained hands in Khartoum, Sudan.
"Black henna" powder may be derived from indigo (from the plant Indigofera tinctoria). It may also
contain unlisted dyes and chemicals.
[28]
"Black henna" may contain p-phenylenediamine (PPD),
which can stain skin black quickly, but can cause severe allergic reactions and permanent scarring.
The FDA specifically forbids PPD to be used for that purpose, and may prosecute those who
produce "black henna."
[29]
Artists who injure clients with "Black Henna" in the U.S. may be sued for
damages.
[30]

The name "Black Henna" arose from imports of plant-based hair dyes into the West in the late 19th
century. Partly fermented, dried indigo was called "black henna" because it could be used in
combination with henna to dye hair black. This gave rise to the belief that there was such a thing as
"black henna" which could dye skin black. Indigo will not dye skin black. Pictures of indigenous
people with black body art (either alkalized henna or from some other source) also fed the belief that
there was such a thing as "black henna."
Para-phenylenediamine[edit]
In the 1990s, henna artists in Africa, India, Bali, the Arabian Peninsula and the West began to
experiment with para-phenylenediamine (PPD) based black hair dye, applying it as a thick paste as
they would apply henna, in an effort to find something that would quickly make jet black temporary
body art. PPD can cause severe allergic reactions, with blistering, intense itching, permanent
scarring, and permanent chemical sensitivities.
[31][32]
Estimates of allergic reactions range between
3% and 15%. Henna does not cause these injuries.
[33]
"Black henna" made with PPD can cause
lifelong sensitization to coal tar derivatives.
[34]
"Black henna" made with gasoline, kerosene, lighter
fluid, paint thinner, and benzene has been linked to adult leukemia.
[35]

The most frequent serious health consequence of having a "black henna temporary tattoo" is
sensitization to hair dye and related chemicals. If a person has had a "black henna tattoo", and later
dyes their hair with chemical hair dye, the allergic reaction may be life-threatening and require
hospitalization.
[36]
Because of the epidemic of para-phenylenediamine allergic reactions, chemical
hair dye products now post warnings on the labels: "Temporary 'black henna' tattoos may increase
your risk of allergy. Do not colour your hair if: ... you have experienced a reaction to a temporary
'black henna' tattoo in the past."
[37]

Para-phenylenediamine is illegal for use on skin in western countries, though enforcement is difficult.
Physicians have urged governments to legislate against "black henna" because of the frequency and
severity of injuries, especially to children.
[38]
To assist prosecution of vendors, government agencies
encourage citizens to report injuries and illegal use of "PPD black henna".
[39][40]
When used in hair
dye, the PPD amount must be below 6%, and application instructions warn that the dye not touch
the scalp and the dye must be quickly rinsed away. "Black henna" pastes have PPD percentages
from 10% to 80%, and are left on the skin for half an hour.
[41][42]

Para-phenylenediamine "black henna" use is widespread, particularly in tourist areas.
[43]
Because
the blistering reaction appears 3 to 12 days after the application, most tourists have left and do not
return to show how much damage the artist has done. This permits the artists to continue injuring
others, unaware they are causing severe injuries. The high profit margins of "black henna" and the
demand for body art that emulates "tribal tattoos" further encourage artists to deny the dangers.
[44][45]

It is not difficult to recognize and avoid para-phenylenediamine "black henna":
[46]

if a paste stains torso skin black in less than hour, it has PPD in it.
if the paste is mixed with peroxide, or if peroxide is wiped over the design to bring out the color,
it has PPD in it.
Anyone who has an itching and blistering reaction to a black body stain should go to a doctor, and
report that they have had an application of para-phenylenediamine to their skin.
PPD sensitivity is lifelong. A person who has become sensitized through "black henna
tattoos" may have future allergic reactions to perfumes, printer ink, chemical hair dyes,
textile dye, photographic developer, sunscreen and some medications. A person who has
Cinchona
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Cinchona (disambiguation).

This article's introduction section may not adequately summarize its
contents. To comply with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines, please consider
modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points in
such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the
article. (discuss). (March 2014)
Cinchona

Cinchona pubescens - flowers
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Rubiaceae
Subfamily: Cinchonoideae
Tribe: Cinchoneae
[1]

Genus: Cinchona
L.
Type species
Cinchona officinalis
L.
Species
about 38 species; see text
Cinchona, common name quina, is a genus of about 25 recognized species in
the family Rubiaceae, native to the tropical Andes forests of western South America.
[2]
A few species
are reportedly naturalized in Central America, Jamaica, French Polynesia, Sulawesi, Saint Helenain
the South Atlantic, and So Tome & Principe off the coast of tropical Africa. A few species are used
as medicinal plants, known as sources for quinine and other compounds.
The name of the genus is due to Carolus "Carl" Linnaeus, who named the tree in 1742 after the
Second Countess of Chinchn, the wife of a viceroy of Peru, who, in 1638 (according to accounts at
the time, now disparaged) was introduced by native Quechua healers to the medicinal properties of
cinchona bark. Stories of the medicinal properties of this bark, however, are perhaps noted in
journals as far back as the 1560s1570s.
[citation needed]

It is the national tree of Ecuador
[3]
and Peru.
[4]

Medicinal uses[edit]
The medicinal properties of the cinchona tree were originally discovered by the Quechua peoples
of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, and long cultivated by them as a muscle relaxantto cease shivering
due to low temperatures. The Jesuit Brother Agostino Salumbrino (15611642), an apothecary by
training who lived in Lima, observed the Quechua using the quinine-containing bark of the cinchona
tree for that purpose. While its effect in treating malaria (and hence malaria-induced shivering) was
entirely unrelated to its effect in controlling shivering from cold, it was nevertheless the correct
medicine for malaria. The use of the fever tree bark was introduced into European medicine
by Jesuit missionaries (Jesuit's bark). Jesuit Barnab de Cobo (15821657), who
explored Mexico and Peru, is credited with taking cinchona bark to Europe. He brought the bark from
Lima to Spain, and afterwards to Rome and other parts of Italy, in 1632. After Spanish colonization
of the Americas, the Jesuit missionaries were the first to bring the Jesuit's bark cinchona compound
to Europe in 1632. To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries
began outlawing the export of cinchona seeds and saplings beginning in the early 19th century.
Meanwhile, also in the 19th century, the plant's seeds and cuttings were smuggled out for new
cultivation at cinchona plantations in colonial regions of tropical Asia, notably by theBritish to
the British Raj and Ceylon (present day India and Sri Lanka), and by the Dutch to Java in the Dutch
East Indies (present day Indonesia).
[5]

As a medicinal herb, cinchona bark is also known as Jesuit's bark or Peruvian bark. The bark is
stripped from the tree, dried, and powdered for medicinal uses. The bark ismedicinally active,
containing a variety of alkaloids including the antimalarial compound quinine and
the antiarrhythmic quinidine. Currently, their use is largely superseded by more effective modern
medicines.
[6]

Aloe vera
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Aloe vera

Aloe vera plant with flower detail
inset
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Xanthorrhoeaceae
Subfamily: Asphodeloideae
Genus: Aloe
Species: A. vera
Binomial name
Aloe vera
(L.) Burm.f.
Synonyms
[1][2]

Aloe barbadensis Mill.
Aloe
barbadensis var.chinensis Ha
w.
Aloe chinensis (Haw.) Baker
Aloe elongata Murray
Aloe flava Pers.
Aloe indica Royle
Aloe lanzae Tod.
Aloe
maculata Forssk.(illegitimate
)
Aloe perfoliata var. vera L.
Aloe rubescens DC.
Aloe
variegata Forssk.(illegitimate
)
Aloe vera Mill. (illegitimate)
Aloe
vera var. chinensis(Haw.) A.
Berger
Aloe vera var. lanzae Baker
Aloe
vera var. littoralisJ.Koenig ex
Baker
Aloe vulgaris Lam.


Aloe vera - MHNT
Aloe vera (/loi/ or /lo/) is a succulent plant species that is found only in
cultivation, having no naturally occurring populations, although closely
related aloes do occur in northern Africa.
[3]
The species is frequently cited as being
used in herbal medicine since the beginning of the first century AD. Extracts
from A. vera are widely used in the cosmetics and alternative medicine industries, being
marketed as variously having rejuvenating, healing, or soothing properties. There is,
however, little scientific evidence of the effectiveness or safety of Aloe vera extracts
for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes, and what positive evidence is available is
frequently contradicted by other studies.
[4][5][6][7]

Research into medical uses[edit]
Two 2009 reviews of clinical studies determined that all were too small and faulty to
allow strong conclusions to be drawn from them, but concluded, "there is some
preliminary evidence to suggest that oral administration of aloe vera might be
effective in reducing blood glucose in diabetic patients and in lowering blood lipid
levels in hyperlipidaemia. The topical application of aloe vera does not seem to
prevent radiation-induced skin damage. It might be useful as a treatment for genital
herpes and psoriasis. The evidence regarding wound healing is contradictory. More
and better trial data are needed to define the clinical effectiveness of this popular
herbal remedy more precisely."
[7][63]
One of the reviews found that Aloe has not been
proven to offer protection for humans from sunburn, suntan, or other damage from the
sun.
[63]

A 2007 review of aloe vera's use in burns concluded, "cumulative evidence tends to
support that aloe vera might be an effective interventions used in burn wound healing
for rst- to second-degree burns. Further, well-designed trials with sufcient details of
the contents of aloe vera products should be carried out to determine the effectiveness
of aloe vera."
[64]
Topical application of aloe vera may also be effective for genital
herpes andpsoriasis.
[7]

garlic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Garlic (disambiguation).
Garlic

Allium sativum, known as garlic, from
William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Genus: Allium
Species: A. sativum
Binomial name
Allium sativum
L.
Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium.
Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive,
[1]
and rakkyo.
[2]
With a history of human use
of over 7,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia,
[3]
and has long been a staple in the
Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent seasoning in Asia, Africa, and Europe. It was known
to Ancient Egyptians, and has been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes.
[4]

Medicinal use and health benefits[edit]
Garlic, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 623 kJ (149 kcal)
Carbohydrates 33.06 g
Sugars 1 g
Dietary fiber 2.1 g
Fat 0.5 g
Protein 6.36 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1) (17%)
0.2 mg
Riboflavin (B2) (9%)
0.11 mg
Niacin (B3) (5%)
0.7 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5) (12%)
0.596 mg
Vitamin B6 (95%)
1.235 mg
Folate (B9) (1%)
3 g
Vitamin C (38%)
31.2 mg
Trace metals
Calcium (18%)
181 mg
Iron (13%)
1.7 mg
Magnesium (7%)
25 mg
Manganese (80%)
1.672 mg
Phosphorus (22%)
153 mg
Potassium (9%)
401 mg
Sodium (1%)
17 mg
Zinc (12%)
1.16 mg
Other constituents
Selenium 14.2 g

Link to USDA Database entry
Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated
usingUS recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Animal studies, and some early research studies in humans, have suggested possible
cardiovascular benefits of garlic.
[32][33]
Many studies found garlic supplementation reduced
accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals
[34]
and in
humans.
[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]

Another study had similar results, with garlic supplementation significantly reducing aortic plaque
deposits of cholesterol-fed rabbits.
[49]
Supplementation with garlic extract inhibited vascular
calcification in human patients with high blood cholesterol.
[50]
The known vasodilative effect of garlic
is possibly caused by catabolism of garlic-derived polysulfides tohydrogen sulfide in red blood cells
(RBCs), a reaction that is dependent on reduced thiols in or on the RBC membrane. Hydrogen
sulfide is an endogenous cardioprotective vascular cell-signaling molecule.
[51]

A 2012 meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials looking at the effects of
garlic on serum lipid profiles, found garlic was superior to placebo in reducing serum total cholesterol
and triglyceride levels. Compared with the placebo groups, serum total cholesterol and triglyceride
levels in the garlic groups was reduced by 0.28 (95% CI, 0.45, 0.11) mmol L (P = 0.001) and
0.13 (95% CI, 0.20, 0.06) mmol L (P < 0.001), respectively.
[52]

Allium sativum has been found to
reduce platelet aggregation
[53][54][55][56]
and hyperlipidemia.
[56][57][58]

[59]

In 2007, the BBC.
[60]
reported Allium sativum may have other beneficial properties, such as
preventing
[61][62]

[63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71]
and fighting the common cold.
[72][73]
This assertion has the
backing of long tradition in herbal medicine, which has used garlic for hoarseness and
coughs.
[74]
The Cherokee also used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup.
[75]
However, in
contrast to these earlier claims concerning the cold-preventing properties of garlic, a 2012 report in
the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviewsconcludes that "there is insufficient clinical trial
evidence regarding the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the common cold. A single trial
suggested that garlic may prevent occurrences of the common cold but more studies are needed to
validate this finding. Claims of effectiveness appear to rely largely on poor-quality evidence."
[76]

Garlic is also alleged to help regulate blood sugar levels. Regular and prolonged use of therapeutic
amounts of aged garlic extracts lower blood homocysteine levels and has been shown to prevent
some complications of diabetes mellitus.
[77][78]
People taking insulinshould not consume medicinal
amounts of garlic without consulting a physician.
Garlic was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II.
[79]
More
recently, it has been found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows
good antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste
and halitosis.
[80]

Garlic cloves are used as a remedy for infections (especially chest problems), digestive disorders,
and fungal infections such asthrush.
[81][82]
Garlic can be used as a disinfectant because of its
bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties.
[4]

Garlic has been found to enhance thiamin absorption, and therefore reduces the likelihood for
developing the thiamin deficiency beriberi.
[83]

In 1924, it was found to be an effective way to prevent scurvy, because of its high vitamin C
content.
[83]

Garlic has been used reasonably successfully in AIDS patients to treat Cryptosporidium in an
uncontrolled study in China.
[84]
It has also been used by at least one AIDS patient to
treat toxoplasmosis, another protozoal disease.
[85]

Garlic supplementation has been shown to boost testosterone levels and the plasma Luteinizing
Hormone in rats fed a high protein diet.
[86]

A 2010 double-blind, parallel, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, involving 50 patients whose
routine clinical records in general practice documented treated but uncontrolledhypertension,
concluded, "Our trial suggests that aged garlic extract is superior to placebo in lowering systolic
blood pressure similarly to current first line medications in patients with treated but uncontrolled
hypertension."
[87]

Ginger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Ginger (disambiguation).
Ginger

Color plate from Khler's Medicinal Plants
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Zingiberales
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Zingiber
Species: Z. officinale
Binomial name
Zingiber officinale
Roscoe 1807
[1]

Ginger or ginger root is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, consumed as
a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other
notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. The distantly
relateddicots in the Asarum genus have the common name wild ginger because of their similar taste.
Ginger is indigenous to southern China, from whence it is spread to the Spice Islands and other
parts of Asia, and subsequently to West Africa and to the Caribbean.
[2]

Medicinal use and research[edit]
According to the American Cancer Society, ginger has been promoted as a cancer treatment "to
keep tumors from developing", but "available scientific evidence does not support this". They add:
"Recent preliminary results in animals show some effect in slowing or preventing tumor growth.
While these results are not well understood, they deserve further study. Still, it is too early in the
research process to say whether ginger will have the same effect in humans."
[11]

In limited studies, ginger was found to be more effective than placebo for treating nausea caused
by seasickness, morning sickness andchemotherapy,
[12][13][14][15]
although ginger was not found
superior to placebo for pre-emptively treating post-operative nausea. Some studies advise against
taking ginger during pregnancy,
[13]
suggesting that ginger is mutagenic, though some other studies
have reported antimutagenic effects.
[13]
Other preliminary studies showed that ginger may
affectarthritis pain or have blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties, but these effects
remain unconfirmed.
[16]

A 2013 in vivo evaluation demonstrated ginger extract showed a hepatoprotective effect in rats.
[17]
A
2013 review found that ginger is a free radical scavenger, antioxidant; thus inhibits lipid peroxidation
and that these attributes could be contributing to its known gastroprotective effects.
[18]
A 2012 review
found ginger extract and ginger juice possess anti-emetic effects against chemotherapy-induced
nausea and vomiting in experimental animals.
[19]
A 2012 review found the radioprotective properties
of ginger extract might be effective to protect against gamma radiation-induced side effects
from cancer treatment in mice.
[20]
A 2011 review found ginger displays chemopreventive and
antineoplastic effects.
[21]
The same review found that ginger appears to be promising for cancer
prevention, though further research is necessary to evaluate the efficacy and safety of
ginger.
[21]
Advanced glycation end-products are possibly associated in the development of diabetic
cataract for which ginger was effective in preliminary studies, apparently by acting through
antiglycating mechanisms.
[22][23][24]
Zingerone may have activity against enterotoxigenic Escherichia
coli in enterotoxin-induced diarrhea in mice.
[25]

Chemistry[edit]


The essential oil of ginger
The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture
of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of
fresh ginger. In laboratory animals, the gingerols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and
have analgesic,sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial properties.
[26]
A study at the University of
Michigan demonstrated that gingerols can inhibit growth of ovarian cancer cells in vitro.
[27][28][29]
[6]-
gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) is the major pungent principle of
ginger.
Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents
are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other
sesquiterpenoids (-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a
small monoterpenoid fraction (-phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified.
The pungent taste of ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds,
particularly gingerols and shogaols, which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked.
Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and
has a spicy-sweet aroma.
[30]
Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of this was used
as a horse suppository by pre-World War I mounted regiments for feaguing.
Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes swallowing
easier.
[31]

Folk medicine[edit]


Ginger house rum, Madagascar
The traditional medical form of ginger historically was called Jamaica ginger; it was classified as
a stimulant and carminative and used frequently for dyspepsia, gastroparesis, slow motility
symptoms, constipation, and colic.
[32]
It was also frequently employed to disguise the taste of
medicines.
[33]

Some studies indicate ginger may provide short-term relief of pregnancy-related nausea and
vomiting.
[34]
Studies are inconclusive about effects for other forms of nausea or in treating pain from
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, or joint and muscle injury. Side effects, mostly associated with
powdered ginger, are gas, bloating, heartburn, and nausea.
[35]

Tea brewed from ginger is a common folk remedy for colds. Ginger ale and ginger beer are also
drunk as stomach settlers in countries where the beverages are made.
In Burma, ginger and a local sweetener made from palm tree juice (htan nyat) are boiled
together and taken to prevent the flu.
In China, ginger is included in several traditional preparations. A drink made with sliced ginger
cooked in water with brown sugar or a cola is used as a folk medicine for thecommon
cold.
[36]
"Ginger eggs" (scrambled eggs with finely diced ginger root) is a common home remedy
for coughing.
[citation needed]
The Chinese also make a kind of dried ginger candy that is fermented
in plum juice and sugared, which is also commonly consumed to suppress coughing. Ginger has
also been historically used to treatinflammation, which several scientific studies support, though
one arthritis trial showed ginger to be no better than a placebo or ibuprofen for treatment
of osteoarthritis.
[16]

In Congo, ginger is crushed and mixed with mango tree sap to make tangawisi juice, which is
considered a panacea.
In India, ginger is applied as a paste to the temples to relieve headache, and consumed when
suffering from the common cold. Ginger with lemon and black salt is also used for nausea.
[34]

In Indonesia, ginger (jahe in Indonesian) is used as a herbal preparation to reduce fatigue,
reducing "winds" in the blood, prevent and cure rheumatism and control poor dietary habits.
[citation
needed]

In Nepal, ginger is called aduwa, and is widely grown and used throughout the country as
a spice for vegetables, used medically to treat cold and also sometimes used to flavor tea.
In the Philippines, ginger is known as luya and is used as a throat lozenge in traditional medicine
to relieve sore throat. It is also brewed into a tea known as salabat.
[37][38]

In the United States, ginger is used to prevent motion and morning sickness.
[citation needed]
It is
recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration
[39]
and is sold as an unregulated dietary
supplement. Ginger water is also used to avoid heat cramps.
[citation needed]

In Peru, ginger is sliced in hot water as an infusion for stomach aches as infusin de Kin.
In Japan it is purported to aid blood circulation.
[40]
Scientific studies investigating these effects
have been inconclusive.
[35]

Nutritional information[edit]
Azadirachta indica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Neem)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2011)
Neem

Azadirachta indica, flowers & leaves
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Order: Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae
Genus: Azadirachta
Species: A. indica
Binomial name
Azadirachta indica
A.Juss., 1830
[1]

Synonyms
[1][2]

Antelaea azadirachta (L.) Adelb.
Melia azadirachta L.
Melia indica (A. Juss.) Brandis
Azadirachta indica, also known as Neem,
[2]
Nimtree,
[2]
and Indian Lilac
[2]
is a tree in
the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native
to India and the Indian subcontinent including Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh andSri Lanka. Typically
growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Neem trees now also grow in islands in the southern
part of Iran. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil.
Uses[edit]


Neem tree


Neem tree in the Philippines


neem tree leaves in india
Neem leaves are dried in India and placed in cupboards to prevent insects eating the clothes and
also while storing rice in tins.
[4]
Neem leaves are dried and burnt in the tropical regions to keep away
mosquitoes.
[citation needed]
These leaves are also used in many Indian festivals like Ugadi. See
below: #Association with Hindu festivals in India. As Ayurveda herb, Neem is also used in baths.
As a vegetable[edit]
The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. A souplike dish
called Veppampoo charu (Tamil) (translated as "neem flower rasam") made of the flower of neem is
prepared in Tamil Nadu. In West Bengal, young neem leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces
of eggplant (brinjal). The dish is called nim begun and is the first item during a Bengali meal that acts
as an appetizer.
[5]
It is eaten with rice.
Neem is used in parts of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Laos (where it is
called kadao), Thailand (where it is known assadao or sdao), Myanmar (where it is known as tamar)
and Vietnam (where it is known as su u and is used to cook the salad gi su u). Even lightly
cooked, the flavour is quite bitter and the food is not enjoyed by all inhabitants of these nations,
though it is believed to be good for one's health. Neem gum is a rich source of protein. In Myanmar,
young neem leaves and flower buds are boiled with tamarindfruit to soften its bitterness and eaten
as a vegetable. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.
Traditional medicinal use[edit]
Products made from neem trees have been used in India for over two millennia for their medicinal
properties.
[4]
Neem products are believed by Ayurvedic practitioners to be anthelmintic,
antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, contraceptive and sedative.
[6]
It is considered a major
component in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine and is particularly prescribed for skin diseases.
[7]
Neem
oil is also used for healthy hair, to improve liver function, detoxify the blood, and balance blood sugar
levels.
[8]
Neem leaves have also been used to treat skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis, etc.
[4]

However, insufficient research has been done to assess the purported benefits of neem.
[9]
In adults,
short-term use of neem is safe, while long-term use may harm the kidneys or liver; in small children,
neem oil is toxic and can lead to death.
[9]
Neem may also cause miscarriages, infertility, and low
blood sugar.
[9]

Ocimum tenuiflorum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Tulasi)
"Tulasi" redirects here. For other uses, see Thulasi (disambiguation).
"Tulsi" redirects here. For the 2008 film, see Tulsi (film). For the U.S. congresswoman, see Tulsi
Gabbard.
"Holy Basil" redirects here. It is not to be confused with holy herb (Verbena officinalis).
Ocimum tenuiflorum

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Ocimum
Species: O. tenuiflorum
Binomial name
Ocimum tenuiflorum
L.
Synonyms
Ocimum sanctum
Ocimum tenuiflorum, also known as Ocimum sanctum, Holy basil, or tulas, is an aromatic
plant in the family Lamiaceae which is native to the Indian Subcontinent and widespread as a
cultivated plant throughout the Southeast Asian tropics.
[1][2]
It is an erect, much branched subshrub,
3060 cm tall with hairy stems and simple opposite green or purple leaves that are strongly scented.
Leaves have petioles and are ovate, up to 5 cm long, usually slightly toothed. The flowers are
purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls.
[2]
The two mainmorphotypes cultivated in India and
Nepal are green-leaved (Sri or Lakshmi tulasi) and purple-leaved (Krishna tulasi).
[3]
(See Tulsi in
Hinduism.)
Tulasi is cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes, and for its essential oil. It is widely known
across the Indian Subcontinent as a medicinal plant and an herbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda,
and has an important role within the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism, in which devotees perform
worship involving holy basil plants or leaves.
The variety of Ocimum tenuiflorum used in Thai cuisine is referred to as Thai holy basil (Thai
language: kaphrao);
[1]
it is not to be confused with Thai basil, which is a variety of Ocimum
basilicum.
Uses[edit]
In Hinduism[edit]


Tulasi grown in front of a house


An altar with tulsiplant for daily worship in a courtyard in India.
Tulasi leaves is an essential part in the worship of God Vishnu (Narayana) and his Avatars including
God Krishna, GodRama and other male Vaishnava deities like Hanuman, Balarama, Garuda and
many others. Tulasi is a sacred plant forHindus and is worshipped by Hindus as the avatar of
goddess Lakshmi.
[6]
Water mixed with the petals is given to the dying to raise their departing souls to
heaven.
[7]
Tulasi, which is Sanskrit for "the incomparable one", is most often regarded as a consort
of Krishna in the form of Lakshmi.
[8][9]
According to the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, tulasi is an
expression ofSita.
[10][full citation needed]
There are two types of tulasi worshipped in Hinduism: "Rama
tulasi" has light green leaves and is larger in size; "Shyama tulasi" has dark green leaves and is
important for the worship of Hanuman.
[11]
Many Hindus have tulasi plants growing in front of or near
their home, often in special pots. Traditionally, tulasi is planted in the center of the
central courtyard of Hindu houses. It is also frequently grown next to Hanuman temples, especially
inVaranasi.
[12][full citation needed]

According to Vaishnavas, it is believed in Puranas that during Samudra Manthana when the gods
win the ocean-churning against asuras, Dhanvantari comes up from the ocean with Amrita in hand
for the gods. Dhanvantari (the divine medico) sheds happy tears and when the first drop falls in
Amrita it forms Tulasi. In the ceremony of Tulasi Vivaha, tulasi is ceremonially married to Krishna
annually on the eleventh day of the waxing moon or twelfth of the month of Kartika in the lunar
calendar. This day also marks the end of the four-month Cturmsya period, which is considered
inauspicious for weddings and other rituals, so the day inaugurates the annual marriage season
in India. The ritual lighting of lamps each evening during Kartika includes the worship of
the tulasiplant, which is held to be auspicious for the home. Vaishnavas especially follow the daily
worship of tulasi during Kartika.
[13]

Vaishnavas traditionally use japa mlasa made from tulas stems or roots, which are an important
symbol of initiation. Tulasi malasa are considered to be auspicious for the wearer, and believed to
put them under the protection of Hanuman. They have such a strong association with Vaishnavas,
that followers of Hanuman are known as "those who bear the tulasi round the neck".
[9]

In India, the use of holy basil (Tulasi) in culinary preparations is not encouraged by most Vaishnava
communities as it is considered to be sacred (however, Tulasi leaves offered to Lord Vishnu
[Krishna] may be eaten raw by themselves). According to followers of the Hare Krishna movement
even uprooting or cutting a branch of a live Tulasi tree is considered to be a great offense.
However Tulasi leaves may be plucked only for offering to Lord Krishna (or other Vishnu forms). The
combination of Tulasi with meat in food preparations is considered to be extremely offensive and
disrespectful to Tulasi.
The use of Tulasi as medicine is also prohibited by certain Vaishnava communities, for instance
the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON) considers Tulasi to be highly sacred and is to be used for
spiritual upliftment of a person when one renders service unto Tulasi devi (Tulasi personified).
[citation
needed]

Ayurveda[edit]


Tulasi flowers
Tulasi (Sanskrit:-Surasa) has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda for its diverse healing
properties. It is mentioned in the Charaka Samhita,
[14]
an ancient Ayurvedic text. Tulsi is considered
to be an adaptogen,
[15]
balancing different processes in the body, and helpful for adapting to
stress.
[16]
Marked by its strong aroma and astringent taste, it is regarded in Ayurveda as a kind of
"elixir of life" and believed to promote longevity.
[17]

Tulasi extracts are used in ayurvedic remedies for a variety of ailments. Traditionally, tulasi is taken
in many forms: as herbal tea, dried powder, fresh leaf or mixed with ghee. Essential oil extracted
from Karpoora tulasi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics, and is widely
used in skin preparations and for fever, colds and infections.
[citation needed]

Thai cuisine[edit]


Phat kaphrao mu -- holy basil with pork
The leaves of holy basil, known as kaphrao in the Thai language (Thai: ), are commonly used
in Thai cuisine.
[18]
Kaphrao should not be confused with horapha (Thai: ), which is normally
known as Thai basil,
[18]
or with Thai lemon basil (maenglak; Thai: ).
The best-known dish made with this herb is phat kaphrao (Thai: ) a stir-fry of Thai holy basil
with meats, seafood or, as in khao phat kraphao, with rice.
Turmeric
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indian Turmeric

Curcuma longa
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Zingiberales
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Curcuma
Species: C. longa
Binomial name
Curcuma longa
L.
[1]

Synonyms
Curcurma domestica Valeton
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) /trmrk/ is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of
the ginger family, Zingiberaceae.
[2]
It is native in southeast India, and needs temperatures between
20 C and 30 C (68 F and 86 F) and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive.
[3]
Plants
are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the
following season.
When not used fresh, the rhizomes are boiled for about 3045 minutes and then dried in hot
ovens,
[4]
after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as
a spice in Indian cuisine and even curries, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard condiments.
One active ingredient in it is curcumin. It has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter, slightly
hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell. Curcumin may treat: cancer, Alzheimer's
disease, diabetes, allergies, arthritis and other chronic illnesses.
[5]



Botanical view of Curcuma longa.


Turmeric field in an Indian village.
India is a significant producer of turmeric
[6]
which has regional names based on language and
country.
As turmeric is a natural botanical product, it is not patentable.
[7][8]

Botanical description[edit]
Appearance[edit]
Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant, which reaches a stature of up to 1 meter. There are highly
branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes . The leaves are alternate and arranged
in two rows . They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole and leaf blade.
[12]
From the leaf sheaths, a
false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long. The simple leaf blades are usually of a length
of 76 to 115 cm and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic
narrowing at the tip .
Inflorescence, flower and fruit[edit]
In China, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the false stem there is a 12 to 20 cm
long inflorescence stem containing many flowers. The bracts are light green and ovate with a length
of 3 to 5 centimeters to oblong with a blunt upper end.
At the top of the inflorescence stem bracts are present on which there are no flowers, these are,
white to green and sometimes tinged reddish-purple and its upper end is tapered.
[13]

The hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three 0.8 to 1.2 centimeters
long, sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs and the three calyx teeth are unequal. The three
bright yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 centimeters long. The three corolla lobes
have a length of 1 to 1.5 cm, triangular with soft-spiny upper end. While the average corolla lobe is
larger than the two lateral. Only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is
spurred at its base. All other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are
shorter than the labellum. The labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it
is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2 cm. Three carpels are under a constant, trilobed ovary
adherent, which is sparsely hairy.
The fruit capsule opens with three compartments.
Biochemical composition[edit]

Curcumin keto form

Curcumin enol form
The most important chemical components of turmeric are a group of compounds
called curcuminoids, which include curcumin (diferuloylmethane), demethoxycurcumin, and
bisdemethoxycurcumin. The best studied compound is curcumin, which constitutes 3.14% (on
average) of powdered turmeric.
[14]
In addition there are other important volatile oils such as
turmerone, atlantone, andzingiberene. Some general constituents are sugars, proteins, and resins.
[5]

Uses[edit]
Culinary[edit]


Turmeric powder is used extensively in South Asian cuisine.
Turmeric grows wild in the forests of South and Southeast Asia. It is one of the key ingredients in
many Asian dishes. Tamil traditional medicine, called Siddha, has recommended turmeric for
medicine. Its use as a coloring agent is not of primary value in South Asian cuisine.
Turmeric is mostly used in savory dishes, but is used in some sweet dishes, such as the cake Sfouf.
In India, turmeric plant leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes, patoleo, by layering rice flour
and coconut-jaggery mixture on the leaf, and then closing and steaming it in a special copper
steamer (goa).
In recipes outside South Asia, turmeric is sometimes used as an agent to impart a rich, custard-like
yellow color. It is used in canned beverages and baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt,
yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins,
etc. It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders.
Most turmeric that is used is in the form of rhizome powder, in some regions (especially
in Maharashtra, Goa, Konkan and Kanara), turmeric leaves are used to wrap and cook food. This
use of turmeric leaves usually takes place in areas where turmeric is grown locally, since the leaves
used are freshly picked. Turmeric leaves impart a distinctive flavor.
Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric is also used fresh, like ginger. It has
numerous uses in Far Eastern recipes, such as pickle made from fresh turmeric that contains large
chunks of soft turmeric.
Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Many Persian dishes
use turmeric as a starter ingredient. Almost all Iranian fried dishes consist of oil, onions, and turmeric
followed by any other ingredients that are to be included.
In Nepal, turmeric is widely grown and extensively used in many vegetable and meat dishes for its
color as well as for its potential value in traditional medicine.
In South Africa, turmeric is used to give boiled white rice a golden color.
In Vietnam, turmeric powder is used to color, and enhance the flavors of, certain dishes, such
as bnh xo, bnh kht and mi quang. The powder is also used in many otherVietnamese stir fried
and soup dishes.
In Indonesia, the turmeric leaves are used for Minangese or Padangese curry base of Sumatra, such
as rendang, sate padang and many other varieties.
In Thailand, fresh turmeric rhizomes are widely used in many dishes, in particular in the
southern Thai cuisine, such as the yellow curry ()and turmeric soup ( ).
In medieval Europe, turmeric became known as Indian saffron because it was widely used as an
alternative to the far more expensive saffron spice.
[15]

Folk medicine and traditional uses[edit]
In Tamil Nadu, turmeric has been used traditionally for thousands of years as a remedy for stomach
and liver ailments, as well as topically to heal sores, basically for its supposed antimicrobial
property.
[16]
In the Siddha system (since c. 1900 BCE) turmeric was a medicine for a range of
diseases and conditions, including those of the skin, pulmonary, and gastrointestinal systems,
aches, pains, wounds, sprains, and liver disorders. A fresh juice is commonly used in many skin
conditions, including eczema, chicken pox, shingles,allergy, and scabies.
[17]

Manjal Pal (turmeric milk) is warm milk mixed with some turmeric powder. It is commonly used in
Tamil Nadu as a home remedy when someone is suffering from fever. Turmeric paste is often used
in Tamil Nadu as an antiseptic in open wounds, while chun-holud (turmeric with slaked lime) is used
to stop bleeding as home remedies. It is also used as a detanning agent in Tamil Nadu.
[18]

The active compound curcumin is believed to have a wide range of biological effects including anti-
inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antibacterial, and antiviral activities, which indicate potential in
clinical medicine.
[19]
In Chinese medicine, it is used for treatment of various infections and as
an antiseptic.
[20]

Preliminary medical research[edit]


Turmeric rhizome and powder.
See also: Curcumin
According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, "there is little reliable
evidence to support the use of turmeric for any health condition because few clinical trials have been
conducted."
[10]

Although trials are ongoing for the use of turmeric to treat cancer, doses needed for any effect are
difficult to establish in humans.
[21]
As of December 2013, turmeric is being evaluated for its potential
efficacy against several human diseases in clinical trials, including kidney andcardiovascular
diseases, arthritis, several types of cancer and irritable bowel disease.
[22]

Specifically, turmeric is also being investigated in relation to Alzheimer's disease,
[23]
diabetes,
[24]
and
other clinical disorders.
[25][26]

However, according to various basic research studies,
[27][28][29][30]
administration of curcumin or
turmeric can suppress several stages of cancer development in multiple tumor models.
[28]
One study
of curcumin on human cancer cells in vitro used hybrid molecules with the anti-
nausea drug thalidomide to induce apoptosis in myeloma cancer cells.
[31]
Some research shows
compounds in turmeric to have anti-fungal and antibacterial properties; however, curcumin is not one
of them.
[32]

Curcumin, the active component of turmeric, has also been shown to be a vitamin D
receptor ligand "with implications for colon cancer chemoprevention."
[33]

Dye[edit]
Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye, as it is not very light fast. However, turmeric is commonly used in
Indian and Bangladeshi clothing, such as saris and Buddhist monks' robes.
[34]
Turmeric (coded
as E100 when used as a food additive)
[35]
is used to protect food products from sunlight.
The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. A curcumin andpolysorbate solution or curcumin
powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water-containing products. Over-coloring, such as in pickles,
relishes, and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for fading.
In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry
mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow color to
some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much cheaper
replacement for saffron).
Ceremonial uses[edit]
Turmeric is considered highly auspicious and holy in India and has been used extensively in various
Hindu ceremonies for centuries. Even today it is used in every part of India during wedding
ceremonies and religious ceremonies.
Turmeric has played an important role in Hindu spiritualism. The robes of the Hindu monks were
traditionally colored with a yellow dye made of turmeric. Because of its yellow-orange coloring,
turmeric was associated with the sun or the Thirumal in the mythology of ancient Tamil religion.
Yellow is the color of the solar plexus chakra, which in traditional Tamil Siddha medicine is the
energy center relating to the metabolic and digestive systems. Orange is the color of the sacral
chakra, and tied to the reproductive system.
The plant is used in poosai to represent a form of Kottravai who is said to reside on this plant as
herself. The plant is used as a component of navapatrika along with plantain(Banana), Kachvi or
Kacci or kochu or Taro, jayanti/ Barley, wood
apple (Bilva), pomegranate (darimba), Asoka, manaka or Manakochu and rice paddy or Dhanya.
It is used in poosai to make a form of Ganesha. Yaanaimugathaan, the remover of obstacles, is
invoked at the beginning of almost any ceremony and a form of Yaanaimugathaan for this purpose is
made by mixing turmeric with water and forming it into a cone-like shape.
Gaye holud (literally "yellow on the body") is a ceremony observed mostly in the region
of Bengal (comprising Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal). The gaye holud takes place one or two
days before the religious and legal Bengali wedding ceremonies. The turmeric paste is applied by
friends to the bodies of the couple. This is said to soften the skin, but also colors them with the
distinctive yellow hue that gives its name to this ceremony. It may be a joint event for the bride and
groom's families, or it may consist of separate events for the bride's family and the groom's family.
During the Tamil festival Pongal, a whole turmeric plant with fresh rhizomes is offered as a
thanksgiving offering to Suryan, the Sun god. Also, the fresh plant sometimes is tied around the
sacred Pongal pot in which an offering of pongal is prepared.


Turmeric Flower in Maharashtra, India.
In Tamil Nadu, as a part of the Tamil marriage ritual, dried turmeric tuber tied with string is used
temporarily or permanently as opposed to theMangalasutra of Hindus in India . The Tamil Marriage
act recognizes this custom. Thali necklace is the equivalent of marriage rings in western cultures. In
western and coastal India, during weddings of the Marathi and Konkani
people, Kannada Brahmins turmeric tubers are tied with strings by the couple to their wrists during a
ceremony called Kankanabandhana.
[36]

Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported in 1896 that in Micronesia the preparation of
turmeric powder for embellishment of body, clothing and utensils had a highly ceremonial
character.
[37]
He quotes an example of the roots being ground by four to six women in special public
buildings and then allowed to stand in water. The following morning, three young coconuts and three
old soma nuts are offered by a priestess with prayer, after which the dye which has settled down in
the water is collected, baked into cakes in coconut molds, wrapped in banana leaves, and hung up
in the huts till required for use.
Peppermint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Peppermint (disambiguation).
Peppermint

Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Mentha
Binomial name
Mentha piperita
L.
Peppermint (Mentha piperita, also known as M. balsamea Willd.
[1]
) is a hybrid mint, a cross
between watermint and spearmint.
[2]
The plant, indigenous to Europe, is now widespread in
cultivation throughout all regions of the world.
[3]
It is found wild occasionally with its parent
species.
[3][4]

Medicinal use[edit]


Freeze-dried leaves.
Peppermint has a long tradition of medicinal use, with archaeological evidence placing its use at
least as far back as ten thousand years ago.
[citation needed]

Peppermint is commonly used to soothe or treat symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain, indigestion, irritable bowel, and bloating.
[16][17][18]

One animal study has suggested that Peppermint may have radioprotective effects in patients
undergoing cancer treatment.
[19]

The aroma of peppermint has been found to enhance memory and alertness,
[20][21]
although other
research contests this.
[22]
Peppermint is used in aromatherapy.
Peppermint oil[edit]


Peppermint (Mentha piperita) essential oil
Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (Found mainly
in Mentha arvensis var. piperascens Cornmint, Field Mint, Japanese Mint and to a lesser extent-
6,530 ppm in Mentha x piperita subsp. nothosubsp. piperita
[23]
) and menthone.
[24]

The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) was analyzed
by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were menthol (40.7%) and menthone (23.4%).
Further components were (+/-)-menthyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene and beta-
caryophyllene.
[25]

Medicinal use[edit]
In 2007, Italian investigators reported that 75% of the patients in their study who took peppermint oil
capsules for four weeks had a major reduction in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms,
compared with just 38% of those who took a placebo.
[26]
A second study in 2010, conducted in Iran,
found similar results.
[27]
2011 research showed that peppermint acts through a specific anti-pain
channel called TRPM8 to reduce pain sensing fibres.
[citation needed]
The authors feel that this study
provides information that is potentially the first step in determining a new type of mainstream clinical
treatment for Irritable Bowel Syndrome.
[28]

According to the German Commission E monographs, peppermint oil (as well as peppermint leaf)
has been used internally as an antispasmodic (upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts) and to
treat irritable bowel syndrome, catarrh of the respiratory tract, and inflammation of the oral mucosa.
Externally, peppermint oil has been used for myalgia and neuralgia. According to the German
Commission E, peppermint oil may also act as a carminative, cholagogue, antibacterial, and
secretolytic, and it has a cooling action.
[29]

Enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (Colpermin) been used as an orally administered
antispasmodic premedication in colonoscopy. The capsules were found beneficial in reducing total
procedure time, reducing colonic spasm, increasing endoscopist satisfaction and decreasing pain in
patients during colonoscopy.
[30]

Similarly, some poorly designed earlier trials found that peppermint oil has the ability to reduce
colicky abdominal pain due to IBS with an NNT (number needed to treat) around 3.1,
[31]
but the oil is
an irritant to the stomach in the quantity required and therefore needs wrapping for delayed release
in the intestine. This could also be achieved by using the whole herb or leaves rather than the
volatile components alone.
Due to the menthol constituent, topical use of peppermint oil around the facial or chest areas of
infants and young children, especially around the nose, can induce apnea, laryngeal and bronchial
spasm, acute respiratory distress with cyanosis, or respiratory arrest.
[32]
It is also used in
construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.
[33]

Peppermint oil may cause or worsen heartburn.
[citation needed]

Toxicology[edit]
The toxicity studies of the plant have received controversial results. Some authors reported that the
plant may induce hepatic diseases (liver disease), while others found that it protects against liver
damage that is caused by heavy metals.
[34][35]
In addition to that, the toxicities of the plant seem to
vary from one cultivar to another
[36]
and are dose dependent.
[34][37]
This is probably attributed from
the content level of pulegone.
[38]

With the limitation that the concentration of pulegone should not exceed 1%, it has been concluded
that Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Oil, Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Extract, Mentha Piperita
(Peppermint) Leaves, Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Water are safe as used in cosmetic
formulations.
[39]