Physical quantities

The foundation of physics rests upon physical quantities in terms of which the laws of physics are expressed.
Therefore, these quantities have to be measured accurately.
Among these are mass, length, time velocity, force, density, temperature, electric current, and numerous others.
Physical quantities are often divided into two categories: base quantities and derived quantities.
Derived quantities are those whose definitions are based on other physical quantities. elocity acceleration and force
etc. are usually viewed as derived quantities.
!ase quantities are not defined in terms of other physical quantities.
The base quantities are the minimum number of those physical quantities in terms of which other physical quantities can
be defined.
Typical examples of base quantities are length, mass and time.


Conversion of unis

Length
1 kilometer (km) 1000 meter (m)
1 meter (m) 100 centimeter (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) 10 millimeter (mm)
1 millimeter (mm) 1000 micrometer (m)
Area
1m
2
10000 cm
2
1 cm
2
100 mm
2
Volume
1cm
3
1ml
1000cm
3
1000 ml = 1 liter
1m
3
1000000 cm
3
Mass
1 tonne (t) 1000 kilogram (kg)
1 kilogram (kg) 1000 grams (gm)
1 gram (g) 1000 milligram (mg)
Time
1 day 24 hours (h)
1 hour (h) 60 minute (min)
1 minute (min) 60 second (s)
1 second (s) 1000 millisecond (ms)
1 milli second 1000 microsecond (s)


Length
"ength is the distance between two points.
#.$. unit of the length is meter %m&.
$nitially the standard of the length was the distance between the two mar's engraved on a platinum(iridium bar at )
o
*
'ept by the $nternational !ureau of +eight and ,easure at #evres near paris.
$n -./) the --th general conference on weights and measures redifined meter in terms of waelength of a certain orange
line in the spectrum of 'rypton isotope of atomic mass 0/.
Note: "ength is a scalar quantity.

Length-Measurement
"ength can be measured using micrometers, vernier calipers, rulers and measuring tapes.
Length to be measured Example Measuring instrument
Long length (Several
meters)
Length o the class room !easuring ta"e
!edium length Length o ta#le !eter rule
Short length
$%ternal or internal diameter o the
test tu#e
&ernier calli"er
&ery short length 'iameter o the (ire !icrometer scre(gauge


Micrometer
,icrometer is used for more accurate measurements of the small lengths. e.g measuring the diameter of a wire or
thic'ness of a small plate.



Micrometer - Zero error
Zero error occurs when the measuring instrument registered a reading when there should be none, which cause by an
incorrect position of the zero point

Zero error
1. A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero.
2. Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a measurement.
3. he zero error can be positive or negative.


Time
The #.$. unit of time is second.
$nitially a second was ta'en as -10/2)) of a mean solar day of the whole year of -.)) AD.
$n the 3eneral *onference on +eight and ,easure in -./4 the second was redfined as 5the time interval ta'en by
.-.6/7-44) vibrations of cesium(-77 atom under specified condition5.

Multiples / submultiples of time

1 day 24 hours (h)
1 hour (h) 60 minute (min)
1 minute (min) 60 second (s)
1 second (s) 1000 millisecond (ms)
1 milli second 1000 microsecond (s)



Stop-clock
$t is a specially designed watch by which time of an event can be measured accurately in minutes and seconds.
$t consists of two hands , a small minutes hand and a long second hand. !oth the hands are set at 8ero by pressing the
button 59eset5.
+hen the second handle completes one rotation equal to sixty seconds , the minute hand advances by one division.
+hen we want to start the watch we press the button 5start1stop5 and when we we want to stop it, we press the button
again 5start1stop5.
This ma'es the position of the minutes and second hand stationary and record the time interval lapsed by noting the
positions of the hands.



Stanar form
#tandard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily.
-): ; -))), so < = -): ; <)))
#o <))) can be written as < = -):
This idea can be used to write even larger numbers down easily in standard form.
#mall numbers can also be written in standard form. >owever, instead of the index being positive %in the above
example, the index was 7&, it will be negative.
The rules when writing a number in standard form is that first you write down a number between - and -), then you
write = -) %to the power of a number&.
12 000 m 1)2000 * 10
4
m (to + sig) ig)) m
0)002 mm 2 * 10
,3
mm= 2 * 10
,6
m (to 1 sig) ig))
0)000 002 m 2 * 10
,6
m (to 1 sig) ig))


Parallala! error
Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument due to the eye of the observer and pointer are not in a
line perpendicular to the plane of the scale.


Simple penulum
A point mass attached with an inextensible and weightless string whose other end is connected with some rigid support
%e.g. stand& is called simple pendulum.


"mplitue of simple penulum
$t is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
$ts unit is cm %centimeter or meter&.


Time perio of simple penulum
$t is the time ta'en to complete one oscilation of the simple pendulum.
$t is measured in seconds %s&.
$f pendulum has brought at position ?A? and then released freely, it passes through ?@? and reaches to !, then returns
bac' and after passing through ?@? reaches at ?A?. $n this way pendulum completes one oscilation.
Determination of time period: *alculate the time for ten oscilations with the help of stop watch and then use the
following relation to determine the time period.
Time Period ; Time ta'en 1 number of oscilations
Remember:
-( Time period of simple pendulum depends only upon its length.
6( Time period is represented by T.


#requency of simple penulum
$t is the total number of oscilations in one second.
$t is measured in >ert8 %>8&.
Time period and frequency are related with each other by the formula
Arequency ; - 1 Time period
OR
Time Period ; - 1 Arequency
Mass
The mass of a body is the amount of matter in the body.
The S.I. unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
Mass can be measured with the help of spring balance.
$ravitational "cceleration
The earth exerts a costant gravitational pull on a body at any point on its surface.
This gravitational pull will give an uniform acceleration to a free falling body %the body falling freely under
the action of gravity ignoring air resistance&, increasing its velocity by approximately ..0- m1s %-)m1s&
every second.>ence the value of g is approximately ..0m1s
6
%-) m1s
6
&.
Different values of Gravitational
accleration (m / s
2
)
Sun 2-4)13
!ercury 3)+.
&enus /)/-
$arth .)/1
!oon 1)62
!ars 3)--
0u"iter 2+).+
Saturn 11)0/
1ranus 10)6-
2e"tune 14)0-
3luto 0)42
%eight
+eight is the force of gravity on the obBect.
$t is measured in Cewtons %C&.
The weight of obBect depends upon its mass and the gravitational field strength %gravitational
acceleration&.
Any mass near the surface of earth has weight due to the earth?s gravitational pull.
+eight can be calculated using the equation
+eight ; mass %m& D gravotational field strength %g&
w ; mg
The value of the gravitational field strength on earth is ..0- C1'g, through we roound it up to -) C1'g or
-) m 1 s
6
to ma'e the calculations easier.
3ravitational field is the region arround earth for any body, in which obBect enters will get the force of
atarction towards the center of earth.
$f you will stand on the moon, you will feel the gravity of the moon pulling you downward towards the
center of the earth.
The gravitational field strengh on the moon is very less as compared to the earth.
@n the moon gravitational field strength is -./ C 1 'g or -./ m 1 s
6
.
&ifference bet'een mass an 'eight
-. ,ass is amount of matter in an obBect but weight is force of gravity on the obBect.
6. ,ass is measured in 'ilograms but weight is measured in newtons as it is a force.
7. ,ass is a scalar quantity but weight is the vector quantity.
2. ,ass can be measured by using level%physical& balance while weight is measured by using
spring balance.
<. ,ass remains constant everywhere but weight varies from place to place.
Aor example if your weight on earth is <)) C so your mass is <) 'g.
$f you stand on moon still your mass would be <) 'g, but your weight would be 0)C only because g ; -./
C1'g or -./ m 1 s
6
on moon.
Spring balance
A spring balance can be used to determine the mass of the obBects.

The upper end of the spring is hung from a hoo' and the spring is stetched by the weight of the pan
attached to its lower end.
The scale then can be adBusted so that the pointer is aligned with the 8ero mar'.
The balance can be graduated by placing 'nown mass in the pan.
$f the spring balance shows 7) C then the mass would be + 1 g ; 7) 1 -) ; 7 'g, +here g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
$f this balance is moved to the moon the weight would be less and spring would not stretch so far.
$n fact the pointer would indicate a weight of 2.0 C %!ecause the value of g on the moon is -./ m 1 s
6
,
which is the - 1 /
th
of the gravitational acceleration of earth&
#o spring balance measures the weight of the obBect in Cewtons.
9emember: ,ass of the obBect remains same every where %either on the moon or the earth&
&ensity
Density of a substance is defined as 5the mass of substance per unit volume5.
Density ; ,ass 1 olume
The #.$ unit of density is 'g1m
7
or g1cm
7
,ass of the substance can be found by using common level balance. olume of a substance can either be
found by calculation from linear measurements or by usning measuring cylinder.
Density of water ; - g 1 cm
7
; -))) 'g 1 m
7


&etermination of ensity ()egular shape ob*ects+
!y measuring the dimentions of regular shaped obBect we can detremine the its volume by using
mathematical formula.
olume ; "ength D +idth D >eight
!y using balance we can find mass of the obBect.
Putting the values of mass and volume in the following formula, we can detrmine the density of the
regular shaped obBect
Density ; mass 1 volume


&etermination of ensity (,rregular shape ob*ects+
To determine the density of irregular shaped obBects, we use displacement method to calculate the
volume of the iregular shaped obBect.
Ese the balance to find the mass %m& of obBect choose the measuring cylinder that will accept the
obBect.add liquid to the cylinder to fill it enough,so that the obBect will be completely submerged.measure
volume v- of liquid.
"ower the obBect into liquid and measure the new reading 6 so volume of obBect is
;-(6
Density ; mass % m & 1 volume % &
This method can only be used for the obBects having densities greater than density of water.

&ensity of ifferent materials
Denity of different materials are as under.
Substance Density in g/cm

Density !g/m

4ir 1)0 1)24

5resh (ater 1)03 1000
Sea (ater 1)03 1030
6ood 0)+,1)3 +00,1300
!agnesium 1)-4 1-40
Steel -)/ -/00
!ercury 13)6 13600
Silver 10)+ 10+00
7old 1.)3 1.300

Scalar
The quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude %a number and a unit associated with
it& , are called scalar quantities.
Examples:
Distance
#peed
Time
Fnergy
9esistance


-ector
The quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude %a number and a unit associated with it&
and direction, are called vector quantities.
Examples:
Displacement
elocity
Acceleration
Aorce
,oment of force


&istance
$t is the path followed by the body during its motion.
$t is a scalar quantity. #.$. unit of distance is meter.

&isplacement
$t is the shortest distance from the initial point to the final point in the motion of the body.
$t is a vector quantity. The direction of the displacement is always directed from initial point to the final
point.
#.$. unit of displacement is meter.

Spee
$t is the distance covered in unit time. $t is a scalar quantity. $t is measured in m1s.
#peed ; Distance 1 Time
or
v ; s 1 t
The average speed of the obBect can be determined by using the following relation
Average speed ; Total distance covered 1 Total time ta'en


-elocity
The velocity of a body is a vector quantity and helps to detrmine, how fast or slow a body is moving in a
given direction.
Therefore, velocity is defined as 5#peed of a body in a particular diretion5.
$n #$ Enits velocity is measured in meters per second %m1s&, the same as the unit of speed.

"verage -elocity
average velocity ; Total distant travel 1 Total time ta'en
The concept of average velocity is useful when velocity varies with time.


.niform -elocity
A car moving at constant speed in straight line possesses uniform velocity as long as its magnitude and
direction of motion remain unchanged.


-ariable -elocity
$f a body covers different displacement in equal time inetrvals, it is said to be moving with variable
velocity.
The change in a velocity of a body may be caused due to change in its magnitude or direction or both.
A body moving in a curved or a circular path at a constant speed possesses variable velocity as its
direction of motion changes continuously.

$raphs
$t is a pictorial form of data.
$n $3*#F Physics, we always plot the graph between two sets of values %6D graph&.
$ndependent set of value is always ta'en along x(axis.
Dependent set of value is always ta'en along y( axis.
$f graph is straight line and passes through the origin then the quantities along both the axes are
proportional to each other.

&istance - time graph
Time always runs hori8ontally %along x(axis&.
Distance always runs vertically %along y(axis&.
The slope of distance time graph gives us speed.
#peed is a scalar quantity.
The unit of speed is m 1 s.



Spee - time graph
The area under the speed time ( graph gives us distance.
Distance is a scalar quantity.
The unit if distance is meters %m&.



EQUATIONS OF MOTION
When a (acceleration) is a constant:
V=u+at
S=(u+)t!"
V"=u"+"as
S=ut+#!"at"
"cceleration
A body moving with a variable velocity possesses accelaeration.
Acceleration can be defined as, 5the time rate of change of velocity of a body5 or 5the change in velocity
of a body in unit time5.
$f the velocity of body increases , its acceleration is positive and it is produced in the direction of the
motion of the body.
@n the other hand , if the velocity of the body decreases, its acceleration is negative and is produced
opposite to the direction of the motion of the body. The negative acceleration is also called deceleration or
retardation.
$n case of a body moving in a straight line, the acceleration is produced due to change of speed. $f the
speed increases, the acceleration is positive and vice(versa.
Acceleration is also produced in case of change of the direction of motion. $f a body is moving in a curved
path at constant speed, acceleration is produced in it due to change in the diection of motion. the
acceleration is directed inward at right angles to the direction of velocity.
$n the present chapter, we restrict ourselves to the study of linear motion.


"verage acceleration
The average accelelration of a moving body is obtained by dividing the total change in its velocity by the
total time ta'en for this change. Thus,
Average acceleration ; Total change in velocity 1 Total time ta'en
$f Gv represents the change in velocity of a body produced in time internal Gt, the average acceleration a
is given by,
a ; Gv 1 Gt
$n #$ units velocity is expressed in metre per second and time in seconds, therefore, acceleration is
expressed in m1s
6
.

.niform acceleration
A body is said to be moving with a uniform acceleration if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal
intervals of time however small the intervals may be.
The uniform acceleration is genarally denoted by a.
The average and instantaneous values of acceleration of a body become equal when it is moving with a
uniform acceleration.

-ariable acceleration/
$f velocity of a moving body changes by different amount in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving
with a variable acceleration.
A body is said to possess variable acceleration if the magnitude of its acceleration is changing or its
direction is changing or both.


"cceleration ue to gravity
Farth pulls all the obBects towards its centre.This force exerted by the earth on other obBects is called
gravity.
Thus the motion of bodies falling freely under the influence of this force is termed as, the motion under
gravity.
The force of gravity produces uniform acceleration in the bodies falling freely. This acceleration is called
acceleration due to gravity and it its denoted by the letter 5g5.
$t is the same as gravitational field strength.
$t is approximately ..0- m 1 s
6
%in $3*#F we can use -) m 1 s
6
& on the surface of the earth.


"cceleration - 0!amples
Example:
A train moving with a velocity of -) m1s accelerates uniformly to a velocity of 7) m1s in -) s. Aind the
acceleration of the train.
Solution:
change of velocity ; Gv ; 7) m1s ( -) m1s ; 6) m1s
time ta'en ; Gt ;-)s
acceleration ; a ;H
a ; Gv 1 Gt ; 6) 1 -) ; 6 m 1 s
6


"cceleration - 0!amples
Example:
Aind retardation produced when a car moving at a velocity of a -)0 'm1h slows down uniformly to <2
'm1h in < s.
Solution:
change of velocity ; Gv ; %<2 'm1h& ( %-)0'm1h& ; ( <2 'm1h
$n #$ units velocity is expressed in m1s therefore,
Gv ; %(<2 I -))) m & 1 /)I/) ; (-< m1s %*onversion from 'm1h to m1s&
Time ta'en ; Gt ; <s
a ;H
using a ; Gv 1 Gt
we get
a ; %(-< m1s& 1 < s ; (7 m1s
6
The negative sign indicates that 5 a5 is retardation or deceleration.
#orce
Aorce is a push or pull.
#$ unit of force is 'g m1s
6
or Cewton %C&
According to the Cewton?s second law of motion
Aorce ; mass D acceleration
A ; m a
To describe a force fully you must state the si8e of the force%magnitude& and also the direction in which it
is trying to move the obBect.
The direction can be described as left, right, upwards, downwards, north, south etc.
Aorces acting in one dricetion can be added to get the resultant force.

Aorces acting in the opposite dricetion can be subtracted to get the resultant force.

0ffect of force
Aorces are measure in newtons.
They ta'e many forms and have many effects including pushing, pulling, bending, stretching, squee8ing
and tearing etc.
Aorces can:
*hange the speed of an obBect
*hange the direction of movement of an obBect
*hange the shape of an obBect


#riction
Ariction:
$t is the force that tries to stop movement between touching surfaces.
Ariction is caused by the roughness of the two surfaces.which produces resistance to movement.
Advantages of friction:
!etween bra'e pads and a bicycle when
#crews and nails remain in places due to friction
$n movement of car on road
Disadvantages of friction:
Produces heat
Parts of machines reduce si8e due to friction
,ost energy is used in overcoming friction


1alance forces
Esually there are least two forces acting on an obBect.
$f these two forces are balanced then the obBect will either be stationary or moving at a constant speed
%with 8ero acceleration&.


.nbalance forces
$f the forces acting on an obBect are unbalanced, then it will change its speed or direction of movement it
will accelerate.
+hen a s'ydiver Bumps from a plane, the weight will be much greater than the opposing force caused by
air resistance.
Air resistance increases as the speed of s'ydiverJs increases.
Ainally it will match the weight so the forces will be balanced and the speed of the s'ydiver will remain
constant. This constant maximum speed is 'nown as the terminal speed.


"ition of forces
$f two or more forces are pulling or pushing an obBect in the same direction the the effect of the forces
will add up.
$f the forces pulling it in opposite directions then the bac'wards forces can be subtracted.
$f two forces are pulling an obBect in different direction, then their resultant can be found by using graphs.
To calculate the single %resultatnt& force we draw the two forces in the correct direction and to a scale
length that is suitable. e.g.
- cm ; -) C or - cm ; < C or - cm ; 6) C etc. %depends on the si8e of force&
Then we can find the resultant by completing the parallelogram.
Then the resultant is the diagonal line across the parallelogram between the two forces.
This gives the direction of resultant force and the magnitude is given by the length of the line.


2e'ton3s firts la' of motion
This law states that Ka body at rest will remain at rest, and a body moving with uniform velocity continue
to do so,unless acted on by some unbalanced external foceL
Fxplanation:
A cup of tea will remain on the table unless someone remove it.
simliarly a car will continue its motion in a straight line even if its engine is off but practically this does not
happen.
!ecause of friction, air resistance and gravitational force, the car stops after some time.
$f it is possible to remove these forces, the car will continue its motion in a straight line.


2e'ton3s secon la' of motion
According to this law 5a force applied on a body produces acceleration in its own direction. The
acceleration produced varies directly with the applied force and inversely with the mass of the body5.
,athematically it is expressed as
A;ma


2e'ton3s thir la' of motion
This law states that 5Action and reaction are equal and opposite in direction.5
+henever an interaction occurs between two obBects,each obBect exerts the same force on the others, but
in the opposite direction and of the same length of time.
Fach force in action reaction pairs acts only on one of the two bodies. The action and reaction forces
never act on the same body.

Circular motion
,oving in a circle means that the direction of motion is changing constantly.
#o, if an obBect is moving in a circle, it follows that there must be a force acting on it to change its
direction.
Therefore we can say that the direction of force is constantly changing.
$n order to move an obBect on a circular path,the force must always be acting towards the centre of the
circle.
This force which is always towards the centre of the circle is given the name of centripetal force.
This centripetal force acts perpendicularly to the direction of motion of the obBect at any instant.
$t can be calculated by the following formula
Ac;mv
6
1r
Ac ; *entripetal force is C
, ; mass of obBect in 'g
; #peed of obBect in m1s


Circular motion - 0!amples
Aew examples of circular motion are as under:
!oon or#iting the
earth
centri"etal orce su""lied #y the
gravitational orce o the earth on the
moon)
4 car turning a
corner
#y the side(ays riction orce o the
road on the tyres)
8eing (hiled in a
hori9ontal circle
#y the tension orce in the string)
The centripetal force is always towards the centre of the circle and perpendicular to the direction in which
the obBect is travelling at that instant.
*onsider the example of stone at the end of string.


Center of mass
The centre of mass is the point where we can assume all the mass of the obBect is concentrated.
As the gravity only acts at a single point in the obBect. #o a single arrow on diagram can represent the
weight of the obBect.
The centre of mass for regularly shaped obBects is in the centre.
Aor irregular shaped obBects,we can find the centre of mass by following steps.
-. >ang up the obBect.
6. #uspend a plumb line from the same place.
7. ,ar' the position of the thread.
2. The centre of mass is along the line of thread.
<. 9epeat the above steps with obBect suspended from different places.
/. The centre of mass is where these lines cross.
*entre of mass lin's stability:
$t is important to 'now where the centre of mass of a body is, as its position determines the stability of
the body.
A body is stable if, when it is tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight passes through its base.

4ook3s la'
The law states at 5the extentsion of a spring %or any elastic body& is directly proportional to the applied
load %stretching force&, provided that elastic limit is not excceded.
The graph of load and extention is a straight line which passes through the origin.
The gradient of the line is the measure of the stiffness of the spring, which is called spring constant.

4ook3s la' (0lastic behaviors+

$f the applied force or load is removed the spring returns to its original length. This behavior is
called elastic behavior.
This behavior is upto a particular point or limit called elastic limit.

4ook3s la' (Plastic behaviors+
$f the applied force or load is removed the spring does not return to its original length. This behavior is
called plastic behavior.
This behavior is after a particular point or limit called elastic limit.


4ook3s la' - 0lastic limit
Flastic limit:
$f you stretch the spring too far, the line %Aorce(extension graph& no longer straight, and hoo'Js law is no
longer true.
The point at the end of the straight line is 'nown as the limit of proportionality or elastic limit.
$f the material %spring& is stretched beyond the elastic limit, there is a permanent change in its shape.
After elastic limit different materials behave differently.
Fffect of applied force on the materials:
-&A music wire will behave as shown in the graph. $t will brea' shortly after the limit of proportionality is
reached.

0ffects of applie force on the materials
+henever force is applied on the material, $t bring the change either in its length, area or volume.
>oo'?s law explains the the effect of applied force on the length of the material.

Moment of force
The turning effect of force is called moment of force.
The moment of force depends on the following factors.
The si8e %magnitude& of the force
The perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the turning point which is
called the pivot.
+e calculate the moment of force by using the following formula
,oment of force ; force I perpendicular distance from pivot to the line of action of the force
,oment;A I d
,oment is measured in newton meters%Cm&.

Priciple of moment of force
This principle states that 5if a system of force is not turning %or if the system is in equilibrium& then the
algebaric sum of the all cloc'wise moments is equal to the algebaric the sum of all anticloc'wise
moments about any point5.
#um of cloc'wise moments ; sum of anticloc'wise moments

0quilibrium
$f a body under the action of a number of forces is at rest or moving with uniform velocity, it is said to be
in equilibrium.

Conitions of equilibrium
There are two conditions of equilibrium.
Airst condition of equilibrium:
ector sum of all the forces acting on the obBect is 8ero.
#econd condition of equilibrium:
The algebaric sum of all the moment of forces acting on an obBect i8 8ero. i.e.
#um of anticloc' wise moment of forces ; #um of cloc' wise moment of forces