2489 r2010 American Chemical Society pubs.acs.

org/EF
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g
Published on Web 03/21/2010
Global Warming Potential and Fossil-Energy Requirements of Biodiesel
Production Scenarios in South Africa
A. L. Stephenson,*
,
H. von Blottnitz,

A. C. Brent,

J. S. Dennis,

and S. A. Scott
)

Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3RA,
United Kingdom,

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa,

Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies, School of Public Management and Planning, Stellenbosch University,
Lynedoch, Stellenbosch 7603, South Africa, and
)
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street,
Cambridge CB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
Received January 16, 2010. Revised Manuscript Received March 5, 2010
Life cycle assessment has been used to investigate the global warming potential (GWP) and fossil-energy
requirements of the production of biodiesel from canola (oilseed rape), soybean, and sunflower oils in South
Africa. The effect of scale and transportation of raw materials and products was investigated, as well as the
effect of ploughing grassland and using irrigation to grow oil crops. This research shows that the GWP and
fossil-energy requirements of biodiesel produced in South Africa vary widely, depending upon predominantly
the crop yield, the requirement for irrigation, and the ploughing of uncultivated land. For the best case
scenario, where no uncultivated land is newly ploughed and irrigation is not required, biodiesel has a GWP
20-36%lower than that of the fossil diesel mix currently used in South Africa and a fossil-energy requirement
50-62%lower. However, in the worst case scenario, where oil-seed crops are grown on newly cultivated land
requiring substantial irrigation, this paper concludes that biodiesel can have a GWP significantly higher than
South African fossil diesel. The scale of operation and transport distances involved are shown to have little
influence on the GWP and fossil-energy requirement of biodiesel produced in South Africa.
1. Introduction
The global use of biofuels as an alternative to fossil-derived
transport fuels is increasing. In 2003, the European Union
(EU) released the EU Biofuels Directive, which set a target for
member states to achieve a 5.75% market share of biofuels by
2010, calculated on the basis of the energy content of all petrol
anddiesel usedfor transport.
1
In2009, this target was revisedin
the EU Renewables Directive, which calls upon each member
state to ensure 10%of the energy used by its transport industry
is produced in a renewable manner by 2020.
2
The federal
government of the UnitedStates has recentlyset a commitment
toincrease the use of bioenergy 3-foldinthe next 10 years.
3
The
biofuels industry is well-developed in some countries, such as
Germany and Brazil; however, other countries are just em-
barking on new biofuel strategies. For example, the Biofuel
Industrial Strategy of the Republic of South Africa,
4
published
in December 2007, aims at achieving a 2% penetration of
biofuels in the national liquid fuel supply, calculated on the
basis of the total volume of all road transport fuels used per
year, by2012. Infact, as well as supplyingfuel for use withinthe
country, some companies in South Africa are planning to
export their fuels to Europe.
5
Accordingly, many new biofuel
production facilities are being planned in South Africa, at
different scales and using a variety of feedstocks. It is therefore
timely to study the sustainability of the different supply chains
that could be used to produce biofuels in South Africa.
Biodiesel is generally producedby the transesterificationof a
triglyceride (vegetable oil) with an alcohol (methanol or
ethanol) in the presence of a base catalyst (usually sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to produce the respective
fatty acid alkyl ester (biodiesel) and glycerol.
6
Transesterifica-
tion involves three reversible reactions, whereby the triglycer-
ide is convertedsuccessively todiglyceride, monoglyceride, and
glycerol, consuming1mol of alcohol ineachstepandliberating
1 mol of ester. The glycerol co-product can be refined and sold
to the pharmaceutical industry; however, this market is cur-
rently saturated, and the refining process is complicated and
energy-intensive. In South Africa, there is significant research
into alternative uses for glycerol, e.g., to produce biogas by
anaerobic digestion;
7
however, at present, it is most commonly
sold for use as a fuel in industrial furnaces.
8
The four principal oils used by the biodiesel industry are
canola (rapeseed), sunflower, soybean, and palm oils,
6
while
attention is also currently turning to the use of the nonfood
feedstock, Jatropha curcas.
9
The warm, temperate climate in
*To whom correspondence should be addressed: Department of
Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2
1EW, U.K. Telephone: 44-(0)1223-748199. Fax: 44-(0)1223-336362.
E-mail: als53@cam.ac.uk.
(1) Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council. Off. J. Eur. Union 2003, 123, 42-46.
(2) Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council. Off. J. Eur. Union 2009, 140, 16-62.
(3) Demirbas, A. Energy Convers. Manage. 2008, 49 (8), 21062116.
(4) Department of Minerals and Energy. Biofuels Industrial Strategy
of the Republic of South Africa. 2007.
(5) Phytoenergy. Environmental Impact Assessment and Environ-
mental Management Plan for the Proposed Biodiesel Plant in East
London and Associated Activities. 2008.
(6) Mittelbach, M.; Remschmidt, C. Biodiesel;The Comprehensive
Handbook, 1st ed.; Graz University: Graz, Austria, 2004; pp 6-9.
(7) Verster, B. Private communication. University of Cape Town,
South Africa, 2008.
(8) Murray, N. Private communication. Biodiesel Centre, Bellville,
South Africa, 2008.
(9) Achten, W. M. J.; Verchot, L.; Franken, Y. J.; Mathijs, E.; Singh,
V. P.; Aerts, R.; Muys, B. Biomass Bioenergy 2008, 32, 10631084.
2490
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
South Africa is suitable for growing canola, sunflower, and
soybean crops. Therefore, these crops are considered to be
most appropriate feedstocks for biodiesel productioninSouth
Africa
10
and are investigated in this study. Canola and sun-
flower crops have the potential to produce more biodiesel per
hectare than soybeans, owing to their higher content of oil;
however, factors specific to the land and climate (e.g., avail-
ability of water) determine the most appropriate feedstock to
be grown in a particular region. The Biofuel Industrial
Strategy aims at growing these crops on land classified as
under-used but with high potential; significant areas of the
former homeland regions of South Africa fall in this cate-
gory.
4
(Any of the 10 regions designatedby SouthAfrica inthe
1970s as semi-autonomous territorial states for the black
population. The black homelands were dissolved and re-
incorporated into South Africa as part of the 1994 transition
to democracy.) This area is predominantly grassland and
woody savannah, and it currently has three main uses:
communal arable land, agricultural land, and arable state
land.
11,12
Communal arable land is mostly used for subsis-
tence farming, animal grazing, andgrassland. The agricultural
land has recently been acquired by new farmers under the
Land Reformprogram;
12
most of this land is left uncultivated
and used for grazing. The arable state land has not yet been
cultivated for agricultural use and is currently either used for
grazing or left for grass.
12
The Biofuel Industrial Strategy is
unclear about what proportion of the land is already used as
farmland; however, it is evident that significant proportions of
grasslands and grazing lands will require cultivation to pro-
vide the land required to growthe oilseed crops. For example,
inthe Eastern Cape province, there are plans touse 150 000 ha
of underdeveloped land to grow canola crops and 100 000 ha
to grow soybean crops specifically for the production of
biodiesel, as part of an integrated rural development pro-
gram.
13
Over 95% of this land is currently uncultivated;
13
therefore, it is important to quantify the effect on the global
warming potential (GWP) of the resulting biodiesel of con-
verting this land to arable land for the cultivation of oil-seed
crops.
This paper uses life cycle assessment (LCA) to investigate
the GWP and fossil-energy requirements of biodiesel produc-
tion in South Africa, at each stage, from the production and
supply of the raw materials to the point of supply of the fuel,
for the three oilseed crops. The effect of the scale of produc-
tiononGWPandfossil-energyrequirements has beenstudied,
as well as the effect of ploughinggrasslandandusing irrigation
togrowoil crops. The use of the biodiesel inbothSouthAfrica
and the U.K. is considered.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Definition of Scale. The scale of production was defined
in terms of the production capacities of typical process
plants across the world.
14
Large scale was defined as a plant
producing more than100000 tons/year of biodiesel; albeit, nosuch
plant currently exists in South Africa. Mediumscale was defined
as a plant producing between 10 000 and 100000 tons/year of
biodiesel, with small scale production being between 1000 and
10 000tons/year of biodiesel. Finally, microscaleproductionwas
deemed to be a plant producing less than 1000 tons/year of
biodiesel. Operating conditions for medium-, small-, and micro-
scale plants in South Africa were obtained during site visits.
2.2. LCA. A LCA was undertaken according to the Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards ISO
14040:2006
15
and ISO 14044:2006
16
via the sequential stages of
(i) goal and scope definition, (ii) inventory analysis, (iii) impact
assessment, and (iv) interpretation and reporting, as described
below. The actual analysis was undertaken using the GaBi 4.3
LCA software package.
17
2.2.1. Goal and Scope Definition. In this paper, two functional
units (the basis for comparison) are defined: (i) 1 ton of biodiesel
that has been delivered to a South African customer by road,
blended with fossil-derived diesel to the desired fractional
volume, and combusted in a typical, compact-sized car engine
and (ii) 1 ton of biodiesel that has been delivered to the U.K. by
sea, blended to the desired fractional volume with conventional,
fossil-derived diesel, delivered to a filling station, and com-
busted in a typical, compact-sized car engine. The results are
based on information gathered for the time period of
2006-2009. Process chains have then been used to summarize
the consequent main activities in the production of this func-
tional unit. These are shown in panels a and b of Figure 1 for the
respective sizes of plants and are discussed below. The control
volume in this study encompasses all of the stages directly used
to produce biodiesel (i.e., the foreground system, including crop
production, oil extraction, and esterification) and also the back-
ground system, which provide the materials and energy used by
the foreground system.
2.2.2. Inventory Analysis. Quantitative mass and energy bal-
ances were performed over each control volume. Information
regarding the agriculture of canola crops was gathered from a
farmin the Western Cape province of South Africa. Site visits to
a South African fertilizer manufacturer and the Elsenburg
Agricultural College, Stellenbosch (Western Cape province),
were alsoused toobtainnecessary informationon the agronomy
of canola, soybean, and sunflower in South Africa. Quantitative
information on both large- and small-scale oil extraction pro-
cesses was required for the study. At the time of the data
collection, most of the biodiesel produced in South Africa used
waste cooking oil as the feedstock. From discussions with
biodiesel producers, it was decided that solvent extraction
methods would most likely be used to provide the oil feedstock
for the medium-scale plants, while cold-pressing techniques
would be used for small- and microscale generation. Operating
information from oil extraction facilities situated in South
Africa was not available for this study. However, information
from standard large-scale, solvent extraction and small-scale,
cold-pressing facilities in the U.K. was available.
14
After the
available extraction facilities in South Africa were investigated,
it was decided that the processes would be similar to those
employed in the U.K.; therefore, this process information was
incorporated in the study. Process information from three,
anonymous, biodiesel production plants operating at different
scales was considered. These were (i) plant A, which has the
capacity to produce 60 000 tons of biodiesel per year, (ii) plant
B, with a capacity of 8000 tons of biodiesel per year, and (iii)
(10) Nolte, M. Commercial biodiesel production in South Africa: A
preliminary economic feasibility study. Masters Thesis, University of
Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2007.
(11) Kingwill, R.; Sapsford, P.; Barnard, J.; Cartwright, A. Land
Issues Scoping Study: Communal Land Tenure Areas: Key Issues.
Department for International Development Southern Africa (DFID-
SA). 2003.
(12) Letete, T. Private communication. University of Cape Town,
South Africa, 2008.
(13) Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Internal
Discussions and Documentation, Pretoria, South Africa, 2008.
(14) Stephenson, A. L.; Dennis, J. S.; Scott, S. A. Process Saf. Environ.
Prot. 2008, 86, 427440.
(15) International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO
14040:2006. Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Prin-
cipals and Framework. 2006.
(16) International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO
14044:2006. Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Re-
quirements and Guidelines. 2006.
(17) PE International. GaBi 4. Product Sustainability. Leinfelden-
Echterdingen, Germany, 2008.
2491
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
plant C, with a capacity of 300 tons of biodiesel per year. An
inventory table was generated for each plant using the collated
information, showing the resource usage and all of the emissions
associated with the production of 1 ton of biodiesel.
2.2.3. Impact Assessment and Interpretation. Using the LCA
software, it was possible to formulate the inventory table into a
set of environmental themes based on the EDIP 2003 methodol-
ogy
18
using estimates of how much each input and emission
contributes to certain environmental impacts. The EDIP 2003
methodology was chosen because it was the most up-to-date
methodology available for the study. Moreover, it was devel-
oped in concert with the ISO standards ISO 14040:2006
15
and
ISO 14044:2006
16
and is considered to be one of the most
complete and consistent methodologies available.
19
This paper
reports on the GWP category (in kg of CO
2
equiv) and fossil-
energy requirement (in GJ). The LCA software included little
data that was specific to South Africa. To overcome this
problem, major inputs were identified using sensitivity analysis
and adapted to suit the South African context. Specifically, the
environmental burden of electricity was calculated by assuming
the South African electricity mix to be 91% coal, 4% hydro-
electricity, and 5% nuclear,
20
on an energy basis. Further, the
diesel used for transporting the raw materials and products was
assumed to consist of 65 vol % refined crude oil and 35 vol %
synthetic fuel, with 15 vol % being produced by Sasols coal to
liquid (CtL) plant inSecunda and20 vol %fromthe gas toliquid
(GtL) plant operated by PetroSA company in Mossel Bay.
21,22
2.3. Reference System. It is important to use reference systems
for any part of the process chain that would have an alternative
use and a consequent different environmental burden if it were
not used in the process under assessment. In the production of
biodiesel, a key issue is the alternative use of the land used to
growthe crops required for biodiesel; it is particularly important
to knowwhether the land would otherwise be left uncultivated if
it were not used to produce energy crops, because changing
uncultivated land, such as grassland, to manage arable land
growing annual crops results in the carbon content of the soil
decaying at an exponential rate, toward a new, lower carbon
content, characterized by a time constant of around 10-20
years,
23
and therefore releasing substantial quantities of carbon
that were previously stored in the soil. As noted above, it is likely
that a significant proportion of the land required to grow the oil
seed for biodiesel production will be grazing land or grassland,
which will require new cultivation. In this work, both the best
Figure 1. Process chains for the production of biodiesel from the oil seeds, canola, soybean, and sunflower, in South Africa: (a) medium scale
and (b) small- and microscale. Sun = sunflower (a and b denote current and recommended agricultural practices, respectively).
(18) Hauschild, M.; Potting, J. Spatial Differentiation in Lifecycle
Impact Assessment;The EDIP 2003 Methodology. Guidelines from
the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark,
2004.
(19) Bare, J. C.; Gloria, T. P. J. Clean Prod. 2008, 16, 10211035.
(20) Winkler, H. Energy Policies for Sustainable Development in
South Africa. Options for the Future. Energy Research Centre, Uni-
versity of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2006.
(21) Fitton, J. Private communication. Sasol, Johannesburg, South
Africa, 2008.
(22) SouthAfrican PetroleumIndustry Association (SAPIA). Annual
Report. 2006.
(23) Thomson, A.; Mobbs, D. Land Use Change and Soil Carbon in
the U.K.: Current and Future Modeling Approaches. Centre for Ecol-
ogy and Hydrology. Natural Environment Research Council. Cost 639/
v Workshop, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2008.
2492
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
and worst case scenarios have been investigated. The best case
scenario corresponds to using idle arable land, which is already
cultivated, therefore using it to grow energy crops would not
release any significant carbon emissions fromthe soil. The worst
case scenario would mean the land required for the energy crops
would come from ploughing uncultivated grassland.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories were
used
24
to determine the quantities of carbon dioxide emitted
from soils because of the conversion uncultivated grassland in
the homeland regions to arable land growing annual crops.
Despite the exponential release of carbon, in this study, the total
emission was split evenly over 20 years, as recommended by the
IPCCfor the conversionof uncultivated landto arable land,
24
to
determine an average environmental performance of the biofuel
over the time frame. When converting from grassland with light
to highly weathered soils, typical of soils in the homelands,
25
to
long-term cultivated land, in a warm, dry, and temperate
climate, a total CO
2
emission of 18 tons of CO
2
/ha was assumed,
corresponding to 0.9 tons of CO
2
ha
-1
year
-1
over 20 years.
24
There is, however, much uncertainty associated with the values
used because the carbon emissions are highly dependent upon
the type of soil; therefore, further research is required for the
carbon dioxide emissions from ploughing the specific land to be
cultivated for energy crops.
2.4. Allocation Methods. The production of biodiesel gener-
ates the co-products seed meal and glycerol; one purpose of
allocation is to determine, rationally, how a particular environ-
mental burden, e.g., GWP, should be shared among the biodie-
sel and co-products. A preferred method of allocation is direct
substitution.
26
However, to use direct substitution, the product
being replaced must already be satisfied by other processes.
Thus, this approach cannot be taken when the product being
replaced is always regarded as a co-product, byproduct, or
waste. If direct substitution cannot be used, simpler allocation
methods canbe applied, including allocationby economic value,
calorific value, or mass. In these cases, it is preferable to allocate
burdens on the basis of economic value because economic
relationships reflect socioeconomic demands.
27
The allocation
procedures adopted in this study are described below.
In South Africa, seed meal is generally used as an animal feed.
Animal feedis usuallyproducedas aco-product of other processes,
making allocation by substitution difficult. Therefore, the alloca-
tion of environmental burdens for the meal was calculated using
quoted market prices, as shown in the following equation:
allocation
A
AB
1
Here, Ais the market price of meal when used for animal feed, B
is the market price of seed oil, is the proportion of the seed by
mass converted to mass of meal, and is the proportion of the
seed by mass converted to mass of oil. At present, significant
quantities of animal feed are imported by South Africa; how-
ever, in the future, the animal feed market may become flooded
as increasing quantities of seed meal are produced as a bypro-
duct of biodiesel production. In this case, the meal may be
exported, or alternative uses, such as its combustion for energy
generation, may be investigated.
It has been assumed that glycerol is used as a fuel in indus-
trial furnaces. Allocation by substitution has been employed,
assuming the thermal energy produced displaced the energy
produced from combusting heavy fuel oil.
As well as allocating the environmental burden between
biodiesel and its co-products, the burden associated with the
usage of land must also be allocated to the different agricultural
products produced on the land, as crops are rotated each year.
For example, in the Eastern Cape, canola can be grown on the
same land every 4 years while being rotated with other, non-
biodiesel crops.
13
In this study, if a burden was due to a non-
annual treatment of or an emission from the land, the total
burden was split equally among the crops grown on the land
during that time period. For example, 4 tons of limestone is
applied to South African arable soils approximately every 5
years,
28
releasing CO
2
when it neutralizes acidic soils. The total
burden from the addition of the 4 tons of limestone was divided
by 5 and allocated to each annual crop.
As already mentioned, the impact of the conversion of grass-
land to cultivated land is investigated in this paper. Because the
energy crops require rotation with non-energy crops, additional
land as well that used to grow the energy crops may require
cultivation to provide adequate areas of arable land for the
rotation of the crops. The GWPburden caused by ploughing the
land allocated to the biodiesel was calculated from the land area
that the biodiesel crop occupies; the burden caused by any
additional land requiring ploughing because of the crop rotation
requirement was allocated to the non-energy crops.
2.5. Indirect Land-Use Change. Indirect greenhouse gas emis-
sions can also be attributed to biofuels if the production of
conventional agricultural commodities is displaced by the culti-
vation of bioenergy crops. The reduction in the production of
the agricultural commodities must be met by increased produc-
tion elsewhere or by the use of alternative products; accordingly,
this may lead to the change of land-use elsewhere, which may
have a considerable environmental burden associated with it
(e.g., deforestation). For example, if grazing land in South
Africa were converted to arable land to grow bioenergy crops,
land elsewhere may be required for grazing, causing a change in
land use. In a LCA, it is difficult to quantitatively account for
such situations; therefore, indirect gashouse emissions were not
included in this study.
2.6. Nitrous Oxide (N
2
O) from Soils. Nitrogenous fertilizers
contribute to the GWP of biodiesel because (i) their production
is energy-intensive, (ii) their production releases significant
quantities of nitrous oxide, and (iii) a proportion of the nitrogen
added to agricultural soils, in the form of fertilizer, is converted
to N
2
O, a potent greenhouse gas, and released to the atmo-
sphere.
29
There is considerable uncertainty associated with the
values used for the emissions of N
2
Ofromsoils used for growing
oil crops.
30
These emissions vary widely and depend upon a
number of factors, such as soil type, climate, tillage, fertilizer
rates, and crop type. It was decided to use the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories to deter-
mine nitrous oxide emissions,
31
which consider direct nitrous
oxide production from increased nitrification and denitrifica-
tion rates in soils, as well as indirect production from nitrate
leaching and runoff, andthe volatilization of Nas NH
3
andNO
x
followed by their accumulation in soils, lakes, and other waters.
The 2006 IPCC Guidelines suggest a value of the conversion
factor (C
F
) of 1.1 wt % of synthetic nitrogen inputs to N
2
O-N
(24) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Agricul-
ture, Forestry and Other Land Use. IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories. 2006; Vol. 4.
(25) Nagle, G. Development and Underdevelopment: Focus on Geogra-
phy; Nelson Thornes: Cheltenham, U.K., 1999.
(26) Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(DEFRA). Evaluation of the comparative energy, global warming and
socio-economic costs and benefits of biodiesel. Report 20/1. London, U.
K., 2003.
(27) Clift, R. Inst. Chem. Eng. Environ. Prot. Bull. 1998, 53, 913.
(28) Murray, N. Private communication. Biodiesel Centre, Bellville,
South Africa, 2007.
(29) Crutzen, P. J.; Mosier, A. R.; Smith, K. A.; Winiwarter, W.
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 2007, 7, 1119111205.
(30) Mortimer, N. D.; Elsayed, M. A. North East Biofuel Supply
Chain Carbon Intensity Assessment. North Energy Associates Ltd.,
Stocksfield, U.K., 2006.
(31) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). N
2
OEmis-
sions from Managed Soils, and CO
2
Emissions from Lime and Urea
Application, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inven-
tories. 2006; Vol. 4.
2493
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
(N content of N
2
O) for dry climates, where leaching is unlikely
to occur. The nitrous oxide release (kg ha
-1
year
-1
) because of
the addition of fertilizer M
F
(kg of N ha
-1
year
-1
) can therefore
be calculated according to
N
2
O M
F
C
F
44
28
2
The IPCC conversion values can also be applied to any crop
residues recycled to agricultural soils, to determine nitrous oxide
emissions because of the decomposition of such residues. De-
fault values from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines
31
were used to
estimate the quantities of residual biomass produced during the
cultivation of oil-seed crops and their contents of nitrogen. Oil-
seed rape and sunflower crops were assumed to fall under the
category root crops, other in these guidelines, because infor-
mation specific to these crops was not available, apart from the
nitrogen content of oil-seed rape residues, which was taken to be
1.3 wt %.
32
2.7. Farm Machinery. The volume of diesel fuel used per hour
by each farming operation was calculated using the dimensional
eq 3,
33,34
while typical operating times per hectare
35
were used to
determine the diesel requirement per hectare.
Q
diesel
P
T
2:64
P
T
P
max
3:91 -0:203

738
P
T
P
max
173
r
!
3
Here, Q
diesel
is the diesel consumption (h
-1
); P
T
is the power
required for an operation (kW); and P
max
is the maximum
available power take off (PTO) from the tractor (kW). To
determine the power requirement for farming operations requir-
ing significant draft force (e.g., ploughing), eq 4 was used where
detailed experimental results were available.
33,34
P
T

F
2
WT
depth
S
3:6E
m
E
t
ABS CS
2
4
Here, F
2
is a dimensionless soil texture parameter for medium-
textured soils; W is the width of the machine (m); T
depth
is the
depth of tillage (cm) (if operation does not involve tillage, this
parameter equals 1); S is the field speed (km/h); E
m
is the
mechanical efficiency of transmissions and power train (taken
to be 0.96 for tractors with gear transmissions); E
t
is the traction
efficiency; and A, B, and Care machine-specific parameters. For
farming operations where such information was not available,
estimates of power usage were determined after a discussion
with a tractor manufacturer
36
and used in eq 3.
The amount of lubricating oil, Q
oil
(h
-1
), used for running
farm machinery was determined using eq 5. The materials and
energy required for the manufacture of the machinery were
taken from Heller et al.
37
and included on a field-hour basis,
distributed over the estimated lifetime of the tractors (12 000 h)
and implements (1500 h).
Q
oil
0:00059P
max
0:02169 5
2.8. Irrigation. The effect of irrigating land on the environ-
mental performance of biodiesel produced in South Africa is
investigated in this study. However, the energy requirements of
irrigation pumps are highly variable, depending upon the water
source, method of irrigation (e.g., central pivot system and
sprinkler system), and the type of energy used by the pump (viz.
diesel or electricity). In South Africa, groundwater, surface water,
and recycled water are all used to irrigate crops.
38
This work
investigated two systems: (A) using groundwater pumped from
boreholes, usingelectricallypoweredpumps, and(B) surface water
pumped from a nearby river, using diesel-powered pumps. The
system of irrigation assumed here is based on a method that is
typicallyemployedinSouthAfrica, because of its lowcapital costs.
This system uses 4 aluminum lines, which are moved across the
land being irrigated by hand.
39
It was assumed that the lines are
spaced 20 m apart and each line is 300 m long, with sprinklers set
every 18 m, each supplying 0.92 10
-3
m
3
/s of water. The cycle
involves irrigating the soil with 50 mm of water (taking approxi-
mately 5.7 h), to allow the soil to reach its full retention capacity,
before moving the sprinkler lines to a different area (allowing 3
moves/day) andthenreturning tothe same spot 10 days later, for
further irrigation. This systemirrigates 7.2ha/day with50 mmof
water and requires 58.6 10
-3
m
3
/s of water to be pumped during
operation (17 h/day).
39
When the lines are being moved, the pump
still runs, albeit at a reduced load; this fuel consumption is
accounted for by adding another 25% to the final value of the
power required for pumping during 17 h/day.
39
For irrigation from a borehole, the groundwater is pumped
from the level of the water table. The level of the water table
varies; for example, the water level of the Dendron aquifer in the
Northern Province varies between 50 and 100 m below ground.
40
In this work, it was assumed that the water requires pumping a
height of 75 m. The total dynamic head of the pump was
assumed to be 150 m, when accounting for total friction losses
of 41 mand an exit pressure of 3.4 bar.
41
When considering river
water as a source, a total dynamic head of 65 m was assumed,
with friction head losses of 28 mand the same exit pressure of 3.4
bar.
41
The overall efficiencies of the pump and power unit,
defined as the proportion of the supplied power that is trans-
ferred to the fluid, were taken to be 35% for a diesel-driven
pump and 50% for an electrically powered pump.
41
2.9. Emissions from the Combustion of Biodiesel. The emis-
sions associated with the combustion of biodiesel must be
considered when determining their overall environmental im-
pacts. Because GWP is considered in this paper, the amounts of
nitrous oxide, methane, and fossil-derived CO
2
emitted during
the combustion of biodiesel in a typical engine were estimated.
For these calculations, the lower calorific value of biodiesel was
assumed to be 37.2 MJ/kg.
42
Because biodiesel is produced from
the esterification of triglycerides with methanol, a small propor-
tion of CO
2
released during combustion is from methanol,
which is usually derived from fossil fuels. In this work, it was
assumed that each biodiesel molecule contains 19 carbon atoms,
with 1 carbon atom originating from fossil methanol, resulting
in fossil-derived CO
2
emissions of 4 10
-3
kg/MJ. Nitrous
oxide and methane emissions released by the combustion of bio-
diesel assumed in this study were adapted from results detailed
in the CONCAWEand EUCARreport,
43
where emissions were
(32) Trinsoutrot, I.; Recous, S.; Mary, B.; Justes, E.; Nicolardot, B. C
and N mineralisation of oilseed rape crop residues in soil. 10th Interna-
tional Rapeseed Conference, Canberra, Australia, 1999.
(33) American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE). ASAE
Standards: Agricultural Machinery Management. Report ASAE
EP496.2 DEC98. 1999.
(34) American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE). ASAE
Standards: Agricultural Machinery Management. Report ASAE
EP497.4 JAN98. 1999.
(35) Nix, J. Farm Management Pocketbook, 37th ed.; Wye Campus,
Imperial College London: London, U.K., 2007.
(36) AGCO Corporation. Tag Tractors. Private communication.
Duluth, GA, 2007.
(37) Heller, M. C.; Keoleian, G. A.; Volk, T. A. Biomass Bioenergy
2003, 25, 147165.
(38) Yokwe, S. Agric. Water Manage. 2009, 96, 12231228.
(39) Hawthorn, W. Private communication. 2iC Consultants Ltd.,
Tullibody, U.K., 2008.
(40) Masiyandima, M.; Van der Stoep, I.; Mwanasawani, T; Pfupa-
jena, S. C. Phys. Chem. Earth 2002, 27, 935940.
(41) Phocaides, A. Handbook on Pressurized Irrigation Techniques,
2nd ed.; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: Rome,
Italy, 2007.
(42) Department for Transport (DfT). Carbon and Sustainability
Reporting Within the Renewable Transport Obligation. Requirement
and Guidance Government Recommendations to the Office of the
Renewable Fuels Agency, London, U.K., 2008.
(43) CONCAWE and European Council on Automotive Research
and Development (EUCAR). Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Future Auto-
motive Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context. Tank to Wheel
Report Version 3. 2008.
2494
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
calculated on the basis of combustion in a typical European
compact-size, five-seater car, using a direct-injection compres-
sion-ignition (DICI) engine.
2.10. Comparisons to Fossil Diesel. The results fromthis study
have been compared to the environmental impacts of fossil-
derived diesel, used in either South Africa or the U.K., using
results from the literature.
42,44
Comparisons here are calculated
on a basis of equivalent net energy content of biodiesel and
diesel, assuming that the lower calorific value of biodiesel is 37.2
MJ/kg and that of fossil diesel is 43.1 MJ/kg.
42
In comparison to
fossil-derived diesel used in the U.K., biodiesel was compared to
100% fossil-derived diesel, with overall fossil-energy and GWP
burdens of 1.14 and 86 10
-3
kg of CO
2
equiv/MJ, respectively.
In the case of the comparison of biodiesel to fossil-derived diesel
in South Africa, it has been assumed that 65 vol %of diesel used
in South Africa is produced by refining crude oil, while the
remaining 35 vol % was synthetic fuel, with 15 vol % being
produced by Sasols CtLplant inSecunda and 20 vol %fromthe
GtL plant operated by PetroSA company in Mossel Bay,
45,46
resulting in average overall fossil-energy and GWP burdens of
1.39 and 104 10
-3
kg of CO
2
equiv/MJ, respectively.
2.11. Details of the Process Chains. The process chains shown
in panels a and b of Figure 1 have been generated using the
assumptions described below. Assumptions regarding the dis-
tances involved in the transport of the product and raw materi-
als were formulated after discussions with farmers and biodiesel
producers during the collection of information. Where details
regarding the delivery of a chemical to the farm or process plant
(e.g., N fertilizer and methanol) are not specified, it is implicitly
assumed that it is transported an average distance of 100 km by
bulk road carrier transport. There are considerable uncertain-
ties associated with these distances; therefore, their influence on
the total GWP of biodiesel have been investigated. Detailed
information regarding the performance of trucks typically used
in South Africa was not available; therefore, it was assumed that
their performance would be similar to trucks used in Europe.
However, emissions specific to the combustion of diesel used in
South Africa, which contains 35 vol % synthetic fuel (as
detailed above), were used.
2.12. Details of the Agricultural Procedures. Because this work
investigates the typical production of biodiesel in South Africa
rather than at a specific location, average agricultural informa-
tion for the country has been used. The main inputs associated
with the agricultural operations required for the growth of the
oil crops, canola, sunflower and soybean, are shown in Table 1.
2.12.1. Canola. At present, canola is generally grown in the
Western Cape province, and typically, a yield of around 1.5
tons/ha is realized.
47
Most canola is not irrigated in South
Africa; therefore, no irrigation is included in the base scenario.
However, if canola were to be grown in drier regions of South
Africa, irrigation would be required; for example, canola grown
in the northwest of South Africa would require 450 mm per
season.
48
Before sowing the seeds, the soil undergoes stubble cultiva-
tion to help eliminate potential weed problems, requiring 10
10
-3
m
3
/ha of diesel. Subsoiling, using 20 10
-3
m
3
/ha of
diesel is also required approximately every 7 years, to break up
clods of earth.
47
After cultivation, the seeds are sown at a rate of
5 kg/ha
47
using a cereal drill, and the soil is rolled to ensure
adequate contact between it and the seeds. Both operations
require 5 10
-3
m
3
/ha of diesel. Fertilizer requirements of
57.5 kg of N ha
-1
year
-1
and 41 kg of phosphate ha
-1
year
-1
were based on typical usage in the region, assuming the rape
straw is ploughed back into the field.
47
South African soils
generally have adequate quantities of potassium;
49
therefore, it
was assumed that no potash fertilizer was applied to the soils.
Limestone (CaCO
3
) is applied to most soils to maintain the
appropriate pH, with application frequency and quantity being
specific to the soil type; typical values have been used, with 4
tons being applied per hectare every 5 years.
28
A windrower is used for harvesting; this cuts the crops, which
are then left in rows for 7-10 days to dry, before being picked
up. This method, known as swathing, uses 23 10
-3
m
3
of
diesel/ha. Swathing is advantageous because (i) the seeds do not
require drying, (ii) fewer seeds are lost to the wind, (iii) uniform
ripening of the seed can be ensured, and (iv) it allows for an
earlier harvest, if necessary.
47
2.12.2. Soybean. The soybean yield achieved in South Africa
during the 2006/2007 season was 1.2 tons/ha,
50
and this yield
was assumed in this work. Some soybean crops are irrigated in
South Africa, while others are reliant on prevailing rainfall. For
example, in the Mpumalanga province, it is estimated that 55%
of soybean crops are irrigated, while 15 and 13%are irrigated in
the Kwazulu-Natal and Free State provinces, respectively,
51
requiring in each case up to 700 mm irrigation per season.
48
The agricultural procedure employed in South Africa to
produce soybeans requires annual deep ploughing, using 42
10
-3
m
3
/ha of diesel, as well as stubble cultivation. Seeds are
sown at a rate of 90 kg/ha
17
using a cereal drill. Fertilizer
requirements were based on the 2004 South African average,
where 40% of the land used to grow soybeans was fertilized at a
rate of 7.3 kg of N/ha, 11.0 kg of P/ha, and 7.3 kg of K/ha, while
the remaining 60% was not fertilized.
52
As with canola, lime-
stone is applied tomost soils tomaintainthe appropriate pHand
a typical applicationrate of 4 tons/ha every 5 years was assumed.
A combine harvester is used to harvest the soybeans, requiring
27 10
-3
m
3
/ha of diesel.
2.12.3. Sunflower. Generally, potential sunflower seed yields
(1.5-2.5 tons/ha)
53
are not achieved in South Africa; the
average yield for the 2006/2007 season was 0.95 ton/ha.
50
One
reason for low yields is that sunflower is often grown as a catch
crop in South Africa, thus not realizing its full potential. Other
limiting factors include poor and uneven stands, poor weed
control, late planting, insufficient fertilization, and wrong
choice of cultivar.
53
In this work, both current and recom-
mended agricultural practices were considered, referred to as
sunflower a and b, respectively. As with soybean crops, some
sunflower crops are irrigated in South Africa, while others are
not. In the Free State province, it is estimated that 51% of
sunflower crops are irrigated, while 35% are irrigated in the
North West province,
51
using up to 500 mm irrigation water per
season.
48
The cultivation of sunflower crops involves annual deep
ploughing to break up limiting layers and stubble cultivation
for weed control. Seeds are sown at a rate of 2 kg/ha
49
using a
cereal drill, which is equipped with press wheels, to ensure
adequate contact between the seed and the soil. The recom-
mended fertilization of sunflower seeds differs from current
(44) CONCAWE and European Council on Automotive Research
and Development (EUCAR). Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Future Auto-
motive Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context. Well to Tank
Report Version 2b. 2006.
(45) Fitton, J. Private communication. Sasol, Johannesburg, South
Africa, 2008.
(46) SouthAfricanPetroleumIndustry Association (SAPIA). Annual
Report. 2006.
(47) Strausse, J. Private communication. Elsenburg College, Stellen-
bosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2007.
(48) Water Research Commission. SAPWAT version 2.6.0. 2008
(http://www.sapwat.org.za/).
(49) KZN Agriculture and Environmental Affairs. Sunflower Pro-
duction: A Precise Guide. 2008 (http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/portal/
Home/tabid/56/Default.aspx).
(50) South African Crop Estimates Committee. Area planted and
forth production estimate of summer crops: 2006/2007 season. 2007.
(51) Food and Agriculture Organization of UnitedNations. Fertilizer
use by crop in South Africa. Rome, Italy, 2005.
(52) Fertilizer Society of South Africa FSSA-MVSA. Fertilizer Use
by Crop in the Republic of South Africa Report. Pretoria, South Africa,
2004.
(53) Fertilizer Society of South Africa (FSSA-MVSA). FSSA Ferti-
lizer Handbook, 5th ed.; FSSA-MVSA: Pretoria, South Africa, 2003.
2495
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
practice. The current fertilization practice assumed in this work
was based on that employed in 2004, where 85% of sunflower
crops were fertilized with 15.1 kg of N/ha, 8.5 kg of P/ha, and 2
kg of K/ha, while the remaining 15% received no fertilizer.
52
Recommended nitrogen and phosphorus additions are higher,
at 54 and 20.5 kg/ha, respectively.
53
Acombine harvester is used
to harvest sunflower seeds, using 27 10
-3
m
3
/ha of diesel.
2.13. Details of the Biodiesel Production Processes. The main
inputs required for the oil extraction and biodiesel production of
medium-, small-, and microscale biodiesel production are
shown in Table 2.
2.13.1. Medium Scale. It was assumed that the oil seed would
be harvested with a suitable moisture content for the oil-extraction
facilities (e9 wt %), so that drying would not be required. After
harvesting, it was assumed that the oil seed would be transported
200 kmby truck(9 toncapacity) andthentakentostorage, where it
would be cooled using 220 kWelectric fans.
30
The oil wouldnext be
extracted from the seeds by solvent extraction with hexane. Seed
meal is produced as a co-product of the oil extraction, with an oil
content of 1-2 wt %. After extraction, the oil would be refined at
the extraction plant to remove phospholipids, fatty acids, and
pigments, such as chlorophyll, before being transported 500 km
by truck (27 ton capacity), from the crusher to the biodiesel
production plant, which has been based on plant A, with a capacity
to produce 60 10
3
tons of biodiesel per year. The process in plant
Auses 1020 kg of vegetable oil and 115 kg of methanol per ton of
biodiesel; 109 kg of methanol is converted into biodiesel during the
esterificationreaction, andit was assumedthat the remaining6kgis
split in the mass ratio of 6:4 between the product and glycerol
streams.
54
It was assumed that the methanol would be produced
from natural gas.
55
The methanol residing in the product phase
is removed under reduced pressure; however, methanol is not
recycledinthe process. Awaste streamconsistingmainlyof glycerol
(80 wt %) is produced at a rate of 130 kg/ton of biodiesel
produced. At the time of the site visit to plant A, this waste was
stored on site, but the aim was to sell it as a fuel for industrial
furnaces. For this work, it was assumed that the glycerol waste
streamwould be transported 500 km, by truck (27 ton capacity), to
anindustrial furnace, withanefficiency(definedas the proportionof
the lower calorific value, whichis convertedtouseful heat) of 60%.
56
The use of the biodiesel in both South Africa and the U.K. was
investigated. For the case of using the biodiesel in South Africa, it
was assumed that the biodiesel product would be transported by
truck (27 ton capacity) to the customer, an average distance of
200 km from the production plant. For its use in the U.K., it was
assumed that the biodiesel would be first transported by truck
(27 ton capacity), 200 km in South Africa, then by an average sea
tanker, fueledbyheavyfuel oil, afurther 13600kmtoablendingsite
in the U.K. (distance between ports in Cape Town and London). It
would then be transported a further 140 km to a filling station.
2.13.2. Small Scale. The small-scale system differs from the
medium scale in that it was assumed that the storage and
crushing of the seed would occur at the farm rather than at a
large-scale, seed-crushing facility. It was assumed that the dried
seed would be stored for 250 h in a storage facility, holding 500
tons of seeds, while it is aired using a 7.5 kW fan, requiring 14
MJ electricity/ton of seeds.
57
The oil would then be extracted
using a cold screw press, modeled on a 22 kW press capable of
treating 400 kg of seed per hour and requiring approximately
227 MJ electricity/ton of seeds.
58
If cold pressing is used to
extract the oil from the seeds, a lower quantity of phospholipid
is usually extracted than if solvent extraction is employed;
6
Table 1. Main Inputs Required for the Growth of (i) Canola, (ii) Soybean, and (iii) Sunflower Crops (a, Current Practice; b,
Recommended Practice) in South Africa
agriculture unit canola soybean sunflower a sunflower b
yield of seed at 9 wt % moisture tons/ha 1.5 1.2 0.95 2.0
seed oil quantity % 40-42 20 44 44
oil yield tons/ha 0.62 0.24 0.42 0.88
seed sowing rate kg/ha 5 90 2 2
nitrogen fertilizer requirement kg of N/ha 57.5 3 13 54
phosphate fertilizer requirement kg of P
2
O
5
/ha 41 10 17 47
potash fertilizer requirement kg of K
2
O/ha 0 4 2 0
sulfate fertilizer requirement kg of SO
3
/ha 38 0 0 0
pesticide requirement kg/ha 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
number of pesticide sprays year
-1
2 2 2 2
number of fertilizer spreads year
-1
3 1 3 3
limestone requirement kg of CaCO
3
/ha 800 800 800 800
diesel requirement m
3
/ha 0.068 0.097 0.11 0.11
nitrogen in crop residues kg of N ha
-1
year
-1
46.8 22.5 46.3 65.6
Table 2. Main Inputs Required for Medium-, Small-, and Microscale Biodiesel Production (Information from Site Visits to Plants A, B, and C)
units medium-scale small-scale microscale
reactor type stirred batch stirred batch stirred batch
reaction temperature C 60 60 60
reaction time min 105 135 540
reaction pressure bar 1.01 1.01 1.01
methanol input kg/ton of biodiesel 115 179 193
direct electricity requirement MJ/ton of biodiesel 974 1286 1365
direct heating requirement (natural gas) MJ/ton of biodiesel 602 0 0
catalyst requirement kg/ton of biodiesel NaOH, 5.6 KOH, 12.2 NaOH, 3.9
sulphuric acid requirement kg/ton of biodiesel 0.06 0 0
hydrochloric acid requirement kg/ton of biodiesel 0 2.8 0
magnesium sulfate requirement kg/ton of biodiesel 0 0.4 0
mass conversion of oil to biodiesel % 98 90 90
(54) Zhou, W.; Boocock, D. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2006, 83 (12),
10471052.
(55) Aasberg-Petersen, K.; StubNielsen, C.; Dybkjaer, I.; Perregaard,
J. Large scale methanol production from natural gas, Haldor Topse,
Lyngby, Denmark.
(56) Trinks, W.; Mawhinney, M. H.; Shannon, R. A.; Reed, R. J.;
Garvey, J. R. Industrial Furnaces, 6th ed.; John Wiley and Sons: NewYork,
2004.
(57) Armitage, D.; Prickett, A.; Norman, K.; Wildev, K. Survey of
current harvesting, drying and storage practices with oilseed rape.
Project Report 371. Home Grown Cereals Authority (HGCA), Kenil-
worth, U.K., 2005.
(58) Dave Cripps Agricultural Ltd. Private communication. 2007.
2496
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
therefore, it was assumed that the oil would not undergo a
refining process. The oil would be transported by truck (9 ton
capacity), from the farm to the biodiesel production plant, an
assumed average distance of 200 km, as shown in Figure 1b. The
plant was modeledon plant B, whichhas the capacity toproduce
8000 tons of biodiesel/year. The process uses 1110 kg of
vegetable oil and 179 kg of methanol per ton of biodiesel; 109
kg of methanol is converted into biodiesel during the esterifica-
tion reaction, and the remaining 70 kg is split inthe ratio by mass
of 6:4 betweenthe product and glycerol streams.
54
The methanol
residing in the product phase is removed; however, it was
assumed that no methanol would be recycled because, at the
time of the site visit, high water levels in the methanol prevented
its reuse in the process. A waste stream consisting mainly of
glycerol (46 wt %), unconverted oil (25 wt %), and methanol
(19 wt %) is produced at a rate of 177 kg/ton of biodiesel
produced, which is sold for use as a fuel in industrial furnaces
(assumed efficiency of 60%
56
). It was assumed that the biodiesel
would be used in South Africa, transported by a road tanker
(17 ton capacity) to the customer, an average distance of 100 km
from the production plant.
2.13.3. Microscale. As with the small-scale production pro-
cess, it was assumed that the storage and crushing of the seed
would occur at the farm, where a cold screw press would be used
to extract the oil. It was assumed that the oil would not undergo a
refining process and would be transportedby a roadtanker (9 ton
capacity), from the farm to the biodiesel production plant, an
assumed average distance of 10 km. The plant was based on plant
C, which has the capacity to produce 300 tons of biodiesel per
year. This plant uses 1110 kg of vegetable oil and 193 kg of
methanol per ton of biodiesel, and no methanol is recovered. The
reaction time of this process is 9 h, significantly longer than that
of both the medium-scale reaction (1.75 h) and the small-scale
reaction (2.25 h). A waste stream consisting mainly of glycerol
(50 wt %), methanol (25%), and oil (25%) is produced at a
rate of 221 kg/ton of biodiesel produced. As with plant A, at the
time of the site visit toplant C, this waste was stored on site; this is
not viable in the long term; therefore, for this work, it was
assumed that the glycerol waste would be transported 500 km,
by truck (9 ton capacity), to an industrial furnace with an
efficiency of 60%
56
for the generation of thermal energy. It was
assumed that the biodiesel would be used in South Africa,
transported by a road tanker (9 ton capacity) to the customer,
an average distance of 10 km from the production plant.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Base Cases. The inputs displayed in Tables 1 and 2 and
discussed above have beenusedtoproduce base scenarios for
the production and use of biodiesel in South Africa from
canola, soybean, and sunflower oil-seed crops, at medium-,
small-, and microscales. The base cases assume that no
irrigation would be required and no grassland would be
ploughed. Variations fromthese scenarios were investigated.
Table 3 shows the LCA results for the base scenarios; these
results were used to compare the use of biodiesel to the
current fossil-diesel mix of South Africa, using results from
the literature, and it can be seen that savings in fossil-energy
requirement and GWP can be achieved for these scenarios.
When considering using the biodiesel produced at a med-
ium scale for use in the U.K., the total burdens are not signi-
ficantly different from those shown in Table 3. For example,
the total GWPof biodiesel producedfromcanola at a medium
scale is 2893 kg of CO
2
equiv/ton when used in South Africa
and 2937 kg of CO
2
equiv/ton after transport by a sea tanker
to the U.K. and delivery to a filling station. However, the
savings achieved by using this biodiesel rather than fossil-
derived diesel reduce if it is used in the U.K., as shown in
Figure 2. This is because fossil-derived diesel used in South
Africa includes 35 vol % syn-diesel, with 15 vol % being
produced from coal (CtL) and 20 vol % from gas (GtL),
21,22
while in the U.K., conventional diesel from the refining of
crude oil is predominantly used. Syn-diesel from coal or
natural gas has a significantly higher fossil-energy require-
ment and GWP than diesel derived from the conventional
refining of crude oil; therefore, greater savings canbe achieved
using biodiesel in SouthAfrica rather than the U.K. When the
results from this paper are compared to previous work in the
literature, biodiesel produced in South Africa, when no land
requires to be newly ploughed and no irrigation is required,
has a higher GWP to biodiesel produced from both oilseed
rape grown on arable land in the U.K. (2000-2400 kg of
CO
2
equiv/ton of biodiesel
14,30,42
) and soybeans grown on
arable land in the United States of America (2200 kg of CO
2
equiv/ton of biodiesel
42
). However, this biofuel has a signifi-
cantly lower GWP to biodiesel produced from palm oil
grown on peatland forest in Malaysia, which has a GWP of
14 500 kg of CO
2
equiv/ton of biodiesel.
59
Figure 2. GWP and total fossil-energy savings of using biodiesel,
produced in South Africa at a medium scale, in either South Africa
or the U.K. Comparisons are made based on the average burden of
fossil-derived diesel used in each country.
Table 3. LCA Results for Biodiesel Produced and Used in South Africa: (i) Total Burden per Ton of Biodiesel, in kg of CO
2
equiv for
GWP and GJ for Fossil-Energy Requirement and (ii) Savings When Compared to Fossil-Derived Diesel Used in South Africa (65% from
Crude Oil, 20% GtL, and 15% CtL)
21,22 a
medium scale small scale microscale
GWP fossil energy GWP fossil energy GWP fossil energy
i ii (%) i ii (%) i ii (%) i ii (%) i ii (%) i ii (%)
canola 2893 25 21.6 58 2892 25 20.9 60 2912 25 21.2 59
soybean 3002 22 25.8 50 3003 22 25.5 51 3023 22 25.7 50
sunflower a 3082 20 24.6 52 3071 21 24.3 53 3091 20 24.5 53
sunflower b 2556 34 20.7 60 2470 36 19.8 62 2491 36 20.3 61
a
Here, CtL and GtL are fossil-derived fuels from the Fischer-Tropsch processing of coal and natural gas, respectively.
(59) Wicke, B.; Dornburg, V.; Junginger, M.; Faaij, A. Biomass
Bioenergy 2008, 32, 13221337.
2497
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
:
DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
Table 3 also shows that the scale of operation has little
influence on the GWP and total fossil-energy requirements
of biodiesel production in South Africa. It is also evident that
biodiesel produced from either canola, soybean, or sun-
flower seed oil currently saves roughly the same GWP when
compared to fossil-derived diesel, while the production of
biodiesel from canola uses slightly less fossil energy. How-
ever, if the yield of sunflower seeds could achieve its potential
using recommended agricultural practices, the GWP of
biodiesel could be lowered significantly.
Figures 3 and 4 show the fossil-energy requirement and
GWP, respectively, for the main stages involved in the base
case production of biodiesel fromcanola, at each scale, along
with the burdens associated with delivering the biodiesel to a
filling stationinthe U.K. It canbe seenfromFigure 3 that the
main fossil-energy requirements arise from the esterification
and agricultural stages of the process. When biodiesel is
produced at a medium scale, the esterification step uses less
fossil energy than when produced at a small or microscale,
because the process requires less methanol, while the lower
agricultural burden observed in Figure 3 is attributed to a
higher conversion of oil to biodiesel. However, the waste
glycerol stream produced by the medium-scale production
process has a lower content of oil and methanol; therefore,
the energy saved by combusting this stream is lower than for
small- and microscale production. Solvent extraction and
refining are also more energy-intensive than cold pressing;
therefore, overall, these effects cancel and the total fossil-
energy requirements for biodiesel production at each scale
barely differ from each other.
It can be seen from Figure 4 that the main source of GWP
is fromthe agricultural stage, for eachscale of operation. The
same patterns in the differences in burdens between each
scale of operation as those observed from Figure 3 for the
fossil-energy requirement, are observed here.
The fossil-energy requirement and GWPassociated with the
agricultural stage of the production of biodiesel at a medium
scale, using each feedstock, are analyzed in greater detail in
Figures 5 and 6. These results display the burdens associated
with the biodiesel only, using the allocation methods detailed
above. For each oil crop, the most significant input contribut-
ing to the fossil-energy requirement of the agricultural stage is
seen in Figure 5 to be the use of farm machinery. When
considering current agricultural practices, the cultivation of
canola inSouth Africa for use as a biodiesel feedstock is shown
tobe less energy-intensive thansoybeanor sunflower, owing to
a lower fuel requirement from farm operations; however,
Figure 3. Fossil-energy requirement of the key stages in the life cycle
of the production of biodiesel from canola oil in South Africa, at
medium-, small-, and microscale, including the option of delivering
to the U.K.
Figure 5. Fossil-energy requirement, in GJ/ton of biodiesel, of the
key stages involved in the agricultural practices used to produce the
oil seeds, canola, soybean, and sunflower (current and recom-
mended practice), for the production of biodiesel at a mediumscale.
Figure 4. GWP of the key stages in the life cycle of the production of
biodiesel from canola oil in South Africa, at medium-, small-, and
microscale, including the option of delivering to the U.K.
Figure 6. GWP, in kg of CO
2
equiv/ton of biodiesel, of the main
stages involved in the agricultural practices used to produce the oil
seeds, canola, soybean, and sunflower (current and recommended
practice), for the production of biodiesel at a medium scale.
2498
Energy Fuels 2010, 24, 24892499
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DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
there is significant scope to reduce the fossil-energy require-
ment for the production of sunflower seeds, if recommended
practices are employed.
Figure 6 shows that emissions of CO
2
from the neutraliza-
tion of soils by limestone, fuel from the use of farm machin-
ery, and emissions of N
2
O from both nitrogenous fertilizers
and crop residues contribute the most to the overall GWP of
the agricultural stage of biodiesel production. The contribu-
tion from the manufacturing of fertilizers is shown to be
small for biodiesel produced from soya beans and sunflower a
(current practice); however, this burden was found to represent
24%of the agricultural burdenassociatedwithbiodiesel from
canola (corresponding to 435 te CO
2
-equivalent/te biodiesel).
It can also be seen fromFigure 6 that the total GWPassociated
withthe cultivationof eachcrop, using current practices, is very
similar; however, sunflower seeds have the potential to reduce
the GWP of the biodiesel feedstock by 20-25%, if recom-
mended practices are employed.
3.2. Ploughing Grassland. The savings in GWP from using
biodiesel rather than fossil fuels in South Africa, detailed in
Table 3, were calculated assuming all of the land used to grow
the crops had previously been idle crop land and had been
fully cultivated. However, as noted earlier, it is likely that
significant quantities of grassland will require cultivation to
provide the land required for the oil crops. Figure 7 shows the
GWP of biodiesel, produced at a medium scale from canola,
soybean, and sunflower seeds, when the previous land use was
either idle arable land, which had already been ploughed, or
grassland, which would require ploughing. Figure 7 also
shows the GWP of biodiesel that would result in zero GWP
savings when compared to fossil-derived diesel used in South
Africa and the U.K., on an energy basis. It can be seen that, if
the oil-seed crops are grown on land that had previously been
grassland and current agricultural practices were employed,
the GWP of biodiesel would be greater than fossil diesel used
in both South Africa and the U.K.
3.3. Irrigation. The results in Table 3 also assume that no
irrigation would be used to grow the oil crops; however, in
some cases, irrigation may be required. Figure 8 shows the
increase in GWP of biodiesel, produced at a medium scale,
when irrigated using systems A and B and assuming that the
crop yield would not be affected. As noted earlier, system A
uses an electric pump to retrieve groundwater from 75 m
below the surface, while system B uses a diesel-powered
pump to convey local river water. Irrigation is shown to
have a dramatic effect on the GWP of the biodiesel, parti-
cularly if system A is used. For example, soybean crops can
require up to 700 mm of irrigation water per season in South
Africa;
48
if soybeans were used to produce biodiesel, the
GWP of biodiesel would be 4.7 and 1.4 times greater than
fossil diesel used in South Africa for irrigation systems Aand
B, respectively. The observed difference in GWP between
systems A and B arises from the difference in the total
dynamic head of the pumps (150 m for A and 65 m for B)
and the fuels employed to power the pumps; to provide 1 MJ
of energy, farmdiesel releases 77 10
-3
kg of CO
2
equiv,
60
while electricity fromthe SouthAfrican grid(of which 90%
is provided by coal-fired power stations
20
) releases 285
10
-3
kg. It is therefore significantly more detrimental to use
electrically powered pumps than those powered by diesel.
The average oil-seed yield in South Africa is significantly
lower than in other parts of the world,
51
in part because the
crops donot receive enoughwater for optimal growth. Figure 9
investigates whether an increase of 100% in the current yield
would compensate for the increased GWP burden fromirriga-
tion using systems A or B, at levels recommended for dry land
areas (450 mm/season for canola, 700 mm/season for soybean,
and 500 mm/season for sunflower
48
). It can be seen from
Figure 9 that, even if yields were doubled, irrigation at these
levels using system A would cause an increase in the GWP of
biodiesel producedfromcanola, soybean, andsunflower seeds,
resulting in the biodiesel having a much higher GWP than
fossil-derived diesel used in either South Africa or the U.K.
Figure 7. GWP of biodiesel produced at a medium scale in South
Africa, when the previous land use was either idle arable land,
subject to regular ploughing, or grassland, requiring ploughing.
Figure 8. GWP of biodiesel produced at a medium scale in South
Africa, when the quantity of irrigation is varied, using systems A
and B, assuming a constant crop yield.
Figure 9. GWP of biodiesel produced in South Africa at a medium
scale (i) if no irrigation were used and (ii) if irrigation systems Aand
B were used, causing the crop yield to double.
(60) Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(DEFRA). Statistical Analysis Database for DEFRA Project NF0614.
Environmental tools for biomaterials. Primary Energy and Greenhouse
Gas Multipliers for Fuels and Electricity. London, U.K., 2004.
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DOI:10.1021/ef100051g Stephenson et al.
However, if irrigation using system B was used, the increase in
GWPbecause of the energyrequirement of the irrigationpump
wouldbe offset bythe savings inagricultural burdenbecause of
the increase in yield, resulting in an overall GWP lower than
that of fossil-derived diesel used in South Africa or the U.K.
It is therefore extremely important to determine the method
of irrigation and possible improvements in yield before
deciding whether to use irrigated oil seeds for the production
of biodiesel.
3.4. Transport. The impact of transporting feedstock and
finished products has been examined by determining how
varying the distances involved in medium-, small-, and
microscale production changes the fossil-energy requirement
and GWP of the process chains. For medium-scale produc-
tion from canola and sunflower seeds, the distance to which
these impacts would be most sensitive is that between the oil-
extraction facility and the biodiesel production plant, owing
to the relatively large distances assumed. For medium-scale
production from soybeans, the GWP and fossil-energy re-
quirement were more sensitive to the distance between the
farms and the crushing facility, owing to the low content of
oil in soybeans. It was found that transport has little impact
on the overall fossil-energy requirement and GWP; for
example, doubling each of these distances would increase
the overall fossil-energy requirement and GWP by less than
3% each. Because small- and microscale production involve
shorter distances than production at a medium-scale, the
transport of the feedstock and finished products would make
an even smaller difference to the overall fossil-energy and
GWP; doubling each distance involved would increase these
burdens by less than 1% each. The transport of chemicals to
the farm or process plant would have a negligible impact on
the overall environmental burden of the processes.
3.5. Case Study: Biodiesel Production in the Eastern Cape
for Export to Europe. At present, there are plans to build a
biodiesel production plant in the Eastern Cape Province, to
produce biodiesel for the European market. The plant would
manufacture 400 000 tons of biodiesel/year and use canola as
its feedstock, grown on currently uncultivated land in the
Mzimvubu region of the Eastern Cape province.
5
Canola
crops in this region require 210 mmirrigation per season.
61
Using the assumptions that (i) the yield of canola achieved
would be similar to the South African average, (ii) irrigation
would be supplied from the local Mzimvubu river using
diesel-powered water pumps (system B), and (iii) the biofuel
product would be transported in an average sea tanker,
fueled by heavy fuel oil, from Cape Town to London, a
distance of 13 600 km, the model used in this paper predicts
the GWP to be 4504 kg of CO
2
/ton of biodiesel and the
total fossil-energy requirement to be 29.4 GJ/ton of biodie-
sel. These results correspond to a GWP 41% larger than
fossil-derived diesel used in the U.K. and a fossil-energy
requirement 32% lower. Further research into the CO
2
emissions from cultivating this land is required to achieve
more accurate results, because these emissions are highly
dependent upon soil type.
4. Conclusions
This work shows that the GWP and fossil-energy require-
ments of biodiesel produced in South Africa vary signifi-
cantly, depending upon predominantly the quantity of
irrigation used, the yield of the crop, and whether or not
grassland is converted to arable land to make way for the oil-
seed crop. The scales at which the biodiesel conversion plants
operate and the transport distances involved have little influ-
ence. When considering current agricultural practices, there is
little variation in the GWP and fossil-energy requirement of
biodiesel produced from soybean, canola, or sunflower seeds;
however, if recommended practices were employed and target
yields of sunflower seeds were reached, the GWP and fossil-
energy requirement of biodiesel produced from sunflower
seeds could be significantly reduced.
For the best case scenario, where no irrigation is used and the
land used to grow the crop had previously been idle arable land
that was already in cultivation, biodiesel currently produced in
South Africa has a GWP between 20 and 25% lower than the
fossil-diesel mix currently used in South Africa and a fossil-
energy requirement 50-60% lower. If the biodiesel were
shipped by an oil tanker for use in the U.K., the savings in
GWP would reduce to 0-10%, while the total fossil-energy
savings would be 40-50%. It would therefore be more envir-
onmentally beneficial to use the biodiesel to satisfy home
demand rather than exporting it to the U.K. For example, if
170000 tons of biodiesel were produced in South Africa each
year (representing 2 vol % of diesel usage in 2008
62
), for the
best case scenario, this wouldresult inasavings of 160000tons
of CO
2
/year if displacing diesel used in South Africa but only
40000 tons of CO
2
/year if displacing diesel used in the U.K.
If the grassland required cultivation, the GWP and fossil-
energy requirement of biodiesel produced in South Africa
would increase dramatically, resulting in its use having a
higher GWP than fossil-derived diesel used in either the
U.K. or South Africa. Irrigation has been shown to be very
energy-intensive, and its use would significantly affect the
overall GWP and fossil-energy requirement of biodiesel,
particularly if borehole irrigation using electrically powered
pumps was employed. A high yield of crop is, however,
important; therefore, the trade-off between possible increased
yields from using irrigation and the environmental burden of
the system must be considered for each individual case.
Acknowledgment. The authors are grateful to the following for
the information and advice that they provided: Stephen Arundell
(Cargill), Thapelo Letete and Bernelle Verster (University of Cape
Town), Neville Murray (Biodiesel Centre, South Africa), and
Johan Strausse (Elsenburg College, Stellenbosch, South Africa).
The support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council (EPSRC) is gratefully acknowledged.
(61) van Heerden, P. , Private communication. Department of Agri-
culture: Western Cape, Elsenburg, South Africa, 2008.
(62) SouthAfrican PetroleumIndustry Association (SAPIA). Annual
Report. 2008.