1.1!
where
C j
X
C
1."!
Is the reactive resistance of the ca#acitor. $he am#lification coefficient of the circuit will be
C
C
in
out
X R
X
V
V
K
+
1.%!
&utting 1."! in 1.%! the following will be obtained'
RC j
K
+
1
1
1.(!
2 2 2
1
1
C R
K
+
1.)!
*sing 1.)!+ observe the following cases'
a! 0 + 1 K
b!
RC
1
+ 7 . 0 K
c!
+ 0 K
$he de#endence of ,m#lification coefficient-s module on the fre.uency is called am#litude/
fre.uency characteristic ,FC!.
$he ,FC for fig. 1.1 has the following view' fig. 1.".!.
Fig. 1." ,FC of low fre.uency RC filter
From fig. 1." it is seen that this filter am#lifies low fre.uencies+ and re0ects high fre.uencies+
that is why this filter is called low fre.uency filter.
$he range of fre.uencies for the filter when 7 . 0 > K is called band#ass+ 7 . 0 1 . 0 K
transition and 1 . 0 < K bandre0ect layer.
In ideal case
transition
0
$he fre.uency corres#onding to 7 . 0 K is called cutoff fre.uency.
Let-s observe another circuit of the filter.
Vin
Vout
R
C
Fig. 1.%. RC filter
From fig. 1.% it is obvious that
C
in out
X R
R
V V
+
1.1!
C j
R
R
K
1
+
1.2!
2 2
2
1
C
R
R
K
1.3!
*sing 1.3!+ observe the following cases'
a! 0 + 0 K
b!
RC
1
+ 7 . 0 K
c! + 1 K
From the above mentioned im#ressions it is clear that this filter am#lifies low fre.uencies+ and
re0ects high fre.uencies+ that is why this filter is called low fre.uency filter.
$he study of RC filter
1. Ob0ective
1.1. Introduction to o#erating #rinci#le of RC filters
1.". 4imulation of RC filters by 54&IC6 and obtaining its ,FC.
". 7escri#tion of testing circuits
".1. $he following circuits are used for the study of RC filters.
a! Low fre.uency filter b! 5igh fre.uency filter
Fig. 1.( RC filters
". 5omework
".1. &resent the circuits of RC filters
".". 7efine the cutoff fre.uency of RC filter if 10 R kOhm+ 1 C nF.
".%. 7efine RC
a! low fre.uency+
b!
transition
layer of high fre.uency filters use the obtained results in #oint "!.
%. $esting #art
%.1. Collect the circuit shown in fig. 1.( a by the following #arameters'
a! 10 R kOhm
b! 1 C nF
c! In#ut voltage ,C81
%.". 9et the ,FC.
Below is the 54&IC6 netlist:dec of the given circuit and its simulation results. fig. 1.)!.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
cc<ca#acitor1 out gnd c 8 1n cty#e 8 =
rc<resistor1 in out R 8 1=k
vc<vgeneric1 in gnd dc 8 = ac 8 1
.global gnd
.ac dec 1== 1k 1meg
.o#tions #ost #robe
.#robe >;!
.end
Fig. 1.).,FC of low fre.uency filter
%.%. Collect the circuit shown in fig.( b by the following #arameters'
a! 10 R kOhm
b! 1 C nF
c! In#ut voltage ,C81
%.(. 9et the ,FC.
Below is the 54&IC6 netlist:dec of the given circuit and its simulation results. fig. 1.1!.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
vc<vgeneric1 in gnd dc 8 = ac 8 1
cc<ca#acitor1 in out c 8 1n cty#e 8 =
rc<resistor1 gnd out R 8 1=k
.global gnd
.ac dec 1== 1k %==?
.o#tions #ost #robe
.#robe >;!
.end
Fig. 1.1. ,FC of high fre.uency filter
(. Re#ort
$he re#ort must include'
(.1. 4imulation circuits of RC filters
(.". Basic calculation formulas
(.%. Results of homework calculation
(.(. Oscillograms obtained during testing
(.). 6stimation of results and conclusions.
). Checking .uestions
).1. @hat is called transition layer of RC filterA
).". @hat is called cutting fre.uency of layer of RC filterA
Resonance ,m#lification and Fre.uency Bulti#lication
1. Brief theoretical introduction
4ingle stage resonance am#lifier-s circuit is de#icted in Fig. ".1.
M2
M1
R C
L
VDD
VSS
u(t)
Fig. ".1. 4ingle stage resonance am#lifier
Consider the case when the in#ut voltage is a##lied on nonlinear element of the am#lifier
( ) t cos U U t u U ) t ( u
m 0 0 0 1
+ + + ".1!
@here+
0
U
is the initial bias voltage which decides the location of the functional #oint on
transistor IC> characteristics+
m
U is the am#litude of t U ) t ( u cos
m 0
in#ut voltage+
0
'
<
1 1
1
); (
; 0
U u U u S
U u
i
when
when
"."!
where *
1
is the threshold voltage of the nonlinear element+ 4 is the slo#e of the
characteristics.
Fig. ".". ,##roDimated IC> characteristics of the transistor.
Eonlinear resonance am#lifier-s functional state is eD#lained by a #lot de#icted in Fig. ".%.
where out#ut current-s view is obtained by using #ro0ection method.
*
=
IE
O*$ *
"
t!
0 U
1
u
i
7uring t
1
F t
"
+ u
1
G *
1
+ the transistor is OFF and there is no current flow. 7uring t
"
F t
%
+ u
1
> *
1
the transistor is OE and the drain conducts discrete im#ulse current.
$he current-s view is #resented by dote line. If the IC> characteristics were always linear
during gate voltage-s switching #eriod the transistor would conduct sinusoidal current with I
am#litude.
$he #ro#ortion of a #eriod when a drain current declines from its maDimal value to = is
called drain current-s breaking angle and is re#resented by . Consecutively+ Ht
%
FHt
"
= "
. From Fig. ".% it is obvious that breaking angle is calculated by the following
e.uations'
I
I I
cos
m
or
m
U
U U
cos
0 1
".%!
where I
m
is the maDimal value of current-s im#ulse+ I is the im#ulse-s value which is due while
2 / .
Fig. ".%. &lot illuminating nonlinear functional mode of the resonance am#lifier
7rain-s current is defined by the following e.uation'
) I I ( t cos I ) t ( i
m
0
".(!
Introducing I/I
m
value in ".%! will result
) cos (cos ) cos (cos cos cos ) (
0 0 0
t SU t I I t I t i
m
".)!
Because+
cos / ) I I ( I
m
".1!
It will result
) cos 1 /( I I
m
".2!
and
cos 1
cos cos
) (
0
t
I t i
m
".3!
,s the current flowing through the drain is #eriodic+ i
d
t! can be transformed to Fourier series+
i.e.
0
t
0
t
i i
0
t
3
t
1
I
m
I
2
2
U
m
0 U
0
U
1
u
t
2
u
1
+ + + +
0
0 0 0 2 0 1 0
, cos cos ... 2 cos cos ) (
n
n n
t n I t n I t I t I I t i
".I!
where the current am#litudes I
n
are found from Fourier formula
t d ) t ( i
0 0
2
1
+ ".1=!
t td n cos ) t ( i
n 0 0
1
' ".11!
4ubstituting formula for
) t ( i
from ".3! after integration this is obtained'
) ( I
) cos 1 )( 1 n ( n
) sin n cos n cos (sin 2
I I
); ( I
) cos 1 (
cos sin
I I
); ( I
) cos 1 (
cos sin
I I
n m
2
m n
1 m m 1
0 m m 0
".1"!
In these eD#ressions
) ( ,..., ) ( ), (
n 1 0
are coefficients of Fourier transformation of
cosine im#ulse Berg coefficients!+ which only de#end on . For counting it is reasonable to
eD#ress I
m
and with #arameters of in#ut signal
m m
m
U
U U
SU
) U U ( S
I
I I
cos
0 1 0 1
+ ".1%!
( ) [ ]
0 1
1 1 U U U S ) cos ( SU ) cos ( I I
m m m
' ".1(!
In Fig.( gra#hs of
) ( ),..., ( ), (
5 1 0
coefficientsJ de#endence on cross angle is
de#icted+ when varies in the range of
0 0
180 0 . *sing these gra#hs am#litudes of current
harmonics are found.
) ( I I
n m n
' ".1)!
) (
n
coefficients reach their maDimal value when cross angle is e.ual to o#timal value
0
180
opt
Cn' @hen 8 = current is e.ual = Eon/linear device is turned off during all #eriod!.
@hen 813=
=
the current crossing is absent and o#eration regime becomes linear.
= (= 3= "= 1"= 11=
1= 1== 1(=
=.)
=.(
=.%
=."
=.1
=
1
0 0
cos ) ( ) (
n
n
t n n I t u
2
+ ".1(!
2
2
0
0
0
Q
n
n
1
R
) n (
,
_
+ ".1)!
where
2 0 n n
U I ) n ( / am#litude of n Fth harmonic of out#ut voltage+ ) n (
0
/ resistance
of #arallel tank for fre.uency
0
n + LC /
R
1 / resonance fre.uency of tank+
Q
/ .uality
factor+
C / L
R R
1
/ characteristic resistance of tank+
R
K / resistance of tank during
resonance.
By tuning tank for different harmonics of drain current one can get different o#eration modes of
nonlinear resonance am#lifier. For eDam#le+ when
0
R
+
t cos R I t cos ) ( I ) t ( U
0 1 0 0 1 2 1
+ ".11!
where
R ) (
0
.
9ain in case of resonance
2
2
/ SR U / U !
m
+ ".12!
i.e. gain in nonlinear mode is twice smaller than in linear resonance am#lification+ but here the
#erformance indeD is much higher.
9ain of nonlinear resonance am#lifier is relative to the first harmonic
m m
U / R I U / U !
1 2 1 1
+ ".13!
I
n
/I
m
4
=120
0
0,2
0,4
=60
0
=90
0
0 2 4 n 0 2 n 0 2 4 n
where
( ) / cos sin SU I
m 1
' ".1I!
7ividing this e.uation by
m
U the #arameter is obtained
( ) / cos sin S U / I S
m
1 1
+ "."=!
which can be considered as an average slo#e of characteristic for the first harmonic. In contrast
to the linear mode+
1
S
de#ends on and therefore de#ends on in#ut voltageJs
m
U
am#litude.
7rain current
1
I first harmonic or out#ut voltage
2 1
U first harmonic de#endence on am#litude
of in#ut voltage
m
U ' I
1
*
m
!+ *
1"
*
m
! is called oscillating characteristics.
7e#endence of
1
! gain on am#litude of in#ut voltage
m
U '
) U ( !
m 1
is called am#lifier
am#litude characteristic.
7uring fre.uency multi#lication in the out#ut of the circuit+ oscillation is obtained the fre.uency
of which is n times higher than the fre.uency
0