Bioethics and moral issues

in nursing
Ethics
Greek ethos meaning character, customs,
habitual usage, conduct
A science that deals with principles of right or
wrong, good or bad and governs our
relationships with others and that is based on
personal beliefs and values
A systematic attempt to make sense of our
individual and social moral experience
(DeGeorge)
Practical and normative science based on
reason, which studies human acts and provides
norms for their goodness or badness
ikewise known as moral philosophy, insofar as it
deals with morality, moral rectitude or the
rightness and wrongness of human acts
(!imbre"a, #$$%, p& ')
(alue problems
) *big ethics+
) *everyday ,udgment calls+
-ommon approaches.solutions
) Philosophical.religious beliefs
) /eighing potential outcomes
) -urrent practice.past experience
0thical dilemma)a situation when one must
choose between two e1ually unfavorable
alternatives
!o acknowledge that individual can come to
different opinions with regards to value issues is
not to say that all opinions have the same worth,
or that a particular answer is better than the
other&
!here is a fine distinction or overlap between law
and ethics& !hey may be congruent or conflicting&
2or example, what is ethical may not be legal and
what is legal may not be ethical
3etter decisions come from4
5& (alues clarification)examining what we
believe is good, bad, beautiful, worthy,
meaningful6our personal values
#& 3uilding a framework to examine our
decision
-ode of ethics
7nforms the nurse and the public of the
values and standards of conduct
Provides the professional expectations in
ethical matters
Provides a decision)making framework for
solving ethical problems
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
5& Autonomy
!he right of individuals to take actions for
themselves
!o respect autonomy is to respect others
People engaged in autonomous and self)
determining actions must have the belief and
capability of self)governance, and a stable
and internali"ed set of principles
7ndividual autonomy DOES NOT prevail
when it interferes with the rights, health or
well)being of another
Principle of autonomy marks the significance
of individual autonomy which mandates a
strong sense of personal responsibility for
one8s own life (!imbre"a, #$$%, p& 59)
#& 3eneficence and :onmaleficence
!he duty to help others by doing what is best
for them without inflicting evil or harm
A beneficence nurse manager acts with
empathy for the patients and staff without
resentment or malice
-onflict4 sometimes treatment decisions are
viewed as harmful from the patient8s
perspective
'& Distributive ;ustice
7t is giving a person that which he.she
deserved
7t implies the benefits and burdens ought to
be distributed e1ually and fairly, regardless of
race, gender, religion, or socioeconomic
status so that no one person bears a
disproportionate share of benefits or burdens
a& Allocation)how much will be devoted to a
particular effort
b& <ationing)who will get the resources and
who will not
=ther relevant principles4
<ights)privileges, concessions, claims, freedoms
2idelity)the obligation to be faithful to
responsibilities.commitments to oneself and
others
(eracity)telling the truth or not intentionally
deceiving or misleading others
>tandard of best interest vs paternalism (decide
for others)
-lassifications of ethics4
5& <ule ethics appeals to a set of criteria, norms, or
rules to settle what is the right and ,ust and ethical
decision to make
#& Act ethics determines rightness and wrongness by
weighing the conse1uences of the act itself
COMMON ETHICAL THEORIES
5& !eleological theories(-onse1uence)oriented)
Greek telos, teleos *end+ or *purpose+
>tresses the end)result, goal or conse1uence
of an act as the determining factor of its
rightness and wrongness
A. TILITARIANISM
;eremy 3entham (5?%@)5@'#) and ;ohn
>tuart Aill (5@$B)5@?')
An ethical theory that promotes making
decisions based on what will provide the
greatest good for the greatest number
-laims that there is one and only one
moral principle6that is, the principle of
utility, formulated by Mill4 *actions are good
insofar as they tend to promote happiness,
bad as they tend to produce unhappiness
Principle allows the ends to ,ustify the
means
Utility or usefulness of an action is
determined by the extent to which it
promotes happiness rather than its reverse
(pain)
3entham and Aill, bent on getting rid of
any strain of individualism and
sub,ectivism, gave an alternative
formulation of the utilitarian utility principle,
known as the principle of greatest
happiness: an action is good (right) insofar
as it produces the greatest happiness for
the greatest number of peopleC bad (wrong)
insofar as it produces more harm than
benefit for the greatest number of
individuals&
7:!<7:>7- G==D> (/illiam 2rankena)
ife, consciousness, activity
Dealth and strength
Pleasure and satisfaction of all or
certain kinds
Dappiness, contentment
!ruth
Enowledge and true opinion, wisdom
3eauty and harmony, proportion
Aesthetic experience
Aorally good, disposition or virtues
Autual affection, love, friendship and
cooperation
2reedom
>elf)expression
;ust distribution of goods and evils
Power and experiences of
achievement
PeaceC security
Adventure and novelty
Good reputation, honor, self)esteem
3entham ? -ategories and Attendant 1uestions4
5& 7ntensity)how intense was the pleasureF
#& Duration)how long does the pleasure lastF
'& -ertainty)how certain are you that the
pleasure will occurF
%& Proximity)how soon will the pleasure be
experiencedF
9& 2ecundity)how many more pleasures will
happen as a result of this one
B& Purity)how free from pain is the pleasureF
?& 0xtent)how many will experience the
pleasure
Add the pleasures, subtract the pains,
strike the balance, and make the
decision
Aill argues that there are no means for
determining which is the more intense between
two pleasurable sensationsC it is :=! one8s
own happiness but for the happiness of all
should be considered in making moral decision
Act utilitarianism)the principle of greatest
happiness is applied to acts in particular
situations/circumstances; is also
situationalistic
<ule utilitarianism) the principle of
greatest happiness has been tested on
rules and therefore the rules can be
utili"ed to decide on right or wrongC is
also absolutistic
Critics o! tilitarianism" (lacks the principle of
,ustice)
5& !he calculation of all possible conse1uences
of our actions, or worse yet our inactions
appears impossible
#& Gtilitarianism may be used to sanction
unfairness and the violation of rights
'& Gtilitarianism is not sensitive to the agent)
relativity of duty
%& Gtilitarianism does not seem to give enough
respect to persons
9& Gnder utilitarianism it is ,ustifiable to prevent
others from doing what we believe to be
harmful acts to themselves
B& Gtilitarianism alone does not provide a basis
for our own moral attitudes and
presuppositions
Gtilitarian <esponses to criticisms4
Gtilitarians could deny that the critic8s scenario
would play out as claimed
Gtilitarians might argue that the supposedly
counter intuitive result should issue in a revision
of our intuitions rather than a change in or
re,ection of the theory
Gtilitarians might move to rule utilitarianism
B. SITATION ETHICS
#advocated by ;oseph 2letcher
' Approaches to morality4
5& Legalistic approach (normative))
describes certain general moral
prescriptions, laws, or norms by which to
,udge, determine, and settle the rightness
or wrongness of human ,udgments or
decisions
!oo restrictive and circumscribed
7nade1uate and insensitive to the
complexity
#& Antimonian approach)frees the
-hristian from the obligations of the
moral law in which case there are no
absolute precepts or moral principles
!o liberal and unconventional
'& Situationism)the preferred approachC
moral norm depends upon a given
situation, but whatever this situation may
be, one must always act in the name of
-hristian love
*Situation) refers to a human condition
or any state of moral affairs and issues
that demands a moral ,udgment or action
states that the moral norm depends upon a
given situation, but whatever this situation
may be, one must act in the name of
-D<7>!7A: =(0
' types of ove
5& 0ros)sexual love
#& Philia)binds parents to child
'& Agape)one8s care, concern, and kindness
towards others best exemplified by
-hristian love
His Propositions:
=nly one thing is intrinsically good, namely
love, nothing else
e&g& a doctor who helps a rape or
incest victim to abort the fetus
conceived as a result of sexual
assault would be acting out of
concern and kindness towards the
pregnant woman
!he ultimate norm of -hristian decisions is
love, nothing else
e&g& a physician who extends medical
assistance to an in,ured :PA rebel
acts out of -hristian love
Love and justice are the same, for ,ustice is
love distributed
Love wills the neighbors good, whether we
like him or not
Agape):=! primarily an emotion or
an affection but primarily a good will,
an active determination of the will
=nly the 0:D ,ustifies the means
>tealing a neighbor8s licensed
revolver to keep him from shooting
somebody is morally legitimate6
untruth is morally acceptable under
the situation
Decisions ought to be made situationally not
prescriptively
Puts a high premium on freedom and
responsibility
!he moral oughtness in carrying out
one8s obligation to decide depends
upon the given circumstancesC there
is no absolute prescriptions for all
decisions
>ituation ethics, in meical conte!t combines love
and ,ustice in treating ill patients
7t seems that what makes an act good is whether it
is expedient, edifying, constructive, and humaneC
whether it builds up rather than destroys,
condemns, or kills
;oseph 2letcher8s Guidelines for making 0thical
-hoices4
-ompassion for people as human being
-onsideration of conse1uences
Proportionate good
Priority of actual nees over ideal or
potential needs
A desire to enlarge choice and reduce
chance
A courageous acceptance of the need to
make decisions and the e1ually courageous
acceptance of the conse1uences
Difficulties4
-ontextualism may encourage ethical
relativism
:onprescriptive ethics may be used
!he prudence of a situationist does not
always guarantee ob,ective and impartial
,udgment&
C. Ethical relati$ism%moral relati$ism
-laims that there is := universal or absolute
moral principle
>tandards of right and wrong are always
relative to a particular culture or society
!he moral opinion of one individual is good as
any other for there is := ob,ective basis for
saying that a particular action is right or
wrong apart from a specific social group
0xamples of culturally accepted practices with
surrounding ethical issues&
5& Allowing old people to die to starvation
and exposure to cold, allowing wife to
sleep with guest overnight60skimo
culture
#& A man is obligated to marry his brother8s
widow)H 7sraelite.Auslim culture
'& Eilling of twinsC offering virgins in volcano
worshipC female castration6African
culture
%& Olog.!rial marriage)American culture
-riticisms of 0thical relativism4
5&0thical actions are universally acknowledged to
be so (contradicts common beliefs and
ordinary experiences in several ways)
#&!he sense of *oughtness+ or moral obligation
transcends any socio)cultural consideration
or upbringing
'&7t is self)contradictory and inconsistent

&. PRA'MATISM%PRO'RESSI(ISM
Aore of a theory of knowledge, truth
and meaning than of morality
-harles Pierce (5@'I)5I55) and /illiam
;ames (5@5#)5I5$)
3elieves that the true and valid form of
knowledge is one which is practical,
workable, beneficial and useful
!he truth of an idea is determined by its
conse"uences, if an idea is devoid of
results it is meaningless
Truth is a part of experience that can
provide workable guides to practical
behavior
Pragmatism is called e!perimentalism
since it promotes the process of
verifying and validating the verity of
truth
;ohn Dewey (5@9I)5I9#) believes that
ieas are also instruments of action and
tools for solving problem)
instrumentation(if ideas are prove to be
effective instruments)true)
7deas are also instrument in
reconstructing experiences)
reconstructivism
7deas are true if and when they help an
individual progress grow and develop
intellectually, as well as morally through
his own experience and self)activity6
progressivism
-ritics for Pragmatism4
(ery materialistic (the cash value of an
idea), very individualistic, very sub,ective
A))lications o! the ethical theories"
A suicide bomber agrees to blow the bomb
attached to him to kill the senator and stop his
corrupt activities in the country (0thical
relativism)
!he nurse removes the tubes of a #)year
comatose patient at he family8s re1uest owing
to decreasing financial resources to sustain the
patient8s life (pragmatism, situation ethics)
>aving a life of a patient (blood transfusion) to
a patient who refuses (;ehovah8s witness)6
0thical relativism
Divorce is ,ustified by parents, who for the love
of their children, do not want them to be
affected by their constant 1uarrels)) >ituation
ethics, pragmatism
A decision in the business transaction is good
when it augments the income of the company
(pragmatism)
An A2P nurse sees an :PA rebel wounded in
battle& Distory told that the nurses8 father who
was a soldier was once tortured by :PA8s in the
mountains and eventually was beheaded& !he
nurse rescue the rebel and provided medical
assistance6situation ethic s
A nurse8s husband is in the ward of a hospital
and listed at number # in the reservation list& A
patient reserved in number 5 is given priority
over the husband6situation ethics
A man shoots a neighbor8s dog in secret since
he thought it was harmful in the neighborhood,
chased passers by and places motor at risk for
accidents6situation ethics
#& Deontological !heories (Duty)oriented)
!his theroty emphasi"es that an act is good
only if it springs from good will& !he act is
,udged to be good if the fundamental
principles of the act redeemed to be good
regardless of the conse1uences of the act
!his theory holds that because unforeseen
circumstances cannot always be controlled,
people should not be held responsible for
the conse1uences of their actions because
the act was performed with good intentions
and the outcome was not due to negligence
3elieves that morality is derived from
rationality, not from experience, and that
obligation is grounded not in the natur'e of
man or in world circumstances but in pure
reason
A. *ANT+S ETHICS
#7mmanuel Eant (5?#%)5@$%)
Eant maintains that one acts morally if and
only if one does whatever one is obliged to
do from a sense of duty or obligation
A categorical imperative or unconditional
command must be applied similarly in all
situations without exception (Gniversability)
Decisions are based on the unchanging
principles derived from universal values
and considered separately from
conse1uences
Always act so as to treat humanity either
yourself or others, as an end never only as
a means
A=!7(0)refers to the duty to perform,
determine morality regardless of
conse1uences
Dut#, is that which an individual ought to
do, despite the inclination to do soC doing
what one is obliged to do6duty also known
as o$ligation
Act done %N A&&O'D with duty
done out of the desire to so or fear
of accusations
:on)moralC has no moral
significance
Act done ('OM A SENSE of duty
<ecogni"e that there is special
obligation because of the
relationships
<ightness or wrongness of an
action is determined by the
A=!7(0)refers to duty that one
ought to perform
0ntails an oughtness that must be
performed irrespective of the
results, at all times and in all
places
&ategorical imperati)e) the kernel of
Eant8s ethical theory6one must test the
act8s uni)ersali*a$ilit#
&ategorical imperati)e+mandates an
action without any condition whatsoever
and without regard to the conse1uences
that such action may yield
An obligation that must be applied
irrespective of results, at all times
and in all phases
Aorally legitimate and ,ust
H#pothetical imperati)e
Aandates an action in reference to
a corresponding condition or
limitation performed from a sense
of prudence
0xercise sound ,udgments in
practical matters
(ormulation o, categorical imperati)e:
5& Act only on that maxim which you can at
the same time will to become a
universal law
#& Always act so as to treat humanity,
either yourself or others, as an end and
never as only means+6Eant8s principle
of ,ustice
<ationality, in Eant8s view, confers
upon every person an intrinsic
worth and human dignity
0very human being, therefore
because she.he is rational
creature, has an inherent value
and dignity which is not
determined by one8s profession,
upbringing or financial capability
- t#pes o, uties:
5& Perfect duty which one must always
observe irrespective of time, place, or
circumstances (categorical imperative)
#& 7mperfect duty which is only observed
on some occasions based on choice
(Dypothethical imperative)
Principles:
Autonomy
!he autonomousC self)regulating
will
) A person8s independence, self)
reliance, self)contained
capacity to make an oral
decision by and for himself
) 'especting autonomy is done
with the notion that every
person are ends in themselves
and are capable of making
their own moral decisions
) !o treat an individual merely as
a means is an infarction of
Eant8s concept of autonomy
Meical conte!t
) (5) ying is A/AJ> wrong, no
matter what the conse1uences
are
) (#) Duty to treat ourselves as
ends and to preserve dignity
and worth as human beings6
refusal of surgical treatment to
preserve life is morall#
un.usti,ia$le
) (')Action is right and legitimate
insofar as it satisfies the
categorical imperative
) (%) Eant8s distinction between
perfect and imperfect duties
suggests that some rights
should be recogni"ed
-ritics of Eant4
!he exceptions less character (categorical
imperative) of Eant8s philosophy makes it too
rigid for real life
Aorality cannot be derived from pure reason
!he disregard of the conse1uences of our actions
can lead to disastrous results
0ven though nonhuman animals feel pain and
pleasure for Eant they do not have any
independent moral standing since they are not
rational beings
7t is possible to be faced with conflict between two
duties e1ually supported by our imperative
Problem with man8s rationality and non)autonomy
Eant8s <esponses to -riticisms
!o believe that one needs exceptions is to regard
experience as control to humanity which is
metaphysically incorrect
!hat morality is indeed the basis of morality
becomes clear if we imagine someone who has
her pain receptors impaired so she does not feel
pain
Disregarding conse1uences does sometimes lead
to unhappiness but the world is full of
unhappiness and even death the complaint is not
really against Eant8s morality but against the
suffering in the world
Eant has rules against the mistreatment of animals,
but the source of our duty to animals is indirect
Eant responds in two ways& 2irst, there is often a
way out of an apparent dilemmasC second, life
may very well be tragic in that we are sometimes
obliged to violate the law&
,. Ross ethics
/illiam David <oss (5@??)
-onsiders Eant8s absolute principles to be
too rigid
<oss has re,ected the utilitarian precept
Aoral rules serve as moral guidelines in such
a way that they must be ad,usted or modified,
if not set aside in some situations, depending
upon our situation of what is right and what is
good
<ightness belongs to acts, independent of
motives
Aoral goodness belongs to motives
!" is that which is done while an !"#O$
is the doing of an act
ctual duty
) <eal duty in a given situationC it is the action
one ought to choose from among many
other actions
) !he action one ought to choose among
many other actions
%rima facie duty &at first view'
) Directs or commands what one ought to
perform when other relevant factors are
not taken into account
!wo principles to resolve cases of conflicting duties
5& Act in accordance with the stronger, more
stringent or more severe prima facie duty
#& Act in accordance with the prima facie duty,
which has a greater balance of rightness
over wrongness compared to other prima
facie duties
!he ultimate guide in particular cases of conflict on
rightness and wrongness of an action is
determined based on moral intuition6
intuitionism/
0 Prima ,acie ut#
1/ Dut# o, ,ielit#2one8s loyalty to a worthy
cause
-/ Dut# o, reparation2duty to make amends for
in,ury inflicted to others
3/ Dut# o, gratitue2 duty to appreciate and
recogni"e the services others done for us
4/ Dut# o, .ustice2proper distribution of social
benefits and burdens
5/ Dut# o, $ene,icence2en,oins not only to bring
about what is good for others but also to help
them better their conditions with respect to
virtue, intelligence, or comfort
6/ Dut# o, sel,2impro)ement2duty to improve
and develop ourselves with respect to virtue,
intelligence, and happiness
0/ Dut# o, nonmale,icence2*not in,uring others+
Difficulties with <oss 0thics
7ndividual8s differ from each other8s moral
perceptions, so, <oss8s duty principle varies
from one person to person as a result of
following one8s own moral perception of a *duty+
<oss did not give impression as to how to solve
conflicting two prima facie duties as to which of
the two has the greatest balance of rightness
over wrongness
c. Ra-l8s theor. o! social e/uit. and 0ustice
;ohn <awls
De has built on Eant8s and <oss8s fundamental
notion of the ultimate dignity of human beings
Gses social morality as the basis of social
,ustice
<ational people would choose a strategy
whose worst possible result would be better
than the other alterations
*(eil of ignorance+ concept or the *original
position+6whereby persons making choices
would not have any specific information (sex,
race, natural abilities, social status, or
economic conditions) regarding those involved
thus choosing the alternative for the most
disadvantaged persons
Theor# o, 7ustice
A/ 0very individual is inviolable)not even the
general welfare of society can override and
supersede this inviolability
8/ An erroneous theory is tolerable in the
absence of a good oneC and as much as
possible, one should choose the better (less
erroneous) law when given two (erroneous)
laws
&/ 7ndividual liberties should be restricted in
order to maintain e1uality of opportunities
<awl8s two)fold principle of ,ustice
5& 2irst, e1ual access to the basic human
right and liberties
#& >econd, fair e1uality of opportunity and
the e1ual distribution of socio)economic
ine1ualities
;ustice in Duman <elations4
2our types4
5& 2airness in our dealings with others
#& 2idelity
'& <espect for persons
%& 3eneficence
:atural duties
5& !he duty of ,ustice
#& !he duty of helping others in need or in
,eopardy
'& !he duty not to harm or in,ure others
%& !he duty to keep our promises
Di,,iculties:
7ts account of hypothetical community under
the *veil of ignorance+ seems to contradict
his notion of ,ustice as fairness
Despite his ob,ection to utilitarianism, his
concept of ,ustice likely parallels to the
utility principle (principle of greatest
number)
d. NATRAL LA1 ETHICS
=b,ectivism
Also called !homistic ethics after >t&
!homas A1uinas (5##9)5#?%) or >cholastic
ethics
-laims that there exists a natural law which
is manifested by the natural light of human
reason, demanding the preservation of the
natural order and forbidding its violation
!he divine law expressed in human nature
0&g& life, reproduction6*do not disrupt the
natural ways. order of the world+
>tems fro the divine law
7n this view, the source of moral law reason
itself (reason recogni"es the basic
principle)
*Do good, avoid evil+)ethics is grounded
in our concern for human good+
>ynderesis)inherent capacity of an
individual to distinguish the good from bad
through reason and reflection
(oice of right reason or voice of
conscience
) <egard right reason.voice of reason
as the moral norm, insofar as an
individual8s capacity to determine
what is right from what is wrong is no
less than the manifestation of moral
law
) =ther view it as a voice of conscience
referring to the immediate ,udgment of
practical reason applying the general
principle of morality to individual
concrete actions or decisions
Actions are morally right whey they are in
accord with our nature and end as human
beings
Aan8s ')fold natural inclinations4
5& >elf)preservation
#& ;ust dealing with others
'& Propagation of our species
' Determinants of moral action (Aust all be
good)
5& !he ob,ect6ob,ect of the moral act4
thing or action
#& !he circumstances) conditions which,
when superadded to the nature of
moral act, will affect its morality
) -onditions that affect
(aggravate or mitigate) the
morality of an act
) /hoFwhatFwhereF 3y what
meansF /hyFDowF/henF
'& !he end of the agent
) Purpose of the doer or agent
) Affects goodness.badness of an
action
Dou$le E,,ect Principle
Gnder certain conditions, some evil effect
may be permitted to occur so long as it
meets these % conditions4
5& !he action directly intended must be
good in itself, or at least morally
indifferent
#& !he good effect must follow from the
action at least as immediately as the
evil effect
'& !he foreseen evil effect may not be
intended or approved but merely
permitted to occur
%& !here must be proportionate and
sufficient reason for allowing the evil
effect to occur while performing the
action
Principle o, Totalit#
An individual has the right to cut)off,
mutilate or remove defective parts of
his body only as the general well)being
of the whole body re1uires it
/e have a natural obligation not only to
preserve our lives but also to preserve
the integrity of our bodies
Other Moral Principles 9ner Natural La:
Ethics
5& >tewardship declares that life comes from
God and humans are mere
stewards.caretakers and not the master of
his body
#& 7nviolability of life6states that life is God8s
and has been loaned to us, hence it is
inviolable and sacred
'& >exuality and procreation6(5) procreation
and nurturing of children, (#) expression of
loving union and companionship
=n :atural aw 0thics, it is morally wrong to4
1/ Allow babies with serious birth
deformities.defects to die
-/ Dasten death of a persona as direct and
primary intention
3/ Perform acts that terminate lives of the
incurable, either by taking steps to bring
about their deaths or by failing to take steps
to prolong their lives through ordinary
treatment
Di,,iculties:
:aturalists ground on the Aristotelian
assumption of an organi"ed universe the
goal or purpose contradicts the
contemporary evolutional theory
-onscience is not a reliable norm of reality
because it differs from individual to
individual
3/;irtue Ethics
3y philosopher AristotleC he suggested a
different solution than the action)centered
ethical systems of duty oriented and
conse1uence)oriented reasoning by
focusing not on the particular action but
rather on the D0A<! of the moral agent
De follows aretaic ethics (Greek cuete,
excellence or virtue)
(irtue ethics focuses on the heart of the
moral agent making the decision rather
than the reasoning to a right action
2ocuses on the sorts of characteristics,
traits, virtues that a good person should
have
-riticisms4
(irtue ethics generally does not provide specific
directions in regard to decision)making
7n that virtue ethics relies on traditional
practices, it does not 1uickly respond to
changes in the practice that re1uire new sorts
of moral responses
!he derivation of duty from one8s social role is
likely to lead to perpetuate classic sexism and
paternalism
!he traditional emphasis makes morality depend
on past experience rather than reason& !his
environment provides little respect or personal
autonomy or the use of reason in moral
,udgments
Practitioners often find themselves attempting to
address more than one set of ideali"ed roles,
which may come into conflict
(irtue ethics often yields results that do not
maximi"e happiness
<esponses to criticisms4
/hile it is true that virtue ethics does not give
specific directions, it does not have to , for
virtue ethics is concerne :ith character, not
action
(irtue ethics takes it as a good thing that it does
not change 1uickly in response to whims of the
masses
/hile virtue ethics does not emphasi"e the
rationality of the individual decision maker, it
does not rely on higher reason4 the wisdom of
ages
4/ Di)ine &omman ethics
!here is a divine being who has set down a
finite series of rules that adherents claim
can provide guidance to most, if not all,
moral decisions
0xample, 5$ commandments which
provide rules against stealing, adulteryK
-riticisms4
-ommand theory assumes belief in
either divine beings or exemplary
individuals& !o the extent that these
can be 1uestioned, so can the theory
-ommand theory can not cover all
possible cases of moral decisions
-ommand theory generally have *no
exceptions+ clause, either explicit or
implicit
-ommand theory has what maybe
called *0uthypro problem+ from the
Platonic dialogue from which it
originated
<esponses4
/hile there is no convincing response
to the first criticism when dealing with
unbelievers, the supposition of a divine
being or exemplary being is
unproblematic when dealing with
unbelievers
!he response is simply to argue that
the 1uestions of interpretations are not
insurmountable&
7t is believed that the very need for
exceptions to revealed truth is a sign of
a decadent time and perhaps a greater
adherence to the rules will lead to a
more morally sound society
A command theorists could argue that
there are reasons behind a religious
moral in,unctions but that we are
unable to completely fathom the
,ustification due to our personal
limitations&
2ramework for 0thical Decision Hmaking
5& 7dentify the characteristics of the problem
#& Gather the facts of the case
'& 0xamine the options with initial credibility
%& /eigh and evaluate potential options
9& Aake your decision and act on it
B& Assess and evaluate the results
Ethics and human acts
Duman acts)acts which are done with
knowledge and full consent of the will
Acts of man)acts performed /7!D=G!
knowledge and full consent of the will
(incible 7gnorance)ignorance that can be
overcome by exerting some effort
7nvincible ignorance) ignorance that can hardly
be removed even if one overcoming it
0rroneous conscience) a situation where one8s
conscience errs or is mistaken
Actions can be done in good or bad faith
Bioethics2ethics o! li!e
0thics of medical care
3ranch of applied ethics which investigates
practices and developments in the life sciences
and.or biomedical fields
Deals with predicaments concerning life, health
and death that have resulted from modern
biological technology particularly the way they
have affected human lives
E$olution o! ,ioethics
Aorality growing out of human relationships
Aedical ethics and the Dippocratic oath
<esearch ethics and the :uremburg code
(attempted to humani"e the cruel and barbaric
nature of human experimentation)
3That i! .ou con!ess -ith .our mouth4 35esus is
Lord64 and ,elie$e in .our heart that 'od raised
Him !rom the dead4 .ou -ill ,e sa$ed.6
'O& BLESS